Next Article in Journal
Mechanism of Nozzle Position Affecting Coalbed Methane Mining in High-Pressure Air Blasting
Previous Article in Journal
Identification of Aquifer and Pumped Well Parameters Using the Data Hidden in Non-Linear Losses
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 15
Issue 14
10.3390/su151411172
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Impact of Cultural Values on Attitude Formation toward Cultural Products: Mediating Effects of Country Image

by
Yisitie Xing
and
Chang-Hyun Jin
*
Department of Business Administration, Kyonggi University, Suwon-si 16227, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(14), 11172; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411172
Submission received: 14 May 2023 / Revised: 12 July 2023 / Accepted: 12 July 2023 / Published: 18 July 2023
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study aimed to explore the influence of cultural values on the development of attitudes toward cultural products and purchase intentions while considering country image as a mediating variable in this relationship. Cultural dimensions were categorized into five groups: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long-term orientation. A web-based questionnaire was distributed to 974 Asian consumers who had purchased and used foreign cultural products. Data analysis was conducted in two stages: exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using SPSS, and structural equation modelling (SEM) using EQS 6.4. The results revealed that power distance, individualism and collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity had significant positive impacts on attitudes toward cultural products, whereas long-term orientation did not. Positive attitudes toward cultural products are linked to high purchase intent. Country image was identified as a mediator in the relationship between attitudes toward cultural products and purchase intention. This study contributes to the literature by identifying and explaining the relationship between cultural values and consumer behavior, and selecting and consuming these consumers’ rational, emotional, and reasonable cultural products. It is necessary to increase explanatory power by developing various cultural values and introducing additional variables, as in Hofstede’s theory of cultural value. The practical and theoretical implications of this study are outlined in the conclusion.

1. Introduction

Traditionally, the concept of culture has been the most important topic in the field of international marketing. The concept of culture affects most or all broad problem areas that together comprise the scope of the field in terms of both research and practice—including product development, barriers to entry, communication, and inter-organizational relationships [1,2,3,4]. Economic globalization provides opportunities for cultural exchange and development. These changes have promoted and interacted with the development of global political, economic, and cultural integration [5]. One of the most pivotal factors in political, economic, and cultural exchanges between countries is the trade of cultural products and content, which is an important part of international trade. The participants included East Asian countries, of which China, Korea, and Japan are all active trading areas that offer impressive cultural products and content.
Studies examining cultural disparities in the field of consumer behavior indicate that cultural values have a significant impact on consumer behavior [6,7,8]. Eastern cultures differ from other cultures because of their traditional Confucian beliefs. Cultural differences between nations have been analyzed across various academic disciplines. Given the changes in contemporary consumption culture and the social environment paradigm, it is necessary to understand the correlation between cultural values and perceptions of cultural products in foreign countries [7,9]. To elucidate a country’s consumer consumption behavior accurately, it is imperative to adopt a cultural perspective. Cultural value is one of the most crucial factors influencing consumers’ perceptions of foreign products and their national image and consumption behavior [7,9,10,11,12]. Hence, it is vital to comprehend the relationship between the cultural value dimension and the cultural products of other countries. Since the mid-1960s, numerous researchers have made significant strides toward understanding the influence of cultural values on product evaluation. In general, cultural values play a pivotal role in evaluating products or content in other countries [6,13].
Through factor analysis, the values of the cultural dimension can explain the impact had by a society’s culture on the values of its members and the relationship between those values and their behavior. This study is one of the first attempts to quantify and explain observed intercultural differences [5,6,7]. Cultural values and dimensions generally apply to products, product classes, specific types of products, and specific brands, as well as to industrial and underdeveloped countries, the effects of which apply to both corporate and consumer purchasing decisions [12,13]. The role of country image in buyer behavior is one of the most widely studied areas in international marketing. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as “product–country images” or “country of origin”. Cross-comparative research is actively conducted across various academic fields with various topics. Some studies are comparative studies between countries that seek to explore the potential effects of cultural differences regarding product evaluation. Many cultural studies have developed questionnaires to empirically measure cultural characteristics at the national or social level and have empirically analyzed large-scale survey data, not only providing useful academic information, but practical knowledge as well [6,14].
According to Levitt [15], economic globalization has transformed the global market into a stronger homogeneous market in terms of cultural background by sharing various types of geographical diversity with increases in common hobbies and preferences. These changes have promoted the emergence of global brands with relatively standardized marketing strategies that apply beyond cultural boundaries [16]. However, some scholars argue that the gap in cultural differences between developed countries has increased [17,18]. Many studies have found cultural differences in consumer behavior. Cultural values are still regarded as important factors that influence consumption patterns, national image formation, and attitudes toward products from other countries [16,19].
Consumers from different cultures also have different attitudes, preferences, and values and tend to prefer purchasing foreign products even after being significantly exposed to globalization [20]. Cultural differences affect consumer behavior through attitudes and persuasion [19,21], the spread of new products [22,23,24], and the use of products and services [25]. An important difference pertaining to consumer behavior in existing cross-cultural studies is that such behavior is based on cultural value systems [14,16]. Hofstede emphasizes that there are differences in individual values and behaviors between countries and within a country, and that various values promote consumer behavior [25,26,27]. National culture is also a fundamental factor in understanding differences in attitudes toward foreign products and consumer behavior. Therefore, it is necessary and meaningful to recognize cultural differences in consumer behavior. Each country has its own culture depending on the group, and these cultural characteristics act as major variables that affect consumer behavior [16,19]. The cultural characteristics of consumers can be seen as major factors in determining attitude formation or consumption behavior toward products in other countries [14,16,19,21]. The attitude toward products from other countries formed in this way can be said to be enthusiastic about the purchase decision and is connected to the image of other countries.
Therefore, we contribute to the existing literature on cross-cultural research on the relationship between cultural values and the perception of cultural products by analyzing the cultural effects of the use of foreign cultural products. The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. We provide a literature review on cultural dimensions, perception of cultural products, country image, and purchase behavior. We then present the hypotheses and variables of the proposed research model. The following section discusses the results of the structural equation model, which shows how cultural values affect attitude formation toward cultural products by analyzing the relationship between individuals’ attitudes toward cultural products and their purchase intentions. This study seeks to understand how the intention to accept cultural products (e.g., content, movies, dramas, etc.) affects the intention to purchase products and whether country image mediates this relationship. In the following sections, we develop our research hypotheses, describe the empirical study used to test these hypotheses, report the results, and discuss the implications of our findings.

2. Theoretical and Empirical Background

2.1. Culture and Cultural Dimensions

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and concepts have been applied to various fields. It is valuable for scholars to explore different perspectives of culture to understand the global market. Culture is one of the most abstract structures influencing human behavior, and can be described and defined in various ways. Culture is defined differently depending on the field of study but is usually described as the activities of a group of people who share similar ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving [21,22,25,26]. Hofstede’s cultural value framework allows researchers and managers to study and understand the impact of different cultures on consumer behavior [21,22,23]. For individual consumers, culture determines the overall context in which socioeconomic and institutional structures, and the related macroenvironmental factors, impact purchasing decisions; that is the objective reality. Beliefs, values, logic, and decision rules are fundamental elements of culture. These factors are internalized and constitute the subjective realities of individual consumers. People’s behaviors are not random or directionless, but emerge from these basic factors. Therefore, people’s behaviors are a component and reflection of the culture in which they are embedded [28].
Cultural values refer to shared beliefs and goals among members of society regarding patterns of behavior and ways of life. They shape social behavior and form consumers’ fundamental values, guiding their responses to various situations [19,21]. According to another scholar, cultural values are widely held beliefs affirming what is desirable [29,30,31]. They influence behavior by providing a useful framework for understanding specific situations and values [9,12]. Cultural values are broad beliefs that persist over time and serve as criteria for purchasing decisions [9,12]. Hofstede’s cultural dimension is the most commonly used framework in management research, and was adopted in this study [32,33]. The literature on consumer behavior suggests that cultural differences play a role in shaping consumers’ expectations of products or services and, later, their recognition and evaluation these products [24]. Specifically, it has been found that the country of origin has an impact on attitudes, behaviors, and satisfaction with products and services at both the national and regional levels [21,22,23].
Many cross-cultural studies have applied Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory [25,26], which was developed as a byproduct of a monumental survey conducted by the author from 1967 to 1973 so as to capture the value of employees working at a multinational IBM sales subsidiary. In this study, based on literature related to existing cultural theory studies [25,26,27], cultural value dimensions were divided into power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long-term orientation. Based on this investigation, Hofstede developed an inductive framework to characterize and explain the differences found in work attitudes and values within the same formal organizational structure. Hofstede found that cultural differences between countries can be explained along four dimensions: power distance—that is, the degree to which individual actors accept that power is distributed unequally; and uncertainty avoidance—that is, an individual’s tolerance of ambiguity in terms of unexpected or unknown events. In other words, culture corresponds to the degree to which people act in an atomistic manner or are integrated into groups in society, and the degree to which masculinity (e.g., heroism), achievements, and material rewards are recognized in society [25,26,27]. Based on research conducted in Asia, Hofstede added two new dimensions: long-term orientation—which is the degree to which an individual understands and decides on future actions/tasks—and the tendency of a society to satisfy basic human desires related to pleasure and enjoyment [25,26].
It is essential to understand the purchase process or evaluation criteria for products of consumers from different cultures. In addition, marketing strategies for other countries can only be successful when a sufficient understanding of the variables affecting them is provided [14,16,19,21,22,23,24,25]. This is because consumer purchasing behavior is affected by a combination of various variables. In addition to the degree of economic development and social, demographic, and geographical differences, cultural differences have a close influence on variables, such as consumer purchasing behavior and attitude formation.

2.2. Cultural Product

Cultural products are compound words of culture and content and which refer to the content in which cultural elements are embodied, regarding each culture-related medium—such as cartoons, broadcasts, movies, games, characters, music, performances, mobile content, and edutainment [5,32]. Cultural products generally refer to consumer goods that convey ideas, symbols, programs, crafts, fashion, and lifestyles—such as books, magazines, multimedia products, software, recordings, movies, videos, and audiovisual content, among others [5]. Discussions of cultural products have long been held in the field of economics. Some scholars have questioned whether new trade theories can be used in the trade of art (recorded music, books, and movies, among others), which is characterized by economies of scale and commodity differentiation [5,32].
Some scholars have emphasized that addictive characteristics that create trade patterns can have further influence. Some scholars emphasize that linguistic, educational, and religious similarities have a positive effect on the trade of cultural products [34,35,36,37]. Additionally, social integration causes cultural convergence and affects the integration of cultural product market integration [35]. Shenkar demonstrated that the expansion of the cultural product trade or cultural exchange is regarded as the development of interaction [36]. Cultural products such as movies, dramas, and music create a national brand image of the culture, and video content (and especially movies and dramas) can be a powerful means of influence [5,7,22,32,37]. Since contact with cultural content forms a structure that consumes the culture along with the brand image of the culture, the use of cultural content in a specific country can have a great influence on increasing positive attitudes and purchase intentions for the culture, brand, or product [5,7,22].
Culture can be said to be a dynamic phenomenon in which each consumer’s individual characteristics are concentrated [25,35,36,37]. Therefore, it cannot be assumed that successful strategies in a single market are equally successful elsewhere. A product with a cultural background is a cultural product. This is because cultural products reflect a country’s unique cultural characteristics [34,35,36,37]. When global consumers choose and purchase cultural products that reflect the cultural and social characteristics of other countries, their culture affects them. Cultural differences are a decisive factor in consumer characteristics—such as consumer attitudes—which eventually affect consumers’ perception of products or purchase intentions.

2.3. Country Image

In general, the academic subject of images has become a relatively common topic in recent years. Scientific fields such as sociology, psychology, and philosophy explore elements related to images, and general research on images has been conducted for a long time. Nevertheless, the study of images has occurred in a fragmented manner across several independent fields that address specific categories of images. In scientific practice, this type of study is generally defined according to the author’s perspective. It should be noted that most studies avoid providing a clear and accurate general definition that is expressed to promote a strict understanding according to the nature of the situation described [38,39,40]. The term image has different meanings in accordance with the context in which it is used [41]. Psychologists view images as a unique way of processing and recording information in memory [40], and emphasize that the measurement of images brings practical benefits for increasing sales volume. When analyzing and evaluating images, it is necessary to consider several factors such as individual characteristics and/or emotional and functional benefits, as well as the entire image of an object or person [42]. According to marketing literature, an image is a set of beliefs/confidence, ideas, and impressions that a person has about an object [33,34,35]. Because images of objects arise from people’s perceptions and vary from person to person, the relationship between each image and a particular object also differs [43,44,45].
A country’s image is formed through a complex communication process involving several sources of information. The most powerful images are created by international TV and radio, newspapers and magazines, cultural exchange programs, advertising, books, and news services, in addition to the degree of personal experience related to education and travel; certain foreign cultures play an important role in building images [44]. A previous study found that two separate categories of factors play a role in the formation of country images: stimuli and personal factors [45]. Stimulus factors are related to external stimuli received by individuals in relation to physical factors related to the country, whereas personal factors relate to individual social and psychological characteristics. Based on several impressions selected from information and impressions available in the environment, we conceptualized a country’s image as a complex process through which individuals develop creative mental structures [39]. This creative process is the moment when impressions are selected, developed, improved, and arranged by individuals [46]. In this context, promotions play an essential role in the formation of induced images, and are shaped by marketing and national branding efforts. However, the original image is located outside the control area of the destination [47].

2.4. Purchase Intention

Purchase intention is an important dimension in the marketing literature and has been used by companies as a variable to predict the sale of new products or repeated purchases of existing products [48]. It has been argued that the greater an individual’s behavioral intention, the stronger the will of the person to perform the behavior [49]. Because purchase intention is closely related to consumer behavior, it is one of the main areas of marketing research and attracts considerable attention in the fields of marketing, advertising, and consumer studies. Some scholars have proposed that it is one of the best ways to predict an individual’s behavior as it measures the intention to execute a motion [49,50]. Individual actions are directly affected by the extent to which a person intends to act. Consumers emphasize the importance of their pre-action intentions [49,50].
“Purchase intention” refers to the possibility that a consumer will purchase a particular product or service in the future [50]. Purchase intentions are not limited to a single factor. Depending on the situation, several variables can affect the evaluation of store images, consumer satisfaction, product prices, and so on, as well as motivations such as the values, beliefs, and culture of the consumer’s society [51]. Consumer research involves several subjective aspects that are difficult to identify. One such factor is purchase intention. According to Cronin et al., consumers tend to purchase products or services from the same store and share their experiences with friends and family [52]. Therefore, an increase in purchase intention may also indicate an increase in purchase possibility. Purchase intention can be considered a dimension of behavioral intention [53] and is used to predict consumers’ current behaviors.

3. Hypotheses and Theoretical Model

3.1. Hypotheses

This study examines the impact of consumers’ cultural values on their intention to accept cultural products and content (power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individual, long-term orientation, and masculinity). This study seeks to understand how the intention to accept cultural content affects the intention to purchase products, and whether country image mediates this relationship. Cross-cultural studies have shown that consumers from different cultures have varying attitudes, preferences, and values. They tend to hesitate when purchasing foreign products [12,20,22,23]. Power distance refers to the degree to which society accepts the distribution of power. In societies with high power distance, status and age are of significant importance, and people are generally less innovative. Researchers have noted that the coefficient of innovation is low in these countries [54,55]. Power distance is associated with conservatism and the status quo [18,55]. Power indicates dependence between different groups and individuals and the asymmetric control of valuable resources. From a cross-cultural perspective (such as power distance), consumers tend to rely on others when their status is low or when they think they lack resources [12,56]. Moreover, consumers tend to seek psychological power and status by purchasing luxury goods. There is a close relationship between power and social resources, and it has been found that those with high status have higher consumption levels than those with low status. Consumers who show a power distance value orientation in consumer behavior prefer high-end products to low-priced ones [12,20,56]. Therefore, it can be predicted that perceptions, attitudes, and preferences for products or content in other countries will differ depending on the degree of power distance. Hence, Hypothesis 1 was proposed as follows:
Hypothesis 1-1:
 Consumers with a high (low) power distance have a more positive effect on their attitudes toward cultural products.
According to Hofstede, uncertainty avoidance represents the degree to which society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and the degree to which it attempts to avoid them. In societies with high uncertainty avoidance, individuals tend to set more formal rules and do not tolerate deviant thoughts and actions [25,26]. Individuals in societies with a low tendency to avoid uncertainty experience low anxiety and subjective well-being. Therefore, they also adopt an unusual attitude when faced with ambiguous situations [12,22,23,56]. Additionally, people with low sexual orientation avoidance values were more likely to resist bondage. In the field of consumer behavior [20,56], there is a tendency to consider physical characteristics such as product quality and safety or to pursue comfort. Some scholars argue that consumers with a high uncertainty avoidance orientation are less likely to take risks in high-involvement situations [56]. Thus, in the context of foreign cultural products, consumers with high uncertainty avoidance may be less likely to prefer and purchase highly involved foreign products because of the greater risks associated with such products. Therefore, we can establish Hypothesis 1-2 as follows:
Hypothesis 1-2:
 Consumers with high (low) uncertainty avoidance will have a more positive (negative) effect on their attitude toward cultural products.
The four cultural dimensions presented in Hofstede’s major study on cultural dimensions could explain the differences between cultures in terms of consumer purchase intentions. Individualism corresponds to a loosely structured social framework with a strong “I” consciousness and individual initiative. Collectivism, on the other hand, refers to a tight social framework that emphasizes the “us” consciousness and members of a group [25,26,27]. People in a very individualistic society value individual life, individual decisions, autonomy, and diversity, whereas people in collectivist societies value group decisions, order, and safety [25,26,27]. For example, Chinese society has historically focused on harmony and conformity, which dominate all interpersonal relationships, but do not emphasize personal goals [57]. However, in Europe and North America, where the culture is more individualistic, consumers are expected to express their individuality more strongly than in less-individualistic countries. According to some scholars, consumers with a collectivistic orientation tend to focus on the utilitarian aspects of foreign products, whereas consumers with an individualistic orientation tend to focus on the hedonic aspects of foreign products [56]. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1-3:
 Individualistic consumers have a more positive effect on their attitudes toward cultural products.
Finally, Hofstede defines masculinity as the degree to which society values assertiveness, achievement, and acquisition of wealth [25,26]. In a masculine culture, achievement and success are more important than caring for others or improving the overall quality of life. In this culture, it can be said that the degree of masculinity is not only high, but that the degree of masculinity itself is high. These societal characteristics also affect men’s characteristics [56]. Thus, it can be assumed that these cultures are action focused, and that cultural products imported from other countries are evaluated based on their capabilities and efficiencies [12,20,56]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 1-4:
 Consumers with a greater degree of masculinity have a more positive effect on attitudes toward cultural products.
According to Hofstede, in a long-term-oriented society, people emphasize values such as ambiguity, patience, and inner peace; value practical and long-term perspectives; and focus on constant efforts to achieve long-term goals. In a short-term society, people value the past and traditions and expect immediate results. Long-term orientation indicates that a society has neither a traditional historical nor a short-term perspective, but a practical and future-oriented perspective [24,25]. Consumers with a long-term orientation tend to prefer well-known domestic and global brands because they may be interested in forming long-term relationships with these brands. Conversely, short-term-oriented consumers prefer private labels because they can pursue low-priced, short-term, and immediate benefits [17]. Long-term-oriented consumers are also more financially responsible, loyal, and innovative, as evidenced by their low credit card use and high savings rates [27]. Long-term-oriented consumers prefer purchasing practical products to maintain reasonable self-awareness and perceived long-term benefits. They may also withstand the temptation to buy imported pleasure products because of their greater self-control. Conversely, short-term-oriented consumers tend to prefer buying imported pleasure products to enjoy the fun and excitement these products provide because they may not worry about maintaining reasonable self-awareness and may also have low self-control [56]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 1-5:
 Long-(short-)term-oriented consumers have more positive attitudes toward cultural products.
Empirical studies on products and country images have found that the country of origin of a product can affect consumers’ evaluations of that product [56,58,59]. This work is regarded as the beginning of a study on the effects of origin. The origin effect was recognized as an information queue that consumers could use in the purchase decision process [23], and subsequent scholars examined the effects of additional consumer demographic or psychological factors on the origin effect [23,56,58,59]. Product image may be affected by the product’s origin. For example, German automakers—such as Mercedes Benz, BMW, and Audi—may be influenced by a favorable country image because Germany is well known to have high levels of mechanical technology. In other words, a friendly brand or product image will result in a friendly consumer attitude and increase consumption behavior. This phenomenon can be attributed to the halo effect. Overall, a country’s image can affect consumer perceptions of products from that country [56,58,59]. From this perspective, it can be assumed that a country’s image will affect the purchase intention of the cultural product, and that the acceptance intention of the cultural product will increase the purchase intention toward the national product. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H 2.
 Attitudes toward cultural products positively (+) affect purchase intentions.
H 3.
 Attitudes toward cultural products positively affect the formation of country image.
H 4.
 Country image will have a positive effect on purchase intention.
When evaluating unknown or foreign products, consumers create beliefs related to the products’ properties by inferring them from the national image. These beliefs and inferences influence consumers’ purchasing decisions. Even for familiar products, existing information or beliefs about products from a specific country are inferred from the national image, which affects consumer purchase decisions [56,58,59]. Previous studies have reported that country image is highly significant because it provides strategic information to firms that operate across borders by exporting products, manufacturing abroad, and competing in their home markets against foreign companies [60,61,62]. Country image research is becoming increasingly important and prominent because of the growing trend in free trade and intercountry exchanges [62]. The objective of this study is to investigate the mediating role of country image in the relationship between foreign cultural products and consumer purchase intention. Based on this, we propose the following hypothesis:
H 5.
Country image mediates the relationship between foreigncultural products and consumers’ purchase intentions.

3.2. Research Model

Based on the above background, the research model of this study was designed focusing on factors that affect the intention to accept cultural products by identifying the components of the cultural value dimension of the product’s country of origin. A hypothesis was established to understand how these cultural value dimension factors affect the intention to accept cultural products. Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 were established to understand the relationship between cultural product acceptance intention, product purchase intention, and country image. Research problems were established to determine the mediating effect of country image. To verify the purpose and conform to the hypotheses of this study, a research model was constructed, as shown in Figure 1.

4. Research Methodology

Data Collection Measurement of Variables

Hofstede’s cultural value dimensions were applied in the study. They were divided into power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity, and long-term orientation [25,26,27]. The power distance consisted of four items, uncertainty avoidance consisted of five items, individualism consisted of five items, masculinity consisted of four items, and long-term orientation consisted of five items. Attitudes toward cultural products were composed of a total of four question items. The country image consisted of five items [56,58,59,60,61,62,63], and purchase intention consisted of three items [49,50,51,52,53]. A questionnaire was developed to collect data for this study. The questionnaire was divided into two parts. Questions about Hofstede’s cultural value dimension were included in the introduction. After questions at the cultural value level were completed, questions about the national product image, country image, and purchase intention were included. The operational definitions and measurement tools for the main components of this study were as follows. First, the country image was conceptualized as the degree of cognitive judgment regarding the level of economic and technological development in the country [64,65,66,67]. Attitudes toward cultural products were measured using items applied in previous studies and conceptualized as the degree of interest in cultural products in the country, in addition to favorable evaluation of, satisfaction with, and use of those products [64]. The intention to purchase products from a country was conceptualized as the intention to purchase products from the country voluntarily and actively. To measure these questions, a five-point Likert scale with options ranging from 1 to 5 (strongly agree to strongly disagree) was used. The second part of the questionnaire consisted of various demographic data, including gender, age, total personal income, and education level.
To ensure the quality of the questionnaire, the researcher reviewed the editing status and logical errors with a professor in the field. The relationship between question items and potential variables was also reviewed. A preliminary survey was conducted among 30 business students from universities in Korea to assess the editing quality and capture any misunderstandings of question items. The pretest confirmed that there were no errors in the questions and questionnaires.
Consumer panel data collected by a multinational research company named Milennium Embrain were used to select samples for both online and offline surveys conducted among consumers who were interested in or had experience using Korean products or content. The company has a large number of Vietnamese consumer panels, and its subsidiary in Vietnam was another reason for its selection. The study chose Vietnamese consumers due to the increasing interest in Korean culture and products in Vietnam, as well as the cultural exchanges between Vietnam and Korea. The study was also applied to foreigners residing in Korea, including Vietnamese students, housewives, office workers, and others. Face-to-face surveys were conducted with the help of multicultural centers across the country and the Vietnamese University Student Association. Online surveys were also conducted in Korea and Vietnam. The survey was translated into both Korean and Vietnamese.
A total of 974 questionnaires were used for analysis, excluding 27 problematic questionnaires. The data collection process lasted from 5 January to 30 March 2023. No participants were found to provide untruthful answers based on a comparison with consumer survey data. For technical data analysis and hypothesis verification, the SPSS statistical package and SEM with EQS 4.3 program were used, and the mediating effect was verified using EQS 4.3.

5. Results

5.1. Descriptive Statistics

The final sample consisted of 463 men and 475 women who filled out 974 questionnaires. Respondents’ average monthly income was less than USD 3000. Most (80%) of the respondents had earned college-level degrees. In the survey, those between the ages of 20 and 30 years occupied the largest share, representing 90% of the sample. Table 1 provides the demographic distribution of the survey.

5.2. Data Analysis

The measurement tools for the study used previously developed scales, modified when necessary, to measure the variables. A multi-methods approach to confirming the reliability and validity of the constructs was applied [68]. EQS 6.4 [69,70] was used to test the suggested research model shown in Figure 1. After collecting and cleaning the data, verification tests were conducted to determine the measurement model’s validity.
As seen in Table 2, principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation was conducted on the initial items, employing a factor weight of 0.50 as the minimum cutoff value. The author then examined the underlying factor structure to determine whether any new dimension within each factor was conceptually meaningful and also to examine the psychometric properties of the scales. The result of a Bartlett’s test of sphericity was found to be significant (χ2 =11,402.86 (df = 253), p < 0.001, and χ2 = 7751.4 (df = 66), p < 0.001), while the result of a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling adequacy showed values of 0.839 and 0.812 for the dependent, independent, and moderating variables, respectively.
The data were therefore suitable for analysis. This study assessed common method bias using exploratory fact analysis (EFA) with maximum likelihood to test for common method variance, the extent of spurious covariance shared among the variables due to the common method used in collecting data [68]. An EFA of all of our scale items revealed that two factors explained 63.41% and 74.2% of the variance in the study’s constructs for the dependent, independent, and mediated variables, with the first factor explaining 29.8% and the last factor explaining 12.9% of the total variance, respectively. An EFA of the eight variables revealed eight factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.00. As a result of factor analysis, it was found that no items were removed. This analysis suggested that the data sample used in the study was unlikely to have been contaminated by common method bias [68,71].
As seen in Table 3, Cronbach’s alpha exceeded the standard acceptance norm of 0.70 for all variables. Reliability was measured at 0.812 (four items for power distance), 0.860 (five items for uncertainty avoidance), 0.817 (five items for individualism), 0.790 (four items for masculinity), 0.790 (five items for long-term orientation), 0.920 (four items for cultural product), 0.820 (five items for country image), and 0.860 (three items for purchase intention). The study’s AVE also satisfies the standard of 0.5 suggested by Bagozzi and Yi and Hair et al., which means the measurement indexes satisfy the requirement for convergent validity [72,73]. Covariance structure analysis was conducted using EQS 6.4 and the maximum likelihood method. This study carried out required procedures for building a structural equation model and assuring model goodness of fit. Normality and sample adequacy were examined in light of Hair et al., according to which the means of skewness and kurtosis should fall within the range of ±1.96; this study satisfied that condition [73].
This study assessed convergent validity using Cronbach’s alpha following Bagozzi and Yi and Hair et al., and composite construct reliability [72,73] and average variance extracted (AVE) following Fornell and Larker [74]. Discriminant validity was assessed by comparing the correlations of components to the AVE.
To verify discriminant validity, the AVE of each of the eight potential factors was compared with the square of the correlation between the eight potential factors. As seen in Table 4, the means of the squares of the correlation coefficients (r2) are smaller than the AVE. Fornell and Larker suggested that the AVE should be larger than the means of the squares of all correlation coefficients [74]. The extracted AVE is between 0.617 and 0.731, and the means of the squares of the correlation coefficients are between 0.001 and 0.362, which results in an AVE that is larger than the means of the squares of the correlation coefficients (r2), also ensuring that the data collected for verification have sufficient discriminant validity.
The results of verifying measurement model goodness of fit are seen in Table 5: χ2 = 6361.6, df = 524, and p = 0.000, while CFI (comparative fit index) = 0.968, NFI (normed fit index) = 0.907, and NNFI (non-normed fit index) = 0.952, which satisfy the advised base values. The goodness of fit index (GFI) = 0.901, is slightly above the advised base value of 0.90, while the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) = 0.865, is slightly below the advised base value, but both are expected to be acceptable. RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) = 0.049, which also satisfies the advised base value, which is between 0.05 and 0.08. This is acceptable goodness of fit, which means that the measurement methodology of this study is sufficiently reliable.

5.3. Tests of Hypotheses

The causal model’s goodness of fit for each measurement model satisfied the criterion [69]. Thus, the results show that the study assumptions remained within acceptable boundaries. To test structural relationships, the hypothesized casual paths were estimated. The results are shown in Table 5 and Figure 2. A structural equation model was used to verify the hypotheses associated with the proposed model. As noted previously, the hypotheses for this study based on the research model satisfy the advised base values. The goodness of fit of the model hypotheses yielded χ2 = (544) = 7572.3, CFI = 0.927, NFI = 0.901, NNFI = 0.932, GFI = 0.891, AGFI = 0.852, SRMR = 0.067, RMSEA = 0.057, which means that the model’s goodness of fit satisfies the advised base values. It does not meet the requirement of a conservative index of the structural equation model, but it is acceptable enough considering the study’s exploratory character.
To test the structural relationships in the model, the hypothesized causal paths were estimated. The results shown in Table 5 and Figure 2 indicate that power distance, as a component of the cultural value dimension, has positive effects on cultural products (γ = 0.190, p < 0.001). Uncertainty avoidance, as a component of the cultural value dimension, has negative effects on cultural products (γ = −0.202, p < 0.001). Individualism, as a component of the cultural value dimension, has positive effects on cultural products (γ = 0.413, p < 0.001). Masculinity, as a component of the cultural value dimension, has positive effects on cultural products (γ = 0.113, p < 0.05). The proposed path was significant in the hypothesized direction (four components of the cultural value dimension, with a standardized path coefficient for cultural product). However, long-term orientation, as a component of the cultural value dimension, did not affect cultural products (γ = 0.039, p = 0.241). The proposed path was not significant in the hypothesized direction (long-term orientation component of the cultural value dimension, with a standardized path coefficient for cultural product). Thus, H1-5 was rejected, but H1-1, 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 were supported. The cultural product has positive effects on country image (γ = 0.338, p < 0.05). The cultural product has positive effects on purchase intention (γ = 0.227, p < 0.05). The country image has positive effects on purchase intention (γ = 0.235, p < 0.05). Additionally, H2, H3, and H4 were supported.

5.4. Mediating Effects

To test the mediating effect of country image for H5, we conducted a Sobel test. This test verifies whether the indirect effect was statistically significant. The Sobel test [75], as presented by Preacher and Hayes [76], was conducted to verify the significance of the indirect effects of explanatory variables on the dependent variables through intermediary variables. If the z value is greater than 1.96 or less than −1.96, the mediating effect is statistically significant [77,78]. Table 6 shows the results of the mediating effect test.
The Sobel test confirmed the significance of the mediating effects on the overall, direct, and indirect country image. The z value of the total effect of cultural product on the path between country image and purchase intention was z = 6.176 (p < 0.001) for cultural product, indicating a significant mediating effect. Thus, we find no problem in the hypotheses of this study, as we confirm the existence of statistically significant mediating effects of the path among variables. Thus, H5 is supported.

5.5. Additional Analysis

One review asked to analyze the relationship between the cultural value dimensions and country image because the culture has an important role in country image building. The SEM program was used to test the effect of a country image. The results indicate that power distance has positive effects on country image (γ = 0.135, z = 3.739, p < 0.001). Individualism has positive effects on country image (γ = 0.171, z = 5.576, p < 0.001). Long-term orientation has positive effects on country image cultural products (γ = 0.376, z = 9.840, p < 0.001). The proposed path was significant in the hypothesized direction (three components of the cultural value dimension, with a standardized path coefficient for country image). However, uncertainty avoidance had no significant positive effects on country image (γ = 0.002, z = 0.053, p = 0.958). Masculinity had no significant positive effects on country image (γ = 0.022, z = 0.635, p = 0.526). The proposed path was not significant in the hypothesized direction (avoidance and masculinity with a standardized path coefficient for country image).
The perspective from the results is that consumers in a society with power distance, individualism and collectivism, uncertainty, and masculinity were found to form positive attitudes toward cultural products. Long-term orientation presented a non-significant influence. A positive attitude toward cultural products was found to correspond to a high purchase intention. Country image was found to mediate the relationship between the formation of attitudes toward cultural products and purchase intention. Country image was also found to be closely involved in the formation of attitudes toward the product or the intention to purchase it. Among the components of the cultural value level, power distance was found to have a positive effect on the formation of cultural product attitudes. Uncertainty avoidance was found to have a negative effect on the formation of cultural product attitudes. Individualism was shown to have a positive effect on the formation of cultural product attitudes. Masculinity was shown to have a positive effect on the formation of cultural product attitudes. However, long-term orientation turned out to have a meaningless influence on the formation of cultural product attitudes. The influence relationship of country image on purchase intention was found to be significant. The relationship between cultural product attitudes and country images was also significant. The significance of the relationship between variables was, moreover, confirmed. Through verification, we found a mediating effect of country image in the relationship between cultural product attitudes and purchase intention.

6. Conclusions

In a global market with different social differentiation backgrounds, the characteristics of consumers of cultural products in other countries were examined to form attitudes toward products, purchase attitudes, and the mediating effects on national images. It was found that consumers’ unique cultural characteristics influenced their recognition and purchase of foreign cultural products. Culture is also related to the formation of the image of a foreign country, with national image having been shown to play a mediating role between the perception of cultural products and purchase intentions.
This study identifies how consumers’ cultures are connected when forming perceptions of Korea and their attitudes toward Korean cultural products in Asia. We identified Korean cultural products and examined causal factors in the process of consumer thawing. As a result, it is judged that the formation of attitudes toward cultural products or purchase intention in other countries is not determined by one factor at the cultural level, but by a combination of individual values.

6.1. Implications

This study aimed to understand how consumers’ cultural values affect their attitudes toward cultural products (power distance, avoidance of uncertainty, individualism, long-term orientation, and masculinity) and to examine the impact of attitudes toward cultural products on purchase intention. This study aimed to determine whether country image has a mediating effect on this relationship. The results of the present study have several academic and practical implications. Specifically, this study shows that individualistic and short-term consumers tend to prefer imported pleasure products, while collectivist and long-term consumers prefer imported utilitarian products. Similarly, consumers with high power and masculine tendencies prefer imported products for public consumption, whereas those with low power and feminine tendencies prefer imported products for private consumption. Finally, consumers with a high degree of uncertainty avoidance orientation rely more on country image for products with low uncertainty levels, whereas consumers with high levels of involvement rely more on country image.
The results have diverse practical and academic implications. Based on these results, international marketers can emphasize the hedonistic elements of their products to attract individualistic and short-term oriented consumers, with pragmatic implications for collectivist and long-term oriented consumers. Similarly, it may be more useful to target consumers with high power distances for public consumption products, and those with low power distances and feminine tendencies for private consumption products. Finally, companies could highlight other external cues such as brand, price, and product attributes for low-engagement products if they want to downplay the importance of product origin information when targeting consumers with high uncertainty avoidance. Multinationals can incorporate these insights into their marketing plans and strategies to customize their product offerings and activities based on different cultural orientations and product characteristics in different target markets. Each cultural variable has a complex influence on a country [22]. For example, in the music sector, cultural variables do not act as barriers to trade. The fact that many cultural product transactions can be realized today by acquiring copyright and intangible products can lead to complex results. To date, the cultural product trade is still evolving. Quantitative and qualitative research on cultural trade is gradually becoming abundant; however, theoretical research remains insufficient to form a complete system. For many of the factors affecting cultural trade, we sought to make new breakthroughs considering cultural similarities, Internet penetration, and global connectivity, and to explore the various concepts and roles of internal mechanisms that have contributed to our comprehensive theory of cultural trade. The results of this study are based on empirical research and provide valuable implications for promoting the trade in cultural products.
The results can help practitioners improve their understanding of the relationship between cultural activities and product purchases. This study provides a basis for strengthening the competitiveness of products in culturally related industries. This suggests that multinational and content-related companies need to be more interested in Mecenat, which supports cultural activities and efforts to use culture for marketing purposes.
The academic implications include the evaluation of cultural values. Based on cultural values, consumers were found to evaluate products or content from other countries, and cultural values were closely related to the perception or purchase intention of cultural products from other countries. Globally, consumer demand for and interest in various cultural products (products, movies, dramas, content, games, etc.) are increasing. The proposed causal analysis has various theoretical implications.
Cultural values play a significant role as a leading variable in the formation of attitudes toward cultural products. A country’s cultural value is an essential variable for predicting and explaining the perception of other countries’ cultures or products by consumers belonging to that culture. It is believed to provide important academic implications for studies to identify and explain the relationship between cultural values and consumer behavior and to select and consume consumers’ rational, emotional, and reasonable cultural products. It is necessary to increase explanatory power by developing various cultural values and introducing additional variables, as well as Hofstede’s theory of cultural value.
Discussions on sustainability have mainly focused on three areas: ecology, the economy, and the environment. However, there is also a formidable discussion that the “cultural dimension” should be considered in addition to these fields. In the discussion of sustainability, “culture” was initially recognized as an instrumental role to help develop the three other fields. For sustainable development, cultural aspects along with technical and environmental policies must be considered. Regarding sustainable culture, the results of this study can be said to suggest a direction for culture and humans to move forward together in the future.

6.2. Limitations and Future Direction of Research

Despite the significance of this study, it has several limitations. This study considers five cultural dimensions suggested by Hofstede. This is a limitation of the present study. Cross-comparative cultural research includes many cultural value dimensions. To generalize the results, research that applies the cultural dimensions of other scholars is required. To meet consumer demand, efforts are required to identify the characteristics of cultural product clues from consumer groups in overseas markets. Research is needed on how it affects quality, value, evaluation, and purchase intention, which are external factors of products, such as price and brand name. In this study, cultural products were classified to identify the relationship between consumer perceptions and purchase intentions. It is also necessary to study whether there is a difference according to product group through the classification of cultural products by type.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.X. and C.-H.J.; methodology, Y.X.; software, validation, Y.X. and C.-H.J.; formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, and writing—original draft preparation, C.-H.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Because of the nature of this study, no formal approval of the Institutional Review Board of the local Ethics Committee was required. Nonetheless, all subjects were informed about the study and participation was fully on a voluntary basis. Participants were ensured of confidentiality and anonymity of the information associated with the surveys. The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Nakata, C.; Sivakumar, K. National culture and new product development: An integrative review. J. Mark. 1996, 60, 61–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Kogut, B.; Singh, H. The effect of national culture on the choice of entry mode. J. Int. Bus. Stud. 1988, 19, 411–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Ulijn, J.; O’Hair, D.; Weggeman, M.; Ledlow, G. Innovation, corporate strategy, and cultural context: What is the mission for international business communication? J. Bus. Commun. 2000, 37, 293–316. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Griffith, A.D.; Harvey, G.M. The influence of individual and firm level social capital of marketing managers in a firm’s global network. J. World Bus. 2004, 39, 244–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Zhou, J.; Zhou, Z. The influences of cultural values on the cultural product trade: Evidence from China, Japan and Korea. Nankai Bus. Rev. Int. 2022, 13, 201–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Cui, G.Q.; Zeng, J.Y.; Jin, C.H. The Impact of Vertical/Horizontal Individualism and Collectivism on Ethical Consumption. Sustainability 2022, 14, 14254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Han, G.; Park, J.; Lee, J. The effects of attachment to Korean wave stars and cultural proximity on Chinese consumers’ purchase intention of Korean products. Bus. Commun. Res. Pract. 2022, 5, 4–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Zong, Z.; Liu, X.; Gao, H. Exploring the mechanism of consumer purchase intention in a traditional culture based on the theory of planned behavior. Front. Psychol. 2023, 14, 1110191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Pratesi, F.; Hu, L.; Rialti, R.; Zollo, L.; Faraoni, M. Cultural dimensions in online purchase behavior: Evidence from a cross-cultural study. Ital. J. Mark. 2021, 227–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Khouaja, A. The effect of cultural orientation and country of origin image on purchase intention. Int. J. Mark. Commun. New Media 2021, 9, 71–93. [Google Scholar]
  11. Berbel-Pineda, J.; Palacios-Florencio, B.; Santos-Roldán, L.; Hurtado, J.R. Relation of country-of-origin effect, culture, and type of product with the consumer’s shopping intention: An analysis for small- and medium-sized enterprises. Hindawi Complex. 2018, 2018, 1––12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Janita, F.J.; Boonstra, A. The influence of cultural values on Enterprise System adoption, towards a culture—Enterprise System alignment theory. Int. J. Inf. Manag. 2022, 63, 1–17. [Google Scholar]
  13. Shavitt, S.; Barnes, A.J. Cross-cultural consumer psychology. Consum. Psychol. Rev. 2019, 2, 70–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Papadopoulos, N. What product and country images are and are not. In Product-Country Images: Impact and Role in International Marketing; Papadopoulos, N., Heslop, L., Eds.; International Business Press: Binghampton, NN, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  15. Levitt, T. The Globalization of Markets. Harv. Bus. Rev. 1983, 61, 92–102. [Google Scholar]
  16. Zou, S.; Cavusgil, S.T. The GMS: A broad conceptualization of global marketing strategy and its effect on firm performance. J. Mark. 2002, 66, 40–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. de Mooij, M.K.; Hofstede, G. Convergence and divergence in consumer behavior: Implications for international retailing. J. Retail. 2002, 78, 61–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Usunier, J.C. Atomistic versus organic approaches. Int. Stud. Manag. Organ. 1997, 26, 90–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Aaker, J.L.; Maheswaran, D. The effect of cultural orientation on persuasion. J. Consum. Res. 1997, 24, 315–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Suh, T.; Kwon, I.G. Globalization and reluctant buyers. Int. Mark. Rev. 2002, 19, 663–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Gürhan-Canli, Z.; Sarial-Abi, G.; Hayran, C. Consumers and brands across the globe: Research synthesis and new directions. J. Int. Mark. 2018, 26, 96–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. Takada, H.; Jain, D. Cross-national analysis of diffusion of consumer durable Doods in Pacific Rim countries. J. Mark. 1991, 55, 48–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Steenkamp, J.B.E. The role of national culture in international marketing research. Int. Mark. Rev. 2001, 18, 30–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Zaichkowsky, J.L.; Sood, J.H. A global look at consumer involvement and use of products. Int. Mark. Rev. 1989, 6, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Hofstede, G. Empirical models of cultural differences. In Contemporary Issues in Cross-Cultural Psychology; Bleichrodt, N., Drenth, P.J.D., Eds.; Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers: Lisse, The Netherlands, 1991; pp. 4–20. [Google Scholar]
  26. Hofstede, G. Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. In The Ethical Consumer; Harrison, R., Newholm, T., Shaw, D., Eds.; Sage Publications: London, UK, 2001. [Google Scholar]
  27. Soares, A.M.; Farhangmehr, M.; Shoham, A. Hofstede’s dimensions of culture in international marketing studies. J. Bus. Res. 2007, 60, 277–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Baligh, H.H. Components of culture: Nature, inter-connections, and relevance to the decisions on the organization structure. Manag. Sci. 1994, 40, 14–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Chanlat, A.; Bedard, R. Managing in the Quebec style: Originality and vulnerability. Int. Stud. Manag. Organ. 1991, 21, 10–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Culpan, R. Institutional model of comparative management. Adv. Int. Comp. Manag. 1991, 6, 127–142. [Google Scholar]
  31. Schwartz, S.H. A theory of cultural values and some implications for work. Appl. Psychol. 2006, 48, 23–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Mo, L.; Liu, Y.; Li, A.; Liu, T.; Zhu, T. The impact of pandemic mental cognition on cultural values: An empirical study based on social media. BMC Public Health 2023, 23, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Stone, D.; Stone-Romero, E.; Lukaszewski, K. The impact of cultural values on acceptance and effectiveness of human resource management policies and practices. Hum. Resour. Manag. Rev. 2017, 17, 152–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Schulze, G.G. International trade in art. J. Cult. Econ. 1999, 23, 109–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Marvasti, A.; Canterbery, E. Cultural and other barriers to motion pictures trade. Econ. Inq. 2005, 43, 39–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Shenkar, O.; Tallman, S.B.; Wang, H.; Wu, J. National culture and international business: A path forward. J. Int. Bus. Stud. 2020, 2, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Kim, K.; Markman, A. Differences in Fear of Isolation as an explanation of Cultural Differences: Evidence from memory and reasoning. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 2006, 42, 350–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Pavlou, P.A.; Chai, L. What drives electronic commerce across cultures? a cross-cultural empirical investigation of the theory of planned behavior. J. Electron. Commer. Res. 2002, 3, 240–253. [Google Scholar]
  39. Echtner, C.M.; Ritchie, J.R.B. The Meaning and Measurement of Destination Image. J. Tour. Stud. 1991, 2, 2–12. [Google Scholar]
  40. MacInnis, D.; Price, L. The role of imagery in information processing: Review and extensions. J. Consum. Res. 1987, 13, 473–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Williams, H. Cities Bid to Make the Marque. Manag. Today 1994, 8, 30–33. [Google Scholar]
  42. Dichter, E. What’s in an image. J. Consum. Mark. 1985, 2, 75–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Papadopoulos, N.; Irfan, B. Place image and place branding: What the data tells us. Bp. Manag. Rev. 2006, 37, 74–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Kunczik, M. Images of Nations and International Public Relations; Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, Publishers: New Jersey, NJ, USA, 1997. [Google Scholar]
  45. Baloglu, S.; McCleary, K.W. A model of destination image formation. Tour. Res. 1999, 26, 868–897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Reynolds, B. Learning and Teaching in the Practice of Social Work; Russell and Russell: New York, NY, USA, 1965. [Google Scholar]
  47. Ahmed, S.A.; d’Astous, A.; Eljabri, J. The impact of technological complexity on consumers’ perceptions of products made in highly and newly industrialized countries. Int. Mark. Rev. 2002, 19, 387–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Diallo, M.F. Effects of store image and store brand price-image on store brand purchase intention: Application to an emerging market. J. Retail. Consum. Serv. 2012, 19, 360–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Ajzen, I. The theory of planned behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process 1991, 50, 179–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Wu, P.C.S.; Yeh, G.Y.Y.; Hsiao, C.R. The effect of store image and service quality on brand image purchase intention for private label brands. Australas. Mark. J. 2011, 19, 30–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Oliver, J.D.; Lee, S. Hybrid car purchase intentions: A cross-cultural analysis. J. Consum. Mark. 2010, 27, 96–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Cronin, J.J.; Brady, M.K.; Hult, C.T.M. Assessing the effects of quality, value, and customer satisfaction on consumer behavioral intentions in service environments. J. Retail. 2000, 76, 193–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Zeithaml, V.; Berry, L.; Parasuraman, A. The behavioral consequences of service quality. J. Mark. 1996, 60, 31–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Yaveroglu, I.S.; Donthu, N. Cultural influences on the diffusion of products. J. Int. Consum. Mark. 2002, 14, 49–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Yeniyurt, S.; Townsend, J.D. Does culture explain acceptance of new products in a country? An empirical investigation. Intertional Mark. Rev. 2003, 20, 377–396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Sharma, P. Demystifying cultural differences in country-of-origin effects: Exploring the moderating roles of product type, consumption context, and involvement. J. Int. Consum. Mark. 2011, 23, 344–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Neelankavil, J.P.; Mathur, A.; Zhang, Y. Determinants of managerial performance: A cross-cultural comparison of the perceptions of middle-level managers in four countries. J. Int. Bus. Stud. 2000, 31, 121–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Han, C.H.; Terpstra, V. Country-of-origin effects for uni-national and bi-national products. J. Int. Bus. Stud. 1988, 19, 235–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Bilkey, W.J.; Nes, E. Country-of-origin Effects on Product Evaluations. J. Int. Bus. Stud. 1982, 13, 89–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  60. Zeugner-Roth, K.P.; Zabkar, V. Bridging the gap between country and destination image: Assessing common facets and their predictive validity. J. Bus. Res. 2015, 68, 1844–1853. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Li, Z.G.; Fu, S.; Murray, L.W. Country and product images: The perceptions of consumers in the People’s Republic of China. J. Int. Consum. Mark. 1998, 10, 115–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Sousa, A.; Nobre, H.; Farhangmehr, M. Cosmopolitanism and the Mediating Effect of Country Image on Consumers’ Purchase, Visit and Investment Intentions. J. Asian Financ. Econ. Bus. 2019, 6, 159–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Balabanis, G.; Diamantopoulos, A. Domestic country bias, country-of-origin effects, and consumer ethnocentrism: A multidimensional unfolding approach. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 2004, 32, 80–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Leong, S.M.; Cote, J.A.; Ang, S.H.; Tan, S.J.; Kwon, J.; Kau, A. Understanding consumer animosity in an international crisis: Nature, antecedents, and consequences. J. Int. Bus. Stud. 2008, 39, 996–1009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Wang, S.T. Consumer characteristics and social influence factors on green purchasing intentions. Mark. Intell. Plan. 2014, 32, 738–753. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Kim, Y.; Choi, S.M.; Rifon, N. A cross-cultural study of value structure and environmental consumerism: The case of Korean and United States consumers. Korean J. Mark. 2009, 10, 35–64. [Google Scholar]
  67. Martin, I.M.; Eroglu, S. Measuring a multi-dimensional construct: Country image. J. Bus. Res. 1993, 28, 191–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Jin, C.H. The effect of psychological capital on start-up intention among young start-up entrepreneurs: A cross-cultural comparison. Chin. Manag. Stud. 2017, 11, 707–729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Bentler, P.M. EQS: Structural Equation Program Manual; BMDP Statistical Software: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1992. [Google Scholar]
  70. Byrne, B.M. Structural Equation Modeling with EQS and EQS/Windows: Basic Concepts, Application, and Programming; Sage Publications, Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1994. [Google Scholar]
  71. Podsakoff, P.M.; MacKenzie, S.B.; Lee, J.Y. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 2003, 88, 879–903. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Bagozzi, R.; Yi, Y. On the Evaluation of Structural Equation Models. J. Acad. Mark. Sci. 1988, 16, 74–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Hair, J.F.; Anderson, R.E.; Tatham, R.L.; Black, W.C. Multivariate Data Analysis; Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA, 1998. [Google Scholar]
  74. Fornell, C.; Larcker, D.F. Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. J. Mark. Res. 1981, 18, 39–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Sobel, M.E. Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In Sociological Methodology; Leinhart, S., Ed.; Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA, USA, 1982. [Google Scholar]
  76. Preacher, K.J.; Hayes, A.F. SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. Comput. 2004, 36, 717–731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  77. Baron, R.M.; Kenny, D.A. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1986, 51, 1173–1182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Bollen, K.A.; Stine, R. Direct and indirect effects: Classical and bootstrap estimates of variability. Sociol. Methodol. 1990, 20, 115–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sustainability 15 11172 g001 550
Figure 1. Suggested research model.
Figure 1. Suggested research model.
Sustainability 15 11172 g001
Sustainability 15 11172 g002 550
Figure 2. Results of the suggested research model with path coefficients.
Figure 2. Results of the suggested research model with path coefficients.
Sustainability 15 11172 g002
Table
Table 1. Sample characteristics.
Table 1. Sample characteristics.
Index (n = 974)Frequency%
SexMale42243.3
Female55256.7
Years10–19 years424.3
20–29 49450.7
30–3941842.9
40–49161.6
Over 50 years40.4
Education
Level		High school level23123.7
College students454.6
College level61162.7
Graduate school level878.9
Monthly
Income		Below USD 200034635.5
2000–300038839.8
3000–400020020.5
4000–5000363.7
Over USD 500040.4
Table
Table 2. Results of factor analysis for cultural value dimension.
Table 2. Results of factor analysis for cultural value dimension.
Independent VariablesDependent Variables
ConstructsItemsF.LConstructsItemsF.L
Power
Distance		PD10.865Cultural
Product		CP10.754
PD20.745CP20.872
PD30.709CP30.792
PD30.691CP40.653
PD40.673Country
Image		CI10.921
Uncertainty
Avoidance		UA10.612CI20.878
UA20.832CI30.905
UA30.753CI40.692
UA40.690CI50.904
UA50.741Purchase
Intention		PI10.824
IndividualismIC10.706PI20.898
IC20.651PI30.894
IC30.747
IC40.731
IC50.742
MasculinityMA10.794
MA20.783
MA30.802
MA40.643
Lone Term
Orientation		LT10.701
LT20.673
LT30.681
LT40.792
LT50.801
Factor Eigenvalues% of VarianceFactor Eigenvalues% of Variance
Factor 16.89829.9Factor 14.72339.4
Factor 23.24514.1Factor 22.63221.9
Factor 31.6897.35Factor 31.54912.91
Factor 41.5616.789
Factor 51.1905.172
63.41% of total variance extracted74.2% of total variance Extracted
Notes: FL: Factor loadings.
Table
Table 3. Internal consistency of the constructs.
Table 3. Internal consistency of the constructs.
ConstructsItemsCronbach’s
Alpha		Composite Reliability (CR)AVE
Power Distance40.8120.8590.641
Uncertainty Avoidance50.8600.8900.693
Individualism50.8170.8620.651
Masculinity40.7900.8400.617
Lone Term Orientation50.7900.8400.617
Cultural Product40.9200.9300.731
Country Image50.8200.8640.650
Purchase Intention30.8600.8610.647
Table
Table 4. Analysis of discriminant validity using average variance extracted.
Table 4. Analysis of discriminant validity using average variance extracted.
AVEPDUAICMASLTCPCIPI
PD0.6411
UA0.6930.3621
IC0.6510.0200.0031
MAS0.6170.2030.1580.0311
LT0.6170.1380.3910.0120.1231
CP0.7310.1270.0880.2130.1100.0211
CI0.6500.0010.0250.0520.0010.1130.1201
PI0.6470.0010.0050.0520.0040.0190.0510.0581
Squared the correlation coefficients. PD: Power Distance, UA: Uncertainty Avoidance, IC: Individualism/Collectivism, MAS: Masculinity, LT: Lone Term Orientation, CP: Cultural Product, CI: Country Image, PI: Purchase Intention.
Table
Table 5. Summary of hypothesis tests.
Table 5. Summary of hypothesis tests.
HypothesisS.EStandardized CoefficientSupport
H1-1: PD -> CP0.0410.190 *** (0.244), z = 5.942Yes
H1-2: UA -> CP0.048−0.202 *** (−0.269), z = −5.606Yes
H1-3: IC -> CP0.0310.413 *** (0.467), z = 15.263Yes
H1-4: MAS -> CP0.0310.113 *** (0.114), z = 3.710Yes
H1-5: LT -> CP0.0440.039(0.051), z = 1.160 (p = 0.246)Rejected
H2: CP -> CI0.0220.338 *** (0.244), z = 11.208Yes
H3 CP -> PI0.0290.227 *** (0.211), z = 7.267Yes
H4: CI -> PI0.0400.235 *** (0.302), z = 7.524Yes
Measurement model goodness of fit: χ2 = 6361.6 (df = 524), CFI = 0.968, NFI = 0.907, NNFI = 0.952, GFI = 0.901, AGFI = 0.865, SRMR = 0.059, RMSEA = 0.049
Final research model goodness of fit: χ2 = 7572.3 (df = 544), CFI = 0.927, NFI = 0.901, NNFI = 0.932, GFI = 0.891, AGFI = 0.852, SRMR = 0.067, RMSEA = 0.057
Notes: PD: Power Distance, UA: Uncertainty Avoidance, IC: Individualism/Collectivism, MAS: Masculinity, LT: Lone Term Orientation, CP: Cultural Product, CI: Country Image, PI: Purchase Intention *** signifies p < 0.001; (Unstandardized) Coefficient.
Table
Table 6. Results of the Sobel test.
Table 6. Results of the Sobel test.
EffectVariablesCoefficientS.EZ-Score
Direct effectX→Y0.227 ***0.0297.257
Indirect effectX→M0.338 ***0.02211.208
Indirect effectM→Y0.235 ***0.0407.524
Indirect effectX→M→Y0.167 ***0.0425.096
Total Effect(X→Y) + (X→M→Y)0.394 ***0.0326.176
X: Cultural Product, Y: Purchase Intention, M: Country Image, *** signifies p < 0.001.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Xing, Y.; Jin, C.-H. The Impact of Cultural Values on Attitude Formation toward Cultural Products: Mediating Effects of Country Image. Sustainability 2023, 15, 11172. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411172

AMA Style

Xing Y, Jin C-H. The Impact of Cultural Values on Attitude Formation toward Cultural Products: Mediating Effects of Country Image. Sustainability. 2023; 15(14):11172. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411172

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xing, Yisitie, and Chang-Hyun Jin. 2023. "The Impact of Cultural Values on Attitude Formation toward Cultural Products: Mediating Effects of Country Image" Sustainability 15, no. 14: 11172. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411172

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop