Theoretical Review of Research to Date on Competences 4.0—What Do We Know about Competences in Industry 4.0? A Status Quo Analysis

Abstract

This article analyses competences 4.0 models created in the context of the concept of Industry 4.0. A literature review and bibliometric analyses were used to show the semantic shift of this concept over time. The results show that the 4.0 competences created in the context of Industry 4.0 assume that the skills they represent are needed in the labor market. Moreover, in most cases, analyses of competences 4.0 are carried out considering separate perspectives by researchers representing different scientific disciplines. Refining and fine-tuning a universal and detailed model of competences 4.0 is strongly recommended to bridge the gap between other scientific disciplines. Furthermore, this article presents competences 4.0 from a much broader perspective, including linguistic competences that stem from the wider domain of the ability to communicate within social competences. Linguistic competences are also interrelated with some aspects of cognitive competences. This approach makes this study completely novel and aims to present the most comprehensive and universal 4.0 model to date.

1. Introduction

Industry 4.0 has been a leading force framing the societal, economic, and technological environment since 2010. Several other commonly known terms may point to the same phenomenon, such as the Industrial Internet, the Internet of Things (also the Internet of Everything), or the Big Shift [1]. With the application of modern technologies and transformation of processes, significant changes are expected as related work continues. At the same time, future production systems would also require new employee competences [2]. A multistage analysis often precedes decisions made by enterprises to implement Industry 4.0 (I 4.0) solutions or technologies. Determinants that influence the willingness to implement I 4.0 have been presented by Michna and Kmieciak [3]. The research results on small- and medium-sized Polish companies prove that open-mindedness, culture, and knowledge of organizational financial performance animations positively impact the willingness to implement I 4.0 solutions. Others, such as Horváth and Szabó [2], divide factors into specific categories: (a) areas of human resources such as increasing labor shortages, reducing human work, and allocating workforce to other areas; (b) financial resources and profitability mainly in the case of cost reduction; (c) managerial factors such as market competition and trends, increasing pressure and customer requirements, and new business model innovation together with demands for greater control and the need for continuous monitoring of company performance; (d) productivity and technological and process integration and cooperation. Based on the work of Stentoft et al. [4], enterprises decide to implement I 4.0 due to the following: legislation and standards changes; the organization’s strategy requires cost reduction; customer requirement changes; time-to-market improvements; the fact that competitors practice I 4.0; but also due to a lack of qualified employees. During the implementation of Industry 4.0, the willingness or drivers of the mentioned “Big Shift” must be investigated. This should be balanced by barriers that block or inhibit organizations from making new steps in the fourth industrial revolution era. In the literature, Moeuf et al. [5] and Müller [6] have identified several human factors that can affect the successful implementation of a project. These factors include employee acceptance, lack of competences and know-how, lack of cooperation among departments, lack of top management support, and unclear employee benefits. Human competences are viewed as both a driving force of change and a potential barrier, as noted by Michna and Kruszewska [7].

However, it must be mentioned at this stage that, in general, scientific discussions on competences 4.0 are rare compared to discussions on Industry 4.0 itself. Consequently, this article aims to map the discussions on competences 4.0 from quantitative and qualitative points of view. The former is based on a review of the citation database (the Scopus database was chosen because of its more comprehensive coverage of journals and publications), and the latter concentrates on a literature review. This should lead to answering the most relevant question, i.e., if there is currently a unique and comprehensive model of competences 4.0. It has been slightly over ten years since the introduction of the term Industry 4.0, and an analysis of Scopus-indexed publications shows that competences 4.0 stemming from this term is still not a thoroughly examined phenomenon with a prominent research gap that needs to be filled. From a quantitative point of view, it can even be claimed that these discussions are scarce (

Table 1. Distribution of the discussions on competences 4.0 (regardless of spelling) by publication type.

Query I	Article	Book Chapter	Conference Paper	Review	Total
“Competences 4.0”	4	0	4	0	8
“Competences 4.0”	9	0	1	0	10
“4.0 Competences”	7	1	12	0	20
“4.0 Competences”	14	1	6	1	22

).

As can be seen from the table, not only are the numbers symbolic, but differences in spelling can also be observed, suggesting that there is no single adopted approach to the discussion. Further analysis of how the discussions on competences 4.0 are distributed among scientific disciplines sheds light and explains that the phenomenon still needs to be represented in scientific discussions.

It is interesting to note that discussions on competences 4.0, regardless of the spelling, are substantially more common within the technical sector than within business and management (

Table 2. Distribution of the discussions on competences 4.0 (regardless of spelling) by scientific field.

Query II	Computer Science	Social Sciences	Engineering	Business, Management, and Accounting	Decision Sciences	Medicine	Economics, Econometrics and Finance	Psychology	Environmental Science	Mathematics
“Competences 4.0”	4	0	0	2	0	0	2	2	0	0
“Competences 4.0”	0	3	0	3	2	3	0	0	2	0
“4.0 Competences”	12	6	10	3	2	0	0	0	0	0
“4.0 Competences”	9	12	11	5	0	0	0	0	0	2
Total	25	21	21	13	4	3	2	2	2	2

). However, this is partially compensated for by the appearance of discussions on competences 4.0 within social sciences and psychology that contribute to scientific discussions within business and management fields. Inequalities in discussions on competences 4.0 can also be seen in the geographical distribution of these discussions.

It is unsurprising that scientific discussions on competences 4.0 are most often carried out in Germany, where the term Industry 4.0 originates, and generally across Europe. However, these discussions have also extended to the US and Asia (as shown in

Table 3. Geographic distribution of the discussions on competences 4.0 (regardless of spelling).

Query III	Germany	Poland	Spain	USA	Indonesia	Italy	Malaysia	Russian Fed.	South Africa	Ukraine	Unidentified
“Competences 4.0”	0	5	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1
“Competences 4.0”	0	1	0	3	4	1	1	0	0	0	0
“4.0 Competences”	8	0	2	2	0	2	0	3	0	0	0
“4.0 Competences”	3	1	3	0	0	0	2	0	3	0	0
Total	11	7	6	5	4	3	3	3	3	1	1

).

The subsequent sections of this article explain how competences 4.0 models have evolved, what elements, e.g., skills, are composed of, and how some of these skills interrelate. Finally, the discussion leads to a conclusion on what the most comprehensive and universal competences 4.0 model should be, which is the main aim of this study. Accordingly, the analysis concentrates both on the phenomenon’s evolution and a thorough analysis of its components.

2. Towards Competences 4.0

The reviewed publications describe the competences and qualifications of employees as the following: enabler [8], driving forces [8,9], opportunity [1], benefits [10], potentials [6], and chance [11], but also challenge [12,13], barriers [4], inhibitors [14], obstacle [15], roadblock, or concern for Industry 4.0 [2]. Different views and different perspectives enable one to investigate competences across multiple axes. The meanings of the statements above, based on definitions by Cambridge Dictionary, are presented in

Table 4. Meanings of statements.

Statement	Impact	Description
enabler	positive	a person or a thing that makes something possible
opportunity		possibility of doing something
benefits		something that helps or gives an advantage
potential		may become one in the future, although they are not one now
chance		the possibility that something will happen
barrier	negative	something that prevents people from doing what they want to do
inhibit		to make it more difficult for someone to do something
obstacle		something that is hindering progress or success
roadblock		something that is placed in your way to stop people to succeed
concern		something significant or impactful to an individual and affects them in some way
challenge		something that is difficult and tests individual ability or determination

.

Competences, as a factor positively impacting decisions regarding Industry 4.0 implementation, are mentioned in the literature as a driver, driving forces, enablers, opportunity, benefits, potential, or chance. The negative impact of competences or other human factors is stated in the literature as an inhibitor, obstacle, or barrier. It is often noted as a challenge: difficult and tests determination on the way to Industry 4.0 implementation.

For example, “Industry 4.0 drivers are employees highly trained and skilled in robotics, nanotechnologies, microbiology or astronautics that communicate with robots and are supported by web technologies and intelligent support systems in their day-to-day activities” [9]. Social benefits from Industry 4.0 are as follows: fairer wage assessments enhanced human learning and augmented employee motivation [6]. The opportunities that Industry 4.0 gives humans, based on [12], are linked with reducing monotonous work. The same authors indicated the term challenge by the following: employee qualifications and acceptance, mostly fear, concerns, and lack of expertise. In consideration of significant challenges and obstacles, the following competences were selected: willingness to learn, creative problem-solving in social settings, ability to find practical solutions, understanding of network technologies, as well as data analysis and processing [12].

A lack of qualified workers has been pointed to as a driver and barrier at the same time by Stentoft et al. [4]. Additional barriers were a lack of readiness and requirements for continuing education of employees. Vuksanović Herceg et al. [1], based on works [12,16,17] mentioned the competencies of managers and employees and their resistance.

A new limiting factor in the development of Industry 4.0, based on [9], is population demography. Due to a negative natural increase in population and problems related to a lack of resources and lack of knowledge, the number of experienced and competent employees will increase. The author also mentioned a lack of knowledge as another barrier to Industry 4.0. He stated that a lack of culture, vision, or internal training in the digital domain, as well as a lack of specialists, are some of the obstacles to the accelerated development of Industry 4.0 [9].

From the point of view of concerns, the authors point to a lack of training and competences, as well as employee resistance; small- and medium-sized enterprises are concerned about a lack of resources and qualified personnel [6,12]. In the research by Mogos et al. [8], a significant barrier is the competency of personnel and a lack of a good understanding of implementing I 4.0. According to the research results of the indicated author, smoother digitalization could be enhanced by improving competences such as the use and understanding of sensor technologies, the use of Big Data, general IT knowledge, and the use of statistics [8].

Competences (as factors with negative or positive impact) represent one of the axes in the research regarding human resources in Industry 4.0. Another axis widely discussed in the literature is the typology of individual competency and their division into assigned groups. In studies on the subject, the following groups are pointed to:

According to Erol et al. [17], the future competences of all levels of employees were grouped into the following categories:

• Personal competences, which can be understood as the ability of a person to act reflectively and autonomously, the ability to learn/develop cognitive abilities;
• Social/interpersonal competences—the ability to communicate, cooperate, as well as establish social connections and structures with other individuals and groups;
• Action-related competences, refer to the ability of a person to take individual or socially constructed ideas to action;
• Domain-related competences refer to the ability to access and use domain knowledge for a job or a specific task.

Three other functional areas of human resource development mentioned by Hecklau et al. [18] are as follows: competences—defined as personal development; collaboration—defined as the development and structure of a team; and the role of processes in organizational development. Based on the identified challenges, grouped according to PESTEL analysis, the mentioned authors divided competences by considering political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal factors.

The model of future employee competences proposed by Vrchota et al. [19] relies on two axes. The first axis contains groups of technical and personal competences, while the other axis consists of the classification into the following needs: “must have”, “should have”, and” can have”. Another model, indicated by Śledziewska and Włoch [20], considers the following:

• Cognitive competences such as creativity, logical reasoning, solving complex problems, critical thinking, and the ability to perform information quality assessment;
• Social competences such as cooperation, working in groups, people management, leadership, and emotional intelligence;
• Digital and technological competences, not limited to programming or data analysis but also considering knowledge about cybersecurity, all core Industry 4.0 technologies, the Internet of Things, augmented and virtual reality, artificial intelligence, etc.

3. Competences 4.0: Models and Approaches

What is the comprehensive model of competences 4.0, then? According to various researchers [21,22,23,24,25,26,27], this model is generally based on the three already mentioned pillars:

• Digital competences—connected with the use of technology on different levels of advancement, ability to solve problems with the use of digital tools, and knowledge about privacy and cybersecurity issues;
• Social and emotional competences—connected with interaction with others and coping with one’s own emotions, as well as the ability to cooperate in a group and demonstrate leadership and entrepreneurship;
• Cognitive competences—connected with ways of thinking, including processing and verifying information, creativity, critical thinking, and the ability to learn and reflect.

This approach is in line with the empirical research and findings of the McKinsey Global Institute [28], which shows that the need for the competences mentioned above in the context of the fourth industrial revolution is increasing concerning the labor market demands. However, this model is derived from an existing classical model of managerial competences, including technical, social, and cognitive competences [29]. However, there are more terminology overlaps here, for example, about future competences. The shift towards competences 4.0 is formulated by various researchers who claim that the competences of the future, such as digital, cognitive, and social ones, reflect the current requirements of future jobs within a broader concept of the fourth industrial revolution, or simply Industry 4.0 [18,20,30,31]. Others add that this shift also implies the need for interdisciplinarity, personal flexibility, and a project-based approach [17,32,33]. Consequently, the model of competences 4.0 must be enhanced with a managerial component, and it presents itself at this stage of the discussion as follows:

• Digital and technical competences—so-called hard competences. Digital competences are understood not merely as programming and data analysis but as a wide range of skills, from digital solutions to problems to expertise in online privacy and cybersecurity. They include, among others, specialist competences, such as processing of big data sets, use of computing clouds and the Industrial Internet of Things, integration, simulation and visualization of processes, and evaluation of technology and its products;
• Managerial competences, such as self and team management, creating your image, financial management, business strategies, project management, work psychology, organization and management, public relations, marketing and media, managerial economy, human resources, managerial, leadership, and entrepreneurship skills, quantitative methods and business statistics, ethics, risk management and changing management, and techniques in the context of social and technological change;
• Cognitive or thinking competences—including creativity, logical reasoning, and solving complex problems;
• Social and psychosocial competences—effective cooperation within a group, leadership, entrepreneurship, and emotional intelligence, including soft competences like personal flexibility and interdisciplinarity.

A similar approach is proposed by Fitsilis, Tsoutsa, and Gerogiannis [34] after Leinweber [35]. They postulate the following model of competences 4.0:

• Technical competences, such as state-of-the-art knowledge, process understanding, technical skills, etc.;
• Methodological competences, including creativity, entrepreneurial thinking, problem-solving, conflict-solving, decision-making, analytical skills, research skills, and efficiency orientation;
• Social competences, such as intercultural skills, language skills, communication skills, networking skills, ability to work in a team, ability to be compromising and cooperative, and ability to transfer knowledge and leadership skills;
• Personal competences include flexibility, tolerance of ambiguity, motivation to learn, ability to work under pressure, sustainable mindset, and compliance.

Fitsilis, Tsoutsa, and Gerogiannis also add that “skills needed for Industry 4.0 are numerous and diverse”, some of them, for example, ICT skills, have not been standardized [34].

Other typologies of competences 4.0 can also be found in the literature. Differences in approach result mainly from specific contexts that researchers address. For example, Clavert [36] and Geryk [37] provide a list of skills—or constituting elements of competences, to be more precise—needed to overcome the challenges posed by Industry 4.0 from the point of view of the higher education system. The main objective is to equip students with the new qualifications needed in the future labor market. These skills include flexibility, adaptability, technological literacy, risk-taking, business thinking, and abilities connected with information management, cybersecurity, quality control, and sustainability. The above skills also directly refer to the broader digital, cognitive, social, and managerial dimensions of our competences 4.0 model.

Another example comes from industrial and manufacturing points of view. According to the bibliometric analysis carried out by Poszytek [38], the most prolific authors in the field, Stock and Seliger [39], enumerate the human factor as one of the essential elements in sustainable manufacturing. They stress the importance of ICT technical skills, social skills, creativity, and decentralized decision-making [40]. Here, a reference to digital, cognitive, social, and managerial aspects of competences 4.0 can be seen. As stated above, the literature review shows numerous instances in which researchers concentrate only on selected elements of these broad competence categories while discussing the concept of competences 4.0 [40].

Considering all the above discussions and bearing in mind that the social dimension of competences as such is stressed as most important in most of the models, it seems plausible to treat social competence as an overarching element of the whole competences 4.0 model, especially considering that depending on the model, its various constituting features can be found in all other pillars of that competences 4.0 model, namely technical, managerial, and cognitive ones. Similarly, cognitive competence, or, to be more precise, some of its elements, are interlinked, and economic environments and ecosystems determined by rapid technological advancement wherein a broad application of technologies and instruments of the digital economy are implemented are becoming a common reality. On a practical level, this new reality manifests itself in advanced computing and connectivity thanks to the Internet, data analytics leading to increased business intelligence, and new ways of implementing human–digital interfaces such as virtual reality [30]. Again, apart from the technical dimension of this new reality, it is a psychosocial dimension with other pillars of competences 4.0. Furthermore, for the sake of clarity of the final presented model and clarity of the literature review process, we decided to extract the linguistic component of social competence and make it a separate pillar of this model. This results from linguistic competence being embedded in psychosocial, cognitive, and metacognitive competences, which are fundamental in discussing competences 4.0. Consequently, a further literature review was conducted here based on the following model of competences 4.0: (1) psychosocial; (2) metacognitive, as a term broader than cognitive; (3) linguistic; (4) technical and digital; and (5) managerial.

4. Psychosocial Competences

As mentioned in Section 3 of this article, the social dimension has become a crucial component within scientific discussions of whole competences 4.0 models, being at the same time a sort of an interweaving thread of the model presented in this article, which is also reflected in discussions in further parts of this article. However, this has not always been the case. In the last two decades of the twentieth century, the French approach dominated discussions on defining competences. The approach perceived competences only from a technical point of view as determining whether an individual can do something [41]. However, before the end of the twentieth century, a gradual departure from this strictly technical approach towards competences understood as knowledge and soft skills could be observed [42]. This point marked the introduction of English terms of hard skills and soft skills as an integral part of discussions on competences. The former meant technical competences or simply the things an individual can do, whereas the latter meant social, emotional, and relational competences, also called human competences in some sources [41]. The next milestone in scientific discussions on competences as such appeared in 2000 when Le Boterf proposed a three-dimensional perception of competences. This approach practically places psychosocial competences in the heart of the debate on competences as such with the following model: (1) the ability to act, using internal and external resources at a suitable time and with suitable proportions; (2) the eagerness to act; and (3) the opportunity to act when an individual undertakes some action depending on external conditions [43].

Finally, Lamri proposes four main categories of competences, namely (1) technical competences—acquired through learning and experience; (2) behavioral and motivational competences, such as extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and emotional stability; they determine how an individual reacts in various situations; (3) cognitive competences—creativity, critical thinking, communication, and cooperation; (4) social competences—determine how an individual perceives society and their relationship with this society [41]. Apart from technical and practical aspects of competences, the psychosocial dimension can be seen in this model as the core element in our discussion on the nature of competences.

This way of thinking and defining competences overlaps and goes in line perfectly with the current and fast-changing social environment that matters most in this whole new paradigm since most new jobs will require an interdisciplinary approach and knowledge, which, in turn, will enforce performing different operations and tasks within a group of specialists with complementary competences from other fields. Accordingly, not only specialist knowledge or technical competences and skills will be needed, but first, the so-called soft skills, or psychosocial skills, such as being able to communicate on different levels and being able to cooperate and solve problems in a creative way within a group of people, will be required.

Currently, the prevailing, most comprehensive model of competences 4.0 [21,22,23,24,25,28,29,30] includes the psychosocial dimension in the social and emotional competences defined as the ability to cooperate in a group, as well as leadership and entrepreneurship. The reason and the need for being able to collaborate in a group has already been discussed. Regarding leadership and entrepreneurship, it must be noted that contemporary authors agree that leadership and entrepreneurship are not so much linked with the actions taken by lonely leaders at the top of the organization. They are related to the work of a competent manager who can combine the efforts of many people to achieve the organization’s desired results [44]. However, it should also be noted and stressed at this point that due to the multitude of descriptions of the very term leadership, there is no single definition of this concept [44]. This was first postulated by Avery, who claims that “the concept of leadership remains elusive and enigmatic, despite years of efforts to develop an intellectually satisfying understanding” [45]. Most crucial at this discussion stage is that leadership theories based on personal traits are becoming more popular than behavior theories based on behavior [44].

Consequently, it seems most plausible to refer to one source, i.e., the most prominent and applicable, Adair’s classic management theory developed in the 1960s. It postulates that a leader should focus on task performance, team building and development, and assisting individual team members in their development [44]. The skills defining a leader here are reflected in the model of competences 4.0 in its psychosocial dimension. Moreover, this approach is also postulated in the report mentioned above by the McKinsey Global Institute, whose empirical research and findings show the need for the skills mentioned above within competences 4.0 models in the context of Industry 4.0 and with the labor market demands [28]. Moreover, researchers already mentioned, such as [17,32,33], stress the need for interdisciplinarity and personal flexibility, elements of the psychosocial dimension of competences 4.0.

Putting all the threads together so far, we arrive at the following definition of competences 4.0’s psychosocial dimension: effective cooperation within a group, leadership, entrepreneurship, and emotional intelligence, including such soft competences as personal flexibility and interdisciplinarity. However, Pinzone et al. [33] and Leinweber [35] broaden the definition of competences 4.0’s psychosocial dimension, providing the following sets of skills: (1) social competences: intercultural skills, language skills, communication skills, networking skills, ability to work in a team, ability to be compromising and cooperative, and ability to transfer knowledge and leadership skills; (2) personal competences: flexibility, ambiguity tolerance, motivation to learn, ability to work under pressure, sustainable mindset, and compliance. Furthermore, Clavert [36] and Geryk [37] add adaptability and risk-taking to the list of skills or, to be more precise, the constituting elements of competences, needed to overcome the challenges posed by Industry 4.0 from the point of view of the higher education system whose aim is to equip students with new qualifications required for the future labor market. And finally, it is worth mentioning that Stock and Seliger [39] also put social skills at the center of their discussion on future competences, or competences 4.0.

This leads to a final comprehensive list of skills constituting the idea of competences 4.0’s psychosocial dimension as:

• Teamwork;
• Team collaboration;
• Ability to communicate on different levels;
• Interdisciplinarity;
• Leadership;
• Entrepreneurship;
• Flexibility;
• Adaptability;
• Risk-taking;
• Motivation to learn;
• Ability to work under pressure;
• Sustainable mindset.

Some of the elements listed above have already been discussed, and those that still need to, especially adaptability, ability to work under pressure, and sustainable mindset, have been thoroughly researched by Poszytek [46]. In general, the COVID-19 pandemic has proven that these skills are becoming more and more critical during unstable times. Research on the importance of psychosocial competence during the COVID-19 pandemic shows to what extent these skills within the psychosocial domain of competences 4.0 protect project leaders from the ill effects of such a—as described by Taleb [47]—” black swan” as the pandemic. Research proves that out of all pillars of competences 4.0, psychosocial competence provides the most stable platform for sustainability of operations. Consequently, psychosocial competence can be claimed as the most crucial out of all competences 4.0, not only from the theoretical point of view.

Additionally, some aspects of psychosocial competence as an interweaving thread within the concept of competences 4.0 are discussed further in the subsequent parts of this article, especially because some of the elements listed above are treated as elements of cognitive competence by some researchers. Either way, the literature and research show that, in some respects, some of the elements or skills constituting the concepts of psychosocial, cognitive, and metacognitive competences also underlie the definitions of the remaining pillars of competences 4.0, namely linguistic, technical, and digital ones. These intricacies are described below.

5. Competence of Metacognition

Observation of our reality must lead us to conclude that neither countries nor organizations can ever catch up with the runaway reality in their regulatory tasks; there will always be severe delays when responding to change. Likewise, people often fail to follow constant change and adopt various defense mechanisms against change, from ignoring to sabotage techniques. Thus, it is necessary to equip modern people with a particular set of skills that will allow them to assimilate reality as objectively as possible, i.e., self-education; the key enabling factor is metacognition.

Metacognition has been defined by Flavell [48] as knowledge and experience of one’s cognitive processes, or, in other words, as awareness of one’s thought processes and understanding of the patterns behind them. It plays a vital role in learning and education [49]. The term comes from the root word meta, meaning “beyond” or “above”. Metacognition should be distinguished from cognition, as it is a more abstract level of cognitive activity. Cognition is the knowledge structure people use when making judgments or decisions. At the same time, metacognition is defined as a higher-order process that controls such an existing knowledge structure (i.e., cognition [50]). More than 50 years of research have shown that metacognitive abilities are positively related to learning, can be a source of motivation (e.g., self-efficacy, perseverance, autonomy, value, interest), and relate to creativity and creative thinking skills. All these aspects of human capabilities cooccur and interact with self-control and self-assessment, characteristic of metacognition. From the point of view of introducing the idea of Industry 4.0, studies correlating metacognition positively with entrepreneurship and company performance also seem relevant [51,52].

However, the most important reason not to neglect the introduction of knowledge about metacognition in educational processes is that it can improve the application of knowledge, skills, and character traits in spheres beyond the immediate context in which a person has learned a particular strategy. Metacognition can result in the transfer of competences between disciplines and environments to apply them to the challenges encountered effectively. Transfer may also be necessary within a discipline, for example, when a particular knowledge procedure or skill has been learned from one example. Still, people must know how to apply it to another task to continue or complete the work. Knowledge transfer is the goal of adult education because learners are expected to internalize what they learn and apply it to their lives.

One can use metacognitive strategies (planning and organizing, self-reflection, monitoring one’s work, directing one’s learning), but one must initially encounter the underlying knowledge. For decades, we have had available popularizing books introducing us to the findings of science and giving us solutions and prescriptions. Among them, of course, we have a vast number of handbooks of very questionable quality and effectiveness. Still, some publications have become classics for managers and are widely available and commented on in the public space.

One of the landmark books of this century that takes a closer look at the effects of metacognition is Mindset [53]. Author Carol S. Dweck shows how we think about our talents and abilities can tremendously impact success in school, work, sports, the arts, and almost any field of human endeavor. People with a “fixed mindset”—those who believe that abilities are fixed—are less likely to thrive than those with a “growth mindset”—those who believe that skills can be developed. Moreover, Dweck argues that the mindset concept can be extended beyond the individual to the cultures of groups and organizations.

Another example of the metacognitive canon for adults is Daniel H. Pink’s Drive [54]. The author states that the secret to high performance and satisfaction at work (home or school) is the deep human need to direct one’s life, learn, and create new things. Pink analyzes the three elements of true motivation: autonomy, mastery, and purpose—and offers smart and surprising techniques for putting them into practice.

One more book that has pointed us to further metacognitive perspectives is Angela Duckworth’s Grit [55]. Grit combines passion (deep, abiding knowledge of what one wants) and perseverance (hard work and resilience). The book encourages consistency and persistence in a certain direction as conditions for achieving success. Also, it shows how to build an internal “compass” that guides all decisions and actions. Duckworth’s research suggests four “psychological qualities” behind persistence. Each can be developed on its own or with outside help: interest—loving what you do; practice—focusing on improvement no matter what; purpose—a strong belief that personal work matters to the individual and others; and hope—the belief that one can solve one’s problems and overcome challenges. In this view, hope is a virtue; it acts protectively or destructively and determines how an individual reacts to setbacks.

The cited examples of books have contributed to popularizing psychological and sociological knowledge fragments in a way practically accessible to every adult. Publications of this trend have influenced the popularization of such issues on the Internet, where adults at very different career levels seek solutions to their problems and opportunities for development. Training companies, too, are capitalizing on metacognition knowledge and offering many courses containing this kind of content. Many training programs are offered to companies and institutions to improve the competence of their employees. It is important to note that the design of training for adults in their work environment is based on different principles than the design of training for the school and education system, including higher education. In the education system, we want to present a relatively broad context of the issues raised, if the knowledge and skills acquired will be useful in the future, and develop several competences, such as critical thinking. In contrast, adults in the work environment learn to solve a specific problem, preferably here and now. Well-known corporate training designer Cathy Moore, author of Map It [56], directly calls this a programmed and replicated pattern—an “infection” of the traditional learning model.

The development of possibilities arising from metacognition knowledge will continue to grow; researchers are relentlessly optimizing the training of various metacognitive processes [57]. Together with the possibilities of modern technology, this will allow the introduction of adaptive learning [58]—an educational path with predetermined goals/achievements. However, elements of the educational process will be dynamic, such as the pace that adapts to the learner.

6. Linguistic Competences and Language Development

The social nature of language development links language communicative competence with a range of psychosocial, cognitive, and metacognitive competences. Competent language users (including language learners) consciously and reflexively develop the soft skills that allow them to enter social relationships with others [59,60,61]. Language is understood here to support its user’s and learners’ described personal development. Social language learning should be seen as a process of developing linguistic communicative competences that enable linguistic actions of reception, production, interaction, and mediation. It interacts with the development of general competences in terms of the acquisition of declarative knowledge (savoir), the ability to use it in practice, i.e., procedural knowledge (savoir faire), learning skills (savoir apprendre), and self-awareness of personal circumstances (savoir être) [62]. The latter elements constitute the starting point for developing language skills, which often influences and determines how languages are learned and used [60]. The last of the generic competences, savoir être, is a significant determinant of awareness of personal and linguistic development. Combining the cognitive and affective characteristics of individual language users and learners shapes their personality profiles and influences the adopted style of further language development. For contemporary humanist-oriented educational concepts, the personal development of learners and teachers is the goal and determinant of a reflectively oriented educational process. Developing savoir être competences in language classes and courses is an added value that facilitates the individualization of teaching. This development supports the creation of a range of psychosocial (soft) competences that facilitate effective communication in different social and cultural contexts. These include skills to facilitate decision-making and problem-solving (also culturally conditioned), support effective communication and maintaining good interpersonal relations with others, self-awareness and empathy, coping with emotions, and managing stress [63]. At the same time, their development teaches the ability to cooperate with others and places linguistic communicative competence in a broader social context. Self-awareness, one of the basic indicators of personal maturity, assumes, among other things, good knowledge of oneself, honesty towards oneself, openness to the world of inner experiences, and the ability to name one’s feelings. This category, which derives from the concept of humanistic psychology, is a crucial element influencing a person’s capacity for reflection. Intentionally, it supports their agency, providing them with a sense of self-realization and giving deep meaning to the learning effort. In the educational context, the agency facilitator of the experience is the implementation of open-ended forms of education in the form of constructivist-oriented action approaches, ensuring that linguistic activities entangled in the social context are carried out. These actions transfer linguistic development to language users’ and learners’ overall personal development.

Social communicative competence is usually understood as the ability to express and interpret feelings, thoughts, concepts, facts, and opinions orally and in writing. Other determinants of this competence are the willingness to engage in critical and constructive dialogue and the need to use language socially responsibly. These multilingual competences, in turn, define the ability to use different languages effectively for communication purposes. They are based on the mediating capacity between other languages and cultures. A logical consequence of the above assumptions in an educational context has been emphasizing the importance of developing soft skills, integrating the emotional and cognitive dimensions of individuals’ personal development, and linguistic self-realization. Thus, soft skills encompass a range of psychosocial skills interwoven into the reality of communication, on which people build their proficiency and ability to act in different situations [64]. They are a package of transversal skills that support functioning in human teams and learning from each other.

Table 5. Soft competences consider language communicative competence [64,65].

Competences	Description
Action orientation	Demonstrate a determination to achieve their language development goals and strive to undertake and complete tasks despite emerging competency difficulties.
Active listening	The ability to listen attentively and actively to what others have to say. Openness to different culturally conditioned communication styles.
Assertiveness	Ability to express in foreign languages one’s thoughts, feelings, opinions, decisions, and needs in a direct, effective way without violating the other person’s dignity. Accepting criticism; ability to express refusal in foreign languages.
Communicativeness	To be able to express oneself accurately and clearly in foreign languages and to show understanding of the speech of different types of people speaking foreign languages at different levels of proficiency and sophistication.
Conducting presentations	Knowledge of presentation techniques to influence and capture the attention of audiences representing other cultures when speaking in foreign languages.
Coping with stress	Dealing effectively with both sudden emotional tension and long-term strain due to communication difficulties, also culturally determined.
Creativity	Ability to use the creative nature of language production. Generating original linguistic expressions and finding connections between structures of different languages (also using intercom prehension strategies) and being able to use them in multilingual communication.
Dealing with problems	Ability to seek solutions to communication problems, implement solutions, and persevere to achieve the goals originally set.
Emotional control (self-control)	The ability to cope with stress caused by unexpected events and difficult communication situations, causing misunderstandings and culturally unclear situations.
Emotional intelligence	Ability to understand the linguistic expression of one’s own emotions. Ability to linguistically express concern and cultural understanding towards the experienced emotions of others.
Ethics and values	Conducting oneself in accordance with generally accepted universal and local values, norms, and rules. Undertaking linguistic and communicative actions in both easy and difficult situations.
Independence	To be able to work independently to foster the development of linguistic competence to carry out effective communicative activities. Taking personal responsibility for one’s educational successes and failures in the process of language development.
Influencing	Proficiency in influencing the behavior and decisions of language speakers of other cultures.
Leadership	Building authority among speakers of foreign languages that represent other cultures. Ability to inspire and motivate in foreign languages
Making contact	Ability to establish and maintain relationships with representatives of other cultures who speak foreign languages.
Negotiating	Ability to seek compromises and find win–win solutions for negotiating parties representing different cultures.
Organization of own work/self-management	Skillful use of time in the process of one’s own language development. Having the ability to maintain relationships with other learners that foster mutual development of language and communication skills.
Perseverance	Consistency in action aimed at completing learning tasks to support language development. Persistence in expressing one’s linguistic messages despite proficiency and language proficiency gaps.
Personal culture	Knowledge and culturally appropriate application of the rules of savoir vivre.
Readiness to learn	Openness to new linguistic knowledge and new communicative skills and, thus, to tasks that enable them to be acquired and developed. Ability to accept feedback from others.
Relationship building	Ability to establish and maintain good contacts in foreign languages with representatives of other cultures.
Self-confidence	Confidence in oneself and one’s abilities in language and communication activities (also in the context of multilingualism), considering often culturally specific circumstances.
Self-presentation	Ability to build a positive self-image in the eyes of others of different cultures. Understanding the influence of cultural background on ways and styles of self-presentation.
Striving for results	Constantly mobilizing oneself to achieve the tasks and goals set for one’s linguistic development (also considering the multilingual context).
Striving for success	Aiming for success during the process of developing linguistic competence (considering the multilingual context) while making effective use of one’s own available resources.
Teamwork	To be active and committed in supporting activities that foster the mutual team process of developing language and communication competences and to take co-responsibility for the implementation of educational team tasks.

presents a detailed summary of soft skills in the context of social communication skills.

The classification presented in the table, in line with contemporary concepts of language development and language education, integrates aspects related to the acquisition of linguistic competence with the broad context of learners’ personal development. It maps the development of individuals contributing to future societies living in the reality of competences 4.0. Individuals can, thus, be aware of the potential of their soft skills, developed in parallel with linguistic communicative competence in a social context.

7. Technological and Technical (Professional) Competences

Regarding the competences 4.0 presented so far, various model approaches have been presented, suggesting the possible completion of a list of 21st-century human competences based on the following three pillars: digital, social and emotional, and cognitive competences. Competences 4.0 should also be referred to as their core, which are technical and technological (professional) competences. Together with digital competences, they make it possible to name the presented competence model as a competences 4.0 model. Technical and technological competences build a strong foundation of knowledge and skills acquired in vocational schools and technical universities.

To fully develop these competences, a modern person must be versatile and use the full potential of metacognition competences, i.e., have a growth mindset to believe that all necessary skills can be developed. For this purpose, he must also use the full range of psychosocial skills to cooperate on different levels and use all opportunities to increase knowledge and improve skills. To meet the requirements of globalization, work scattered in other countries, e.g., in a company with international branches, cooperate with clients from different cultures around the world, learn about the most valuable sources of knowledge, and increase the chances of self-development, modern man must use multilingual competences. In today’s world, we cannot cut ourselves off from digital competences. During the COVID-19 pandemic, we discovered how important these competences are and how the labor market, forms, and needs of using technical and technological knowledge with the use of remote process control, team management, and remote supervision have changed. Interdisciplinary solutions to the problems of that time had to demonstrate the skills and competences that we describe in this study and call competences (Industry) 4.0. The combined use of all the described competences was practiced in 2018 by PwC, calling it a model of T-shaped competences (see

Table 6. T-shaped competency model according to the European Commission and PwC [66,67].

No.	Competency Area	Description of Competency Categories
1	Technology	Competences relating to the practical application of science, e.g., systems integration, mathematical modeling, and simulation, top–down manufacturing of nanostructures, etc.
2	Quality, risk, and safety	Competence in quality management, risk assessment, crisis management, health, and safety, etc.
3	Management and entrepreneurship	Competences relating to management, administration, intellectual property, and finance.
4	Communication	Interpersonal communication competences, for example, verbal and written communication, presentation, public communication, and online collaboration.
5	Innovation	Ability to create new solutions, solve complex problems, systems thinking and creativity, etc.
6	Emotional intelligence	The ability to deal with one’s own and other people’s emotions, enthusiasm, responsibility, resilience to stress, self-control, decision making, etc.
7	Ethics	The ability to consider the ethical aspects of the impact on society of work and new technologies.

). In 2018, PwC adapted the “T-shaped skills” concept to the IT sector, responding to smart industrial specializations and digital transformation challenges.

This approach combines generic competences (useful in many fields) and specialized competences (in at least one). The European Commission has recognized this concept as leading the analysis of the needs of the developing European economy. It is an inspiring starting point for the analysis of Industry 4.0 in the 2030 perspective.

In terms of the T-shaped model, technical competence comprises a wide range of technologies, defined based on the concept of so-called Key Enabling Technologies (KET, consisting of micro- and nanoelectronics, photonics, nanotechnologies, biotechnologies, advanced materials, and advanced manufacturing systems) and digital skills. Technical competence also consists of research and development skills concerning the following:

• Production technologies—for example, advanced manufacturing technologies, advanced materials and nanotechnologies, and life science technologies;
• Digital technologies, e.g., micro- and nanoelectronics, photonics, and artificial intelligence;
• Cyber-technology—for example, digital security connectivity;
• Digital competences—for example, user skills for digital solutions included in the DigComp Framework;
• Advanced digital competences, e.g., the skills of digital professions, are included in the European e-Competence Framework.

The T-shaped competence model plays a major role in competence concepts for the development of Industry 4.0 in Europe, which has been proposed by the European Commission (Directorate-General for the Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship, and SMEs).

When it comes to preparing for work automation processes, human skills can be divided into the following three basic groups:

• Process-oriented skills—involve physical or repetitive activities in a highly predictable and regulated environment; they are responsible for about half of people’s daily activities (such as building houses, making products, creating documents, processing orders, and accounting procedures);
• Quantitative reasoning skills—requiring intelligence (e.g., linguistic knowledge, problem-solving, logical reasoning, analytical understanding, and programming);
• Cross-functional reasoning skills—mainly relating to social skills and creativity (e.g., making sense of things, managing people, project approach, emotional intelligence, and conflict resolution).

Within this set, the most important elements are the various soft competences, especially within the category of transversal skills, which is understood as a package of the following competences: social, civic, media, communication, interpersonal (self-discipline, self-motivation), critical and innovative thinking skills, group work, etc.

The impact of soft skills on the development of the competences 4.0 model is well illustrated by comparing the seven key skills of the 21st century, the five key skills of Skills 4.0, and the skills important to the Industry 4.0 worker (Figure 1).

Digital competences can be said to correspond to competences 4.0 (

Table 7. Components of digital competences interrelated with competences 4.0.

No.	Components of Digital Competences
1	Knowledge
2	Technical and functional skills
3	Proactive, openly approving attitudes toward the digital world
4	Intrapersonal skills
5	Media knowledge and skills
6	Social skills
7	Interpersonal skills

) and are a package of the following interrelated competences:

• Functional and professional (IT) digital skills and knowledge;
• Social skills, for example, problem-solving skills and leadership;
• Intrapersonal skills, for example, learning, self-discipline, perseverance, self-motivation, and critical thinking;
• Interpersonal skills, for example, communication, organization, and teamwork;
• Media skills, for example, critical analysis and evaluation of information;
• Attitudes that are proactive and accepting of the digital world—open to being active in this domain.

The concept of Industry 4.0 implies the integration of the traditional manufacturing environment with the virtual world of the Internet, digital technologies, the human worker environment and, thus, competences beyond the technical digital competences hitherto considered core.

The qualifications and skills of an Industry 4.0 worker are shown in

Table 8. Qualifications and skills of an Industry 4.0 worker according to Aulbur et al. [68].

Group	Qualifications and Skills
Knowledge of information and communication technologies	a. Basic knowledge of IT; b. Ability to use and interact with computers and intelligent machines (e.g., robots); c. Understanding machine-to-machine communication, data protection, and cybersecurity.
Ability to work with data	a. Ability to process and analyze data received from machines; b. Understanding of visual data entry and decision-making processes; c. Basic knowledge of statistics.
Technical know-how	a. Interdisciplinary and genetic knowledge of technologies; b. Specialized knowledge of factory operations and processes; c. Technical know-how about machines, necessary for their operation.
Personal skills	a. Adaptability in the workplace and readiness for change. b. Decision-making skills; c. Communication competence; d. Ability to work as part of a team; e. Ability to change thinking under the influence of learning.

, and the Engineering (professional) Competences of the Future Engineer 3.0 and Engineer 4.0 are shown in

Table 9. Competences of Engineers now and in the future according to Gracel et al. [69].

Engineer 3.0

Engineer 4.0

A logical, analytical, and systematic person who works according to procedures. He has an innate need to get things done correctly and focus on issues rather than people. He can cooperate with people, but in a team he knows. Does not like change and new situations. Works in a calm manner, deliberate from start to finish, and has the ability to see things through to the end. He is a very attentive, polite, organized, predictable, and methodical person.

An open-minded and active person who enjoys variety both in terms of his interactions with peopleand tasks performed. He or she has the ability to communicate very technical and detailed information to others with enthusiasm and optimism and, in doing so, inspires positive feelings in the listener towards the ideas he or she is sharing. Has a high attention to detail and strives for perfection. Ensures quality of work and adherence to standards. Adheres to policies and procedures.

.

In the European Union, the following set of competences has been adopted as key competences 4.0 of the Industry 4.0 worker:

• Communication in the mother tongue;
• Communication in foreign languages;
• Mathematical competence;
• Basic competences in science and technology;
• Learning to learn;
• Social and civic competences;
• Initiative (creativity) and entrepreneurship;
• Cultural awareness and expression.

On the contrary, distinguishing between four areas and five levels of proficiency in these areas, the following were identified as key workforce competences:

• Use of technology;
• Connecting with others;
• Access to information and its organization and presentation;
• Risk management.

In 2017, a European Parliament report recognized that digital skills include:

• Technical competence, that is, a range from basic to advanced skills that enable the use of digital technologies (digital knowledge);
• The cognitive, emotional, and social competences needed to use them [70].

As has been shown, the technical and technological competences of a modern Engineer 4.0 or, in other words, a human with 4.0 competences, cannot exist separately from different competences indicated in the proposed model because they are their base and the most systematized part of knowledge in the field of vocational and field education.

8. Digital Competences

Digital competences complement all the competences described so far. They constitute a determinant of modernity and transform the existing industrialized society to a new level of development: the digital society.

As defined by the Recommendations of the European Council 2018, “Digital competence involves the critical and responsible use of and interest in digital technologies for learning, work, and participation in society” [62]. The European Commission developed the European Digital Competence Framework for Citizens, a tool for developing citizen digital competences. In the 21st century, every digitally competent person should be fluent in five thematic areas: information and data, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, security, and problem-solving. Digital competence is one element of the eight key competences and refers to the informed and critical use of the whole range of digital technologies. Today, digital competences, along with basic competences such as reading, writing, mathematical, and language skills, constitute a set of fundamental skills for the modern human being.

Digital competences include:

• Digital competences (IT competences), that is, the ability to use a computer and other electrical devices to use the Internet, applications, and software;
• Information competences—consisting of the ability to search for information, understand it, and select and evaluate it critically;
• Functional competences—using the above in different spheres of everyday life, such as finances, work, professional development, relationships, health, hobbies, civic engagement, spiritual life, etc.

Technological progress triggers the need to be skilled in using modern computer equipment, which means that every person in the future will need a wide range of skills and competences. The shaping of digital competences implemented as early as the preschool education stage will create an opportunity to level the playing field and bridge the divide between those “able” and those “unable” to use modern technologies.

The spread of digitalization has increased the demand for digital skills in the labor market in recent years, especially during COVID-19.

The Action Plan for Digital Education (2021–2027), adopted on 30 September 2020, is a renewed European Union (EU) policy initiative that sets out a shared vision for high-quality, inclusive, and accessible digital education in Europe [71]. The action plan adopted by the EU is a call for greater cooperation at the European level on digital education. It aims to support adapting Member States’ education and training systems to the digital age. It is a certain set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

Digital competences include, among others, the following:

• Information and data literacy;
• Communication and collaboration;
• Media literacy;
• Ability to create digital content (including programming);
• Security, including digital comfort and cybersecurity competences;
• Intellectual property issues;
• Problem-solving;
• Critical thinking.

According to Eurostat, approximately 54% of the population of the 27 EU countries aged 16 to 74 have at least basic digital competences [72]. Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania are the EU countries where digital capabilities are less widespread and require a large contribution, especially toward the digitalization of society.

To sustain the development of societies to be sustainable, the European Union and the governments of individual countries have launched programs for digital growth. For example, the Digital Competences Development Program until 2030 (PRKC) was launched in Poland. The program aims to continuously increase digital competences by allowing everyone in Poland to develop them according to their needs. The development of highly specialized digital competences, such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, and cybersecurity, is particularly desirable, recognizing these digital competences as the most strategic ones.

9. Findings and Conclusions

As the discussion shows, it is quite challenging to define what competences 4.0 are. The literature review shows that, in the context of Industry 4.0, some models of competences 4.0 have been created and discussed. However, these models are rather general, based on the assumption that the skills they represent are needed in the labor market, which is becoming increasingly defined by the trends within the fourth industrial revolution. Yet, while making a thorough analysis of subsequent components of the so-called competences 4.0, the whole matrix of these competences, together with their constituting elements such as skills or subskills, represents a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon, especially considering that the needs of the labor market during the fourth industrial revolution may differ depending on the social or professional context. In most cases, such thorough analyses are carried out with isolated perspectives of competences 4.0 by researchers representing different scientific disciplines such as pedagogy, sociology, linguistics, management, economy, etc. This causes and poses challenges to unifying the approach in defining competences 4.0 since these researchers sometimes use different matrixes, approaches, and terminology in their analyses. When it comes to the basic concept of competences 4.0, there is a consensus that it means three areas: digital, social, and cognitive competences. However, when it comes to a more detailed picture, the whole phenomenon of competences 4.0 seems vast, multilayered, and difficult to grasp within one comprehensive model. But still, the bibliometric analysis in [38] proves that whatever the competences 4.0 model, most scientific discussions focus on the social and cognitive aspects of competences, not to mention digital ones. Considering the above research and considering all these intricacies, a certain compromise in presenting competences 4.0 can be achieved, and it may look like that which is presented in

Table 10. Competences 4.0 and related skills.

Competences 4.0	Skills
Psychosocial and linguistic	Effective cooperation within a group, leadership, entrepreneurship, flexibility, ability to adapt and cope with stress, interdisciplinarity, communication, and communication in a foreign language.
Metacognitive	Ability to learn, creative thinking, solve complex problems, self-reflection, monitor one’s work, and have an open mindset.
Technological, technical, and digital	Media literacy, information, data literacy, ability to process data, create digital content, cybersecurity skills, understanding data protection, and ability to use and communicate with computers and intelligent machines.

:

The compromise mentioned above means that the presented model is not work-oriented, and its level of generalization allows it to be used for various purposes and contexts.

This article emphasizes the importance of reexamining competences 4.0 and collaborating with researchers from various fields. The study has addressed a research gap by conducting a mapping exercise and has demonstrated the possibility of creating a consistent model of competences 4.0. Furthermore, the article gives a useful overview in its literature review on essential competences to implement in Industry 4.0. Ultimately, this work stresses the importance of involving researchers from various disciplines and lays the groundwork for further research in this developing area.

Limitations and Future Research

The current state of competences 4.0 needs a clearer and more comprehensive model encompassing all aspects and contexts. Existing models often lack specificity and do not fully capture this topic’s complex and multifaceted nature. Researchers from different disciplines approach the subject using different matrices, approaches, and terminology, resulting in a lack of unified definitions of competences 4.0. Furthermore, the needs of the labor market during the fourth industrial revolution may differ according to social or professional contexts, further complicating the analysis and definition of competences 4.0. Thus, there is a pressing need for a more detailed and comprehensive model that considers the various elements and contexts of competences 4.0.

To comprehensively understand competences 4.0, a detailed and universal model must be developed through interdisciplinary collaboration. Although Poszytek’s [46] model serves as a sound point of departure, research from various perspectives must be carried out to fully grasp these competences’ nuances. Examining both the positive and negative aspects of human resources in the context of Industry 4.0, including identifying enablers and roadblocks associated with technological advancements, is essential. Building on the existing knowledge base, future research can contribute to an even more sophisticated understanding of competences 4.0 and their implications for the fourth industrial revolution.