Assessment of Carbon Footprint Negative Effects for Nature in International Traveling

Abstract

Human travels are considered the biggest source of carbon dioxide emissions, and climate change is considered the most important part of this problem. On the other hand, the tourism sector is one of the sectors that facilitates intense human mobility and travel. The aim of this research is to estimate the carbon footprint of aircraft and road transportation due to international and domestic touristic trips to Marrakech/Morocco between 2010 and 2018. In this research, the preferred means of transportation and the distances traveled by the tourists who visited Marrakech/Morocco between 2010 and 2018 were used as a data set. Carbon footprint calculations were made according to each transportation vehicle preference. The total carbon footprint was calculated at the same time. In general, the average 9-year carbon footprint of touristic trips to Morocco from different parts of the world has been found to be 7148.90 tons in total. The per capita carbon footprint of all visitors from different countries of the world has been determined as 0.416 kg. However, tourism, due to its transport intensity, particularly air transport, is a growing source of greenhouse gas emissions. It should be taken into account in the definition of climate policies following the Paris Agreement.

1. Introduction

Tourism is a major social and economic phenomenon which characterizes the development of contemporary society [1,2,3]. However, tourism activity brings strong economic gains in terms of wealth creation, job generation and territorial enhancement [4,5,6]. Its impact on the respect of cultural and natural heritage also poses serious problems [7,8]. Tourism is also called upon for its capacity to share cultural values and diversity, as well as to make natural and cultural heritage known and recognized. When you know regions, traditions, people, it is easier to become attached to them and want to protect them [9,10]. On the one hand, tourism development promotes regional economic growth, but on the other hand, due to high-energy consumption, the impact of such development also leads to environmental deterioration in the context of global warming, and it also violates the rights of citizens to a clean and safe environment [11].

However, the consequences of tourism activities such as the destruction of intact ecosystems, the deterioration of the physical environment and the disturbance of wildlife to the environment are well known [12,13]. The travel industry contributes to anthropogenic climate change insofar as it involves the consumption of goods and services that require the use of fossil fuels both during the journey and at the destination. This consumption results in greenhouse gas emissions, and their direct and indirect environmental impacts continue to be pervasive [14,15,16,17]. At the same time, climatic changes, sometimes with catastrophic consequences, can be observed, including floods and periods of drought. Increasingly effective technical means make it possible to identify the causes [18].

International tourism is benefiting from an entrenchment in the mindset and a stronger understanding in development discourses and policies [19,20,21]. The policies carried out by the states put more emphasis on international tourism, leaving the promotion of local tourism to local actors [22]. Very often, the interest of states in domestic tourism is limited to periods of crisis insofar as it constitutes a windfall that makes it possible to compensate for the decrease in international tourist flows [23]. However, the general closure of borders in the spring of 2020 has raised many expectations of domestic tourism, both cyclical and structural, with some even hoping that the situation will put an end to international overtourism.

Is the opposition between the two forms of tourism not fundamentally relevant? While some protagonists argue that, on the contrary, domestic and international tourism feed off each other both during and outside the crisis period. In fact, the consequences of this evolution were already visible before the crisis since, according to some observers, domestic tourism was developing “more rapidly than international tourism” [24]. The fact that the COVID-19 crisis has given rise to so many debates on the future of tourism—its necessary revolution, according to some—confirms that, in many cases, tourism crises form sounding boards for ongoing reflection [25].

It would also be interesting to look more closely at the behavior of tourists, which can vary in time, between an international tourist, who is more constrained in his travels, and a domestic tourist, who can more easily modify his trip. This question, which is still largely unexplored, deserves to be explored further, for example by addressing specific cases in order to qualify the statements. In the same vein, it would also be valuable to look more closely at the choice of practical arrangements such as means of transport for tourism purposes, whether by air, road or sea.

Literature Review

The global air transport sector, the main mode of transport in international tourism, has been undergoing several profound changes, including the introduction of liberalization of operations and services. However, more competition means more aircraft used and therefore more pollution. CO₂ contributes to the greenhouse effect, which is the cause of the much-publicized climate disturbances. It should be noted that the global air transport industry is responsible for only 3.5% of all emissions. An air passenger emits far more greenhouse gas emissions per kilometer traveled (191 g CO₂/km) than a passenger traveling by car (143 g/km), train (47 g/km) or bus (31 g/km) [26]. Nevertheless, no form of air transport can be considered environmentally friendly, as they all require the burning of fossil fuels. Moreover, aircraft emit many harmful gases whose effects are four times more damaging than at ground level.

The growth of the travel industry remains one of the greatest challenges for sustainable tourism. In particular, air travel is expected to double or triple in the next few years. At the same time, there is clearly a considerable difference between the ecological footprint of a stay in a five-star, coal-fired hotel and that of a similar hotel powered by geothermal energy [27,28]. Similarly, a visit to a museum will generally have a smaller impact than a trip on a motorboat.

In this context, tourism as a productive and civic system is faced with existential questions in terms of the strategic choices to be made in order to reduce the industry’s impact on the environment and meet the conditions of sustainability. The choice between domestic tourism and international tourism, mass tourism and niche tourism, luxury hotels and affordable hotels sometimes is impossible.

In a more circumscribed way, this study focuses on the case of Marrakech, the leading tourist destination in Morocco. Based on the destination’s performance in terms of arrivals and their origins, by country, overnight stays and average length of stay, an analysis will be made of the destination’s carbon footprint in order to produce an ecological portrait of the destination. This analysis will put into perspective the appropriateness of the strategic choices made.

Gössling et al. [29] debate tourism is not necessarily better for the environment than other economic activities, as the tourism industry claims. Studies conducted by researchers have shown large differences in ecological efficiency, which depend on the countries of origin and destination, the culture of the tourists and the environment chosen for the vacation (e.g., mountainous, urban, etc.). According to scientists, to create one unit of financial value in the Seychelles, the combined CO₂ equivalent (eqv.) emissions are seven times higher than the benefits from tourism activities.

When talking about the development of tourism, especially international tourism, we should draw the public’s attention to the realization of the individual’s right to a safe and healthy environment. While debating the concept of a clean environment, scholars and lawyers have examined the relationship between human rights in general and the right to a clean environment from different positions. For example, Knox considered the challenges Costa Rica faces in implementing human rights related to environmental protection [30]. Gonzalez analyzes the relationship between environmental justice and human rights [31]. Dogaru states that the right to a clean environment is a fundamental and natural human right [32]. The right to a clean environment, understood as the relationship between the environment and a person, should help regulate individual rights and the opportunity to live in a clean and safe environment [33]. The rapid increase in harmful waste amount and the huge emission of carbon dioxide pose a serious threat to the environment. The last decades have changed the priorities of the business and tourism sectors, which have turned their attention to the conservation of natural resources and environmental protection in order to ensure the right of individuals to a safe and healthy environment [34]. These problems, while ensuring the rights of individuals to a clean environment, can be partially overcome by green motives, which create a solid basis for the implementation of green business strategies [35]. Green business strategies refer to strategies that are interested in the safety and protection of the environment. These ecologically based strategies are concerned with the provision of environmentally safe and sustainable production and services over time [36]. An increasing number of business sectors are also actively adopting green strategies, following the green moral motive of business toward environmental protection [37,38]. Under Thibault, all sports sectors have a negative influence on the environment, but at the same time, there are positive steps seeking the reducing of these negative environmental impacts [39]. Sports plays an important social role as it attracts attention from all segments of society. Arguably, all stakeholders in sports, including athletes, fans and managers, accept the negative effects of the environment and try to take responsibility for solving this problem [40].

One of the main requirements for ensuring human health and the right to a safe and clean environment is clean air. Human rights and safe environment norms are powerful tools in the fight against air pollution and its health effects [41]. The dependence of human rights on environmental quality is recognized both nationally and internationally. One of the main international legal documents ensuring the right of individuals to a clean environment is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which emphasizes the rights of individuals to a clean environment [42]. In this context, we should also mention the importance of the Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment [43] as well as the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development [44], which emphasizes the human right to a “healthy and fulfilling life in harmony with nature”. The Rio Declaration is closely related to the Stockholm Declaration and is a key piece of environmental legislation. The Rio Declaration emphasizes that people have the right to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature [45].

The human right to a clean environment is also emphasized in the Maastricht Treaty. The preamble to the EU Treaty states that Member States “shall promote the economic and social development of their peoples in order to promote greater cohesion and environmental protection” [46]. It is also important to mention the Kyoto Protocol, which aims to reduce the greenhouse effect by limiting CO₂ emissions [44]. A person’s right to a clean environment is also highlighted in the Treaty of Amsterdam. When analyzing international environmental documents, attention should be also paid to the importance of the Aarhus Convention [47]. In summary, the aim of legal instruments is to ensure the implementation of persons’ rights in solving the environmental challenges and ensuring the right to a clean environment. This area remains problematic in both national and international law. In such a situation, the question arises as to whether the implementation of legal norms can be strengthened in the tourism sector.

This research, which is limited to the Marrakech region of Morocco, is especially important in terms of revealing the environmental impacts of traveling within the scope of tourism activities. This research, which focuses on the carbon footprint of tourism and travel, can be considered as a starting point for further studies. More comprehensive and large-scale studies involving different countries can be conducted. In addition, this study was limited to the peak years of tourist travel in Morocco. Therefore, comparative results can be obtained by conducting studies covering different periods.

The aim of this research is to calculate the carbon footprint of transportation due to touristic trips to Marrakech/Morocco from different parts of the world between 2010 and 2018. For this purpose, we hypothesized that the amount of carbon dioxide from travel mainly depends on the travel distances of tourists and the types of vehicles they prefer, and their trajectories to and within the destination. In this article, we assume that the international tourism segment puts a lot of emphasis on the ecological sustainability of destinations, hence their interest in opting for local tourism. For this purpose, answers were sought to the following research questions: what is the total and per capita carbon footprint according to the transportation means preferred by the tourists visiting Marrakech/Morocco between 2010 and 2018?

2. Materials and Methods

The novelty of methodologies for calculating carbon footprints lies in their innovative approaches to accurately measure and assess greenhouse gas emissions associated with various activities or entities. Novel methodologies take advantage of technological advancements, such as remote sensing, satellite imagery, and advanced data analytics, to gather more precise and real-time data on emissions. This improves the accuracy of carbon footprint calculations and helps identify emission hotspots. Different sectors (e.g., agriculture, transportation, energy) have unique emission profiles, and novel methodologies tailor calculations to specific industries. This customization enhances the relevance and applicability of carbon footprint assessments, enabling targeted reduction strategies. In summary, the novelty of methodologies for calculating carbon footprints lies in their integrative, technologically-driven, and sector-specific approaches. By incorporating a broader range of emissions sources and considering the social and economic impacts, these methodologies provide a more accurate, actionable, and holistic understanding of an entity’s carbon footprint.

2.1. Data Set and Compilation of Data

In this research, the preferred means of transportation and the distances traveled by the tourists who visited Marrakech/Morocco between 2010 and 2018 were used as a data set. According to data from the Moroccan National Tourist Office, the peak period for tourist trips to Morocco was between 2010 and 2018. The Moroccan researchers obtained the data from the tourism office, which records the country’s tourism data. Depending on the protocols of the Moroccan Ministry of Tourism and the airlines, the travel information compiled for the given year was reported directly by the airlines to the Ministry of Tourism. The data set was obtained from the relevant ministry. However, the ministry also records all travel distances within Morocco. The obtained data were confirmed by the researchers and recalculations were made.

The data were made available thanks to the archiving work carried out by the relevant ministry. The data package includes the number of tourists visiting Marrakech/Morocco in the relevant years, the type of vehicle used by these tourists and the distances they have traveled [48]. The data on the number of tourists visiting Marrakech/Morocco between 2010 and 2018 are presented in

Table 1. Number of total tourists by continent (2010–2018).

Indicator	Continents	Number of Tourists
Total Number of Tourists	Europe	8,825,957
	USA	423,077
	North Africa and Arabic’s	501,884
	Asia	1,816,764
	Local Residence	5,596,739
Total	17,164,421

Source: authors’ calculations based on Eurostat [49] and FAOSTAT [50] data, 2022.

below:

During the relevant dates, tourists came to Marrakech/Morocco from many different points of the world, especially from the European continent. It is also known that local people living in Marrakech/Morocco make touristic travels. It is seen that a total of 17,164,421 people made touristic trips in the specified date range [48].

The second step of the data collection process of the research is to calculate the distance traveled by the tourists. In this process, the data include from which countries and airports the tourists entering the country come from. All information on which vehicle type they traveled within the borders of Morocco during their holidays was obtained from the Ministry of Tourism [48]. The researchers determined all distances covered by vehicle type. It was confirmed on “Google maps”, and a double-sided check was made. In order to eliminate the uncertainties regarding the preferred vehicle type and the distances covered during the data compilation process, the preferred vehicle type for travel and the journeys made within the borders of Morocco were confirmed by the Ministry of Tourism.

The data obtained from the Ministry of Tourism were verified and the researchers via “Google maps” recalculated all distances. In addition, the “mile” unit of measurement for distances traveled by plane has been converted to kilometer. Compiling the data set and making it ready for analysis consists of four steps. In the first step, the distance between the airport in the country where the visitors come from and the Morocco/Marrakech airport was calculated. In the second step, the distance between the Marrakech airport and the hotel they stayed in was calculated according to the preferred vehicle type. In the third step, the distance traveled in the hotel and Marrakech area was calculated for the preferred vehicle type. In the last step, the total distances traveled for both the airway and land route were calculated. The distances traveled by tourists between 2010 and 2018 and the types of vehicles they prefer are presented in detail in the

Table 2. Travel distances between different continents and Marrakesh/Morocco (2010–2018).

Indicators	Continents	Airplane (km)	Intercity Bus (km)	Inner City Bus (km)
2010–2018 Total Distance	Europe	35,343,576	141,498	69,165
	USA	267,048	86,661	40,878
	North Africa and Arabic’s	367,902	153,612	48,924
	Asia	411,750	42,174	57,186
	Local Residence	-	114,039	58,104
	Total	36,390,276	537,984	174,257
Final Total Distance	37,102,517

Source: authors’ calculations based on Eurostat [49] and FAOSTAT [50] data, 2022.

.

Due to the international nature of the travels to Marrakech/Morocco, it is seen that the number of travels by air is quite high. As a matter of fact, 36,390,276 km (98.08%) of the total trips of 37,102,517 km were made by plane. It is understandable that air transportation is preferred intensively due to the arrival of tourists from many different parts of the world. The remaining 712,241 km is the distance traveled by the tourists for their intra-city and inter-city travels within the borders of Morocco. Buses covered these distances.

2.2. Analyzing Data and Calculating Carbon Footprint

In line with the data obtained from the Moroccan Ministry of Tourism, primarily the emission factors of the airplanes and city buses, which are preferred for travel, were used in the analysis of the data set and the calculation of the carbon footprint. The carbon emission factors of these frequently preferred vehicles express the CO₂ equivalent emissions that occur when a person travels a distance of 1 km with this transportation vehicle. The emission factors used in the calculation were taken from the report of emission values for vehicles published by the Federal Environment Agency of the German Government [51].

Emission factors by vehicle include direct emissions as well as emissions from carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (methane and nitrous oxide etc.) converted to CO₂ eqv. In the report published by the German Federal Environment Agency, emission factors according to vehicle types are presented in the image below [51] (Figure 1).

The travel-related average carbon footprint of tourists coming to Marrakech/Morocco between 2010 and 2018 was calculated using the formula developed by Wicker and arranged by the researchers in accordance with the purpose of the study. The formula used is given below [51]:

$$\begin{gathered} CF=\left\{\sum _i\left[{\left(InternationalTravel\right)}_i\ast {Emission}_i\right]+\sum _j\left[{\left(Inter-cityDistance\right)}_j\ast {Emission}_j\right] \\ +\sum _k\left[{\left(AroundtheCityDistance\right)}_k\ast {Emission}_k\right]\right\} \end{gathered}$$

(1)

Of the formula that was used in the study to calculate the average carbon footprint of travelers, i refers to the international travel distance; j refers to the distance between the hotel and other cities where is visited by tourist in Marrakesh/Morocco; k refers to the distance around the city and hotel.

In the carbon footprint calculation process, firstly, the carbon emission values of the aircraft were multiplied by the airline transport distances and the carbon footprint caused by air travel was calculated.

Then, for the carbon footprint calculation of the journeys made from airport to hotel, the carbon footprint calculation was made by multiplying the distance traveled by the carbon emission values of the buses.

Then, carbon footprint calculation was made by multiplying the carbon emission value of the buses with the distances traveled for the trips made to different cities and in the city within the borders of Marrakech, and the total amount of carbon footprint was calculated. Finally, the average carbon footprint per person was calculated by dividing the total distance traveled by the total number of visitors.

3. Results

In this part of the research, in the first step, the total and per capita carbon footprint calculations due to touristic trips from different parts of the world to Marrakech/Morocco are presented depending on the research questions (

Table 3. Estimated total carbon footprint (t/CO₂ eqv.) by transportation preference (in 2010–2018).

Indicators	Continents	Plane CF	Inter-City Bus CF	Inner-City Bus CF	Total CF
2010–2018 Total CF	Europe	6927.34	4.24494	5.11821	6936.70
	USA	52.38	2.59857	3.02491	58.00
	North Africa and Arabic’s	52.11	4.60836	3.62034	60.33
	Asia	80.64	1.26522	4.23171	86.14
	Local Residence	-	3.42117	4.29966	7.72
Final Total CF		7112.47	16.13	20.29	7148.90

Source: authors’ calculations based on Eurostat [49] and FAOSTAT [50] data, 2022.

and

Table 4. Estimated per person carbon footprint (kg/CO₂ eqv.) depend on traveling.

Indicators	Visitors by Continents	Europe CF	USA CF	North Africa and Arabic’s CF	Asia CF	Local Residence CF	Total CF
2010–2018 per person Total CF	Europe	0.786
	USA		0.137
	North Africa and Arabic’s			0.120
	Asia				0.047
	Local Residence					0.0013
Final Total per person	Total Number of Visitors Around the World						0.416

Source: authors’ calculations based on Eurostat [49] and FAOSTAT [50] data, 2022.

).

In the table above, carbon footprint amounts resulting from travels from countries on different continents to Marrakech/Morocco are presented according to vehicle types. While carbon footprint calculations were made according to each transportation vehicle preference, the total carbon footprint was calculated at the same time. Accordingly, the average 9-year carbon footprint resulting from travels from European countries is 6939.70 tons; the average carbon footprint resulting from travels from the Americas is 58.00 tons; The average carbon footprint resulting from travels from North Africa and Arab countries is 60.33 tons; and the carbon footprint resulting from travels from Asia was calculated as 86.14 tons on average. In addition, the 9-year carbon footprint resulting from the travels of local tourists within the country was calculated as 7.72 tons on average. In general, the average 9-year carbon footprint of touristic trips to Morocco from different parts of the world has been found to be 7148.90 tons in total.

In the table above, the average per capita carbon footprint amounts due to travels from countries on different continents to Morocco are presented. While the carbon footprint calculations per person of the trips from each different continent are made, the total carbon footprint calculation per person is also presented.

Accordingly, the average 9-year carbon footprint per person of visitors from the European continent is 0.786 kg. The carbon footprint of visitors from the Americas is 0.137 kg. The carbon footprint of visitors from the North African continent and Arab countries is 0.120 kg. The carbon footprint of visitors from the Asian continent is 0.047 kg; per capita carbon footprint is calculated as 0.0013 kg depending on the travels of local tourists within the country. Finally, the 9-year average per capita carbon footprint of all visitors from different countries of the world has been determined as 0.416 kg.

4. Discussion

The tourism sector has become one of the priority issues of governments, depending on its growth potential. It is considered as an important source of income especially for developing countries. The Moroccan government has also focused on this issue and made tourism an economic priority [52]. Over the last 20 years, few tourist destinations in the world have built up a success story as rapid as that of Marrakech: so much so that the “Morocco destination” is often confused with that of “Marrakech”. Behind this feat lies a political will and commitment to make tourism a locomotive for the country’s development. The city has an extremely rich and varied tourist heritage. In addition to the world-famous exceptional sites, the Atlas Mountains, Marrakech has one of the greatest varieties of fauna and flora in the world. This richness has been weakened by a policy of mass tourism aimed at favoring segments of tourism that bring economic added value to the detriment of the local and global environmental balance.

Long considered as the poor relation of tourism in Marrakech, national tourism is only talked about in times of crisis in international tourism. It intervenes as an essential element of the anti-crisis plans and has been granted, during the last two decades, a relative importance, as much by those in charge of tourism as by private tourist operators. The recovery of international tourism often relegates domestic tourism to second place. This means that tourism has always been assimilated, in the minds of Moroccans, and even in those of certain officials and professionals, to an activity, or rather to a practice reserved for foreign tourists, while marginalizing the local populations. This spirit is nourished by a traditional culture in conflict with an exogenous economic development system.

This article has the merit of highlighting the need for Marrakech to encourage tourism operators to adopt sustainable tourism, to commit themselves to ecology and environmental protection in order to bring additional production and to form assets for better marketing in an increasingly competitive context. However, very interesting initiatives are currently being developed in the field of urban and rural tourism with the enhancement of local products. The creation of designations of origin, and the development of cooperative ventures that will help pave the way for a more ecological and sustainable tourism with a search for quality and diversity (more natural, organic and environmentally friendly products).

Tourism activities also make a significant contribution to CO₂ emissions (roughly 8% of the world’s carbon emissions). It is estimated that by 2035, emissions from tourism will more than double. Therefore, the need to achieve more sustainable tourism remains essential if the sector is to achieve international climate action targets [53]. The development and implementation of sustainable tourism policies are an effective response to global environmental and sustainable development challenges. However, the current sustainable tourism policy is often economic-growth oriented, which has theoretical differences with sustainable development [54].

Due to the industry’s goal to boost demand for travel and the insatiable demand for travel, the tourism sector confronts a significant challenge in lowering GHG emissions; thus, academics, businesses, and decision-makers are working to create theories and measures for gauging environmental sustainability [55]. Kennedy et al. [56] point out the importance of indicating an awareness of the growing necessity for comprehensive stakeholder involvement. Tourism is one of the fastest-growing sectors in the world. However, this growth comes with ecological threats. At the beginning of this record, there are traces of carbon footprints originating from tourism. It is estimated that tourism will constitute an increasing part of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions due to high carbon emissions and developments. It can be said that the global carbon footprint of tourism increased from 3.9 to 4.5 tons CO₂ between 2009 and 2013, which is four times higher than previously estimated and accounts for about 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions.

The most important carbon sources of this process are transportation, shopping and accommodation. Especially emission reductions at various scales of tourism are a long-standing challenge to decarbonization, as the global tourism system has consistently grown in its energy intensity and overall contribution to climate change [57]. In the research on the carbon footprint of the tourism sector in Spain, significant risks were found in the tourism sector, especially related to transportation. However, it has been concluded that environmentally friendly tendencies are also insufficient [58]. Although technology has developed, 81% of energy needs are still met from fossil resources. Fossil fuel resources are the basis of the global climate change problem [59]. Almost all 95% of the energy required for transportation is obtained from fossil energy sources. Therefore, carbon emissions arising from transportation constitute approximately 20% of global greenhouse gases.

Among the transportation preferences, the road preference makes up 70% of the emissions, 12% of the airways, 11% of the sea lines and 2% of the railway lines [60]. Therefore, the ever-increasing amount of carbon footprint due to transportation preferences raises concerns [61]. In addition, research conducted by the International Energy Agency reveals that among transportation preferences, the road choice is the most carbon footprint source [62,63]. All kinds of applications and travel reasons that affect fuel consumption in the transportation sector affect the amount of carbon footprint and climate change [64].

In a study conducted by Rico et al. (2019), the carbon footprint of Barcelona tourism activities was measured. According to the results of the research, the total carbon footprint was calculated as 9.6 million tons; 95.6% of this footprint is due to travel, and especially air travel is considered an important source of carbon emissions [65]. According to Shapr et al., in the research on the carbon footprint of touristic trips to Iceland, the carbon footprint of an average tourist visiting Iceland was calculated as 1350 kg. Under the results of the research, the most important carbon footprint source is intercontinental flights [66]. In the research conducted by Laroche et al., the carbon footprint resulting from touristic travels within the borders of the European Union between 2010 and 2018 was calculated as 139 million tons on average. A carbon footprint of 70 million tons on average in local travels and 69 million tons in international travels emerges [67].

Calculating the carbon footprint related to traveling in tourism is of great importance for low-carbon tourism. Heilongjiang Province’s total tourism carbon footprint has increased 2.97 times, from 5.926 million tons in 2009 to 21.13 million tons in 2018, with the per capita tourism carbon footprint increasing from 53.9 to 116.0 kg [68]. Not only must the government play a leading role in implementing the low-carbon transformation of the tourism sector, but it must also excel at directing visitors toward low-carbon consumption and raising their understanding of this issue. In particular, “multiple airlines” have the capacity to carry cargo and passengers between certain distances and directions [69,70]. As Cao et al. noticed, it is important to fully exploit the role that travel agencies play in tying people together, put low-carbon travel policies into practice, create low-carbon brands for tourism cities, and ensure that low-carbon travel ideas are ingrained in people’s minds [49]. In the research conducted by Sun et al. in Norway, the contribution of the tourism sector to carbon emissions was calculated as approximately 9% as of 2019, and it was stated that there was an increase in emissions. However, it is stated that touristic travels are responsible for 80% of the carbon emissions in tourism [50].

Better ways to precisely measure emissions and monitor progress toward attaining emission reduction targets are required in light of the paucity of comprehensive studies on the emissions of national tourism and its subsectors. As Steiger et al. [71] argue, there is a lot of research on the climate risk subject that evaluates changes in climatic conditions for tourism using, for example, indices, but there are comparably few studies that look at how these changes affect demand and the local–regional tourism system. Higher quality natural resources and more sustainable benefits for tourist-dependent regional economies can both be gained through a decarbonized and better-prepared tourism sector.

5. Conclusions

The aim of the study, which is limited to the Marrakech region of Morocco, therefore provides a vision of possible developments in the issue of tourist numbers in an international context of CO₂ emissions mitigation and explores the means of adaptation available to destinations in the context of more restrictive climate policies.

The carbon footprint calculations were made according to each transportation vehicle preference, and the total carbon footprint was calculated at the same time. Accordingly, the average 9-year carbon footprint resulting from travels from European countries is 6939.70 tons. The average carbon footprint resulting from travels from the Americas is 58.00 tons. The average carbon footprint resulting from travels from North Africa and Arab countries is 60.33 tons. The carbon footprint resulting from travels from Asia was calculated as 86.14 tons on average. In addition, the 9-year carbon footprint resulting from the travels of local tourists within the country was calculated as 7.72 tons on average. In general, the average 9-year carbon footprint of touristic trips to Morocco from different parts of the world has been found to be 7148.90 tons in total.

Accordingly, the average 9-year carbon footprint per person of visitors from the European continent is 0.786 kg. The carbon footprint of visitors from the Americas is 0.137 kg. The carbon footprint of visitors from the North African continent and Arab countries is 0.120 kg. The carbon footprint of visitors from the Asian continent is 0.047 kg; per capita carbon footprint is calculated as 0.0013 kg depending on the travels of local tourists within the country. Finally, the 9-year average per capita carbon foot-print of all visitors from different countries of the world has been determined as 0.416 kg.

One of the levers for reducing CO₂ emissions in a context of increasing flows is to limit the use of air transport. It is therefore necessary to look at the distribution of flows between the different modes of transport, air, road and other modes. To do this, we need to reinvent tourism based on the need to travel differently, and a shift toward slow tourism and proximity tourism is becoming increasingly important. Like slow food, slow tourism aims to combine respect for the environment (in this case, the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from tourist transport), preservation of local specificities and pleasure (of traveling). This combination of ethics and hedonism is attractive.

In this context, tourism by residents seems to be the segment with the most lenient impact on the planet. However, tourism by Moroccans remains very poorly known because the statistics focus primarily on international visitor arrivals, which are a source of foreign currency. The economic development and the relative reduction in inequalities over the last twenty years have nevertheless allowed access to tourist mobility for a growing part of the Moroccan population.

However, tourism, due to its transport intensity, particularly air transport, is a growing source of greenhouse gas emissions. It should be taken into account in the definition of climate policies following the Paris Agreement. In this respect, the situation in Morocco illustrates—without being representative, given the diversity of situations—the case of emerging countries, whose access to mass tourism will constitute the bulk of the sector’s growth in the future.

Tourism is becoming a mass phenomenon among the Moroccan population, but we do not have, as in the rich countries, sufficiently long statistical series which would allow us to quantify the trends; the changes nevertheless appear significant even over half a decade. Although it can be expected to experience ups and downs linked to a changing economic context, tourism by Moroccans is already on a very upward slope which implies a significant change in its greenhouse gas emissions in the future.

It is seen that traveling by plane is inevitable in reaching Morocco due to its geography. Morocco, which attracts tourists from all over the world, can also be considered as a destination where environmental risks are constantly on the agenda with its tourism potential. It is essential to carry out information and awareness-raising activities especially against environmental risks. In addition, cooperation should be made between the institutions in Morocco, and the necessary importance should be given to awareness raising activities. Environmental concerns should also be taken into consideration while carrying out studies to increase Morocco’s tourism potential. In addition, the following measures should be taken in general to reduce carbon emissions from traveling within the scope of tourism activities:

• Use electric vehicles (EVs): If you own a car, consider switching to an electric vehicle. EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions and can significantly reduce your carbon footprint. Additionally, the expanding network of charging stations makes EVs a more viable option for many people.
• Plan and combine trips efficiently: Plan your trips to minimize the number of separate journeys. Combine multiple errands or appointments into one trip to reduce overall mileage and emissions.
• Fly less, choose alternative options: Air travel has a substantial carbon footprint. Whenever possible, consider alternative modes of transportation such as trains or buses for shorter distances. If long-haul flights are necessary, explore options for carbon offset programs to mitigate the emissions.
• Practice eco-driving: When driving, adopt eco-driving techniques such as maintaining a steady speed, avoiding rapid acceleration and braking, and reducing unnecessary idling. These practices can improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions.
• Support and use renewable fuels: If you have limited transportation alternatives and need to use a vehicle, choose renewable fuel options like biofuels or renewable natural gas, which have lower carbon emissions compared to conventional fossil fuels.
• Consider eco-tourism: When planning vacations or trips, choose destinations and accommodations that prioritize sustainability and environmental conservation. Look for certifications such as Green Globe or LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) to ensure your travel supports eco-friendly practices.
• Raise awareness and educate others: Spread awareness about the impact of travel emissions and the importance of reducing them. Encourage friends, family, and colleagues to adopt sustainable travel practices and make informed choices when it comes to transportation. Remember, reducing emissions from travel requires a collective effort. By implementing these suggestions and encouraging others to do the same, we can contribute to a greener and more sustainable future.