Design Principles for Sustainable Leadership Learning: A Complex Analysis of Learner Experiences

Abstract

Many institutions of higher education claim to produce leaders and many assume that graduating from a university equates to someone naturally growing in their ability to lead. Developing leaders is considered a worthwhile endeavor in society today and developing a leadership identity is considered foundational to leadership development in college. While colleges and universities purport to develop leaders, little is known about how best to help students develop sustainable leadership learning. Utilizing design-based research, this study examined the learning experiences of college students in three different semesters of a personal leadership course through their reflections about course activities designed to help them develop their leadership identity. Using network maps from student reflections, we analyzed the complexity of learner experiences and developed a set of design principles anchored in the relationships between learning experiences concerning strengths, weaknesses, and theoretical foundations. The following design principles emerged from this study: framing for authentic learning, scaffolding for learner agency, social and collaborative learning, and multimodal engagement. By using these principles in designing leadership experiences, college leadership educators will be empowered to create opportunities that are sustainable and inclusive and that promote lifelong learning in regard to students’ authentic and personal leadership development practices.

1. Introduction

The development of leaders through higher education is of importance and interest to institutions of higher learning [1]. Consequently, in a survey of American adults, 70 percent felt strongly that a core function of all colleges and universities should be to develop students as leaders [1]. America is also experiencing a lack of trust in its leaders, especially elected officials, business leaders, and media [2]. The college years are prime for students to experience leadership growth as this is the time when personal identity has much potential for being influenced. This period of “emerging adulthood” as coined by developmental psychologists is a time where individuals are more open and flexible in their thinking, which gives them greater opportunities to develop emotional and social skills [3].

While we know that leadership development should occur in college and most colleges and universities claim to develop students as leaders, little is known about how activities in college actually develop leadership in students [1]. The development of a leadership identity is considered foundational to individuals cultivating further leadership competencies and behaviors. Leadership identity has also been identified as “…probably the most important aspect of leader…development” [4] (p. 154). A leadership identity encompasses self-confidence in leading as well as an awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses as a leader. Individuals should first believe they can lead before they will take advantage of opportunities to practice leadership, receive feedback on their leadership, and engage in leadership development experiences. University courses in leadership have the potential to help students develop their leadership identity and to develop into leaders who are authentic and can be trusted by others. Furthermore, leadership learning should be an empowering process and provide individuals with opportunities to increase their leadership capacity and help one another discover their leadership identities [5]. Creating learning challenges and helping individuals build self-knowledge and critical thinking skills are also believed to be important for a leadership program to be effective [6].

Scholars contend that leadership is important for sustainability work [7]. Preparing and developing sustainability leaders to lead change efforts in their communities are vital for sustainability education to be successful [8]. There is a need to examine leadership learning experiences that lead to sustainable leadership learning that will help students develop their leadership identity so they can lead authentically and make an impact as a leader when they graduate in their respective communities. Understanding the experiences of students who are enrolled in leadership courses can help those who teach leadership in university settings to design course experiences that maximize their learning and thus make their learning sustainable. The purpose of this study was to examine the learning experiences of students enrolled in a personal leadership course to determine design principles for creating learning experiences that lead to sustainable leadership learning for college students. To develop sustainable leadership learning experiences, more is needed about the leadership development process and how leadership identity occurs over time [5]. Scant literature exists regarding the development of sustainable leadership learning; however, some literature exists regarding pedagogies that impact students’ learning about leadership for sustainability. Research from a graduate course revealed that community building, peer learning, and experiential case-in-point learning focusing on emotions and reflection were impactful for sustainable learning about leadership for sustainability [9]. Pedagogies used in teaching leadership in general are limited, but in a study of 836 leadership educators and 13 exemplary leadership educators, the following pedagogies were identified as most used by the best leadership educators in teaching leadership: discussion-based instructional strategies, group work, and reflection [10].

1.1. Conceptual Framework

The leadership identity development (LID) model [11,12] was developed as a framework for understanding factors that impact the leadership identity development of college students. Leadership identity is defined as a social identity where individuals are collaborative and relational leaders who are interdependently engaging in leadership as a group process [12,13]. These factors include developmental influences such as personal experiences and education; individual factors like personal traits, values, skills, and abilities; group influences including group dynamics and organizational culture; views of the self that include an individual’s self-perception and self-understanding; and views of leadership that involve an individual’s understanding and conceptualization of leadership. The LID model can be a valuable tool for making the leadership curricular design process more intentional.

1.2. Theoretical Framework

A framework of learning theories integrated with an identity theory was used to ground the design of the learning activities we investigated in this study. Principles derived from these theories were also used to analyze the data. We started with situated learning theory, which defines learning as a social and participatory process within the context of a community of practice [14]. Learning is inherently social, taking place through participation in a community of practice where learners engage with experienced practitioners. Through this interaction, novices gradually develop their skills and knowledge, becoming full members of the community. Situated learning theory also argues that learning is context-dependent, and that knowledge and skills are best developed when they are learned in authentic, real-world contexts, where they can be applied and practiced. Furthermore, situated learning theory sees learning as not only about developing knowledge and skills, but also about developing an identity as a member of a community of practice. This process of identity formation is integral to the situated learning theory, as it recognizes that learning is a transformational experience that shapes who we are and how we relate to others [15].

To further understand the identity development aspect of learning, we integrated transformative learning theory into our framework. Transformative learning theory defines learning as deep, structural shifts in an individual’s beliefs, values, and worldviews [16]. This theory emphasizes that learning is not only about developing new knowledge or skills but also about fundamentally changing the way a person understands and interprets their experiences. Learning begins when a learner experiences challenges to their previously held beliefs, values, or assumptions. This can be triggered through critical reflection, which requires the learner to question and examine assumptions. Engaging in open and honest dialogue with others is an essential aspect of transformative learning. This discourse allows learners to share their experiences, compare perspectives, and negotiate new understandings, leading to the development of new insights and perspectives. The ultimate goal of transformative learning is a shift in the individual’s perspective, where they adopt a more inclusive, integrated, and critically reflective worldview [17]. This transformation can result in significant changes in the individual’s attitudes, behaviors, and relationships, and requires that learners apply their new perspectives in real-life contexts.

One aspect of situated learning theory is an emphasis on identity development [18], which we explored further through the use of the Dynamic Systems Model of Role Identity (DSMRI). This theoretical framework defines identity and identity development as complex, nonlinear, and dynamic processes influenced by multiple factors [19]. It offers a holistic, expansive, and integrative perspective on how identities emerge, develop, and change over time. Although there are many aspects of the complex system of identity, the prominent features include purposes and goals, epistemic and ontological assumptions, self-definitions, perceived action possibilities, and emotions. Identity development is characterized by nonlinearity, which means that it does not follow a simple, predictable trajectory. Instead, it involves periods of stability, instability, and transformation, reflecting the complex interplay of various factors that shape identity over time. Identity development can be influenced by perturbations, which are events or experiences that disrupt the system’s stability. In response to these perturbations, the identity system may undergo bifurcations, or branching points, leading to the emergence of new identity patterns. DSMRI emphasizes the role of self-organization in identity development, suggesting that new identity patterns emerge from the complex interaction of the system’s components rather than external direction or control. This process highlights the adaptive and flexible nature of identity development in response to changing circumstances and experiences.

From situated learning theory, we derived the design principles of engaging students in a community of practice, facilitating the development of relationships within the community, and developing identity within the discipline. Design principles from transformative learning theory included reflection, questioning assumptions, cognitive dissonance, transformation of habits, and transformation of beliefs and assumptions. From DSMRI, the design principles included changes in purposes and goals, changes in self-perception, the exploration of action possibilities, exploration of emotions related to identity, and changes in reality, knowledge, and beliefs.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was conducted in a 300-level, large (approximately 100 students per semester) personal leadership course within the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications (ALEC) at Texas A&M University. The undergraduate students in this study completed the course in person and participated in course content alongside one another in learning communities, the group they sit with in class. Each iteration of this research evaluated a new semester of undergraduate leadership students. This study examined iterations from Spring 2021, Spring 2022, and Spring 2023. The ALEC Department served 795 students as of Fall 2022.

This study utilized a design-based research design [20] and the data collected were analyzed using a learning experience network analysis [21] approach. The benefits of utilizing such a design methodology include a comprehensive understanding of the vast experiences of students in the design thinking assignments. Such research designs introduce some obstacles, including time, as this project took place over three years.

This study involved 564 documents from 185 students across three years. In the first iteration, Spring 2021, 47 students participated in research and 158 documents were collected in total. In the second iteration, Spring 2022, 48 students participated in research and 141 documents were collected in total. A total of 264 documents were collected from 90 students in the third iteration, Spring 2023. To identify this population, the researcher team used a purposive sample, as the students enrolled in this course were the focus of the implementation of the design thinking concepts. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study.

Students in a personal leadership course completed assignments centered around the book Designing Your Life: How to Build a Well-Lived, Joyful Life [22]. The data collected for this study consisted of weekly student reflections and a final reflection, gathered after each major phase of these assignments. These reflective questions prompted students to contemplate their struggles and successes during each stage and how these experiences relate to their current and future academic, professional, and personal lives. Qualitative data from the reflection papers were systematically coded in an emergent coding approach by using MAXQDA Analytics Pro. Our analysis of the coded reflections centered on three key aspects: student weaknesses, strengths, and the alignment of learner experiences with the underlying theoretical principles of the course design. Following the completion of coding, we computed code co-occurrence correlations to generate a symmetrical correlation matrix, which we used as a basis for network analysis. To visualize the intricate relationships within the matrix, we produced network maps by examining the correlations at p < 0.001, p < 0.01, and p < 0.05 significance levels. We then applied the Girvan–Newman cluster analysis method [23] and adjusted the node sizes on the map according to their betweenness centrality values. Utilizing these network maps, we developed a set of design moves anchored in the relationships between learning experiences concerning strengths, weaknesses, and theoretical foundations. Future iterations of the learning experiences in these courses will be improved and guided by these design moves.

3. Results

We created network maps of data from the Spring 2021, Spring 2022, and Spring 2023 iterations, with nodes representing codes for student struggles, aspects of the design that worked particularly well, and the alignment of learner experiences with principles from the theoretical framework.

3.1. Findings: Spring 2021 Iteration

From the Spring 2021 data, a network map of correlations at p < 0.01 was constructed with six Girvan–Newman clusters at Q = 0.584 (see Figure 1).

In the red cluster, students faced challenges like logistics, stepping out of their comfort zone, and COVID-19 restrictions. These students benefited from instructional support, assignment lengths, and hands-on activities. For these students, the DSMRI principle of changes in purposes and goals was important.

Some students (black cluster) had personal and interpersonal problems including idea generation, time management, networking, and communicating to form connections. There were no aspects of the project that worked particularly well for these students. These students’ experiences aligned with the DSMRI theory principle of changes in self-perception and the situated learning theory principle of developing identity in the discipline. Their experiences also aligned with the transformative learning theory principles of the transformation of habits and transformation of beliefs and assumptions.

In the gray cluster, students struggled with reading, writing, technology, and self-reflection. The structured templates and participation in the learning community were strengths of their experiences. Their experience aligned with the transformative learning principles of questioning assumptions (their own, and of others), reflection, and cognitive dissonance. Their experiences also aligned with the situated learning theory principles of participation in a community and developing relationships within the community.

Some students (green cluster) struggled with instructions, scheduling, and formatting. What worked particularly well for these students was learning from others outside the class and having guidance on interview questions. Their experiences did not align with any principles from theory.

The pink and blue clusters were small, so we did not work with these for crafting design moves.

The design moves from the analysis of Spring 2021 course data focused on scaffolding and support, collaboration and community building, and motivation and engagement. Providing clear rubrics, instructions and previous students’ examples will aid in scaffolding and support. Facilitating discussion within learning communities and encouraging peer assistance promote collaboration and community building. Students’ motivation and engagement can be enhanced by sharing past students’ success stories and emphasizing reading the course books and other resources.

3.2. Findings: Spring 2022 Iteration

The Girvan–Newman analysis produced a semantic network map of conceptual elements and practices that correlated at the p < 0.01 level in the Spring 2022 iteration, including six clusters at Q = 0.482 (see Figure 2).

In the green cluster, we found that students struggled personally, facing issues such as identifying a specific context, indecisiveness, and feelings of uncertainty about their future careers. These students found the design and presentation of course material helpful. Their experiences did not align with any principles from theory.

In the blue cluster, students struggled with wanting more examples and samples and wanting changes to the assignment structure and timing. They benefited from examples, the focus of the course (topics, outcomes), and the hands-on nature of the activities. Their experiences were aligned with the situated learning theory principle of developing relationships in the community.

For the red cluster, students struggled with interview questions, page count requirements, wanting to change the interview assignment parameters, stepping outside their comfort zones, overthinking things, and interpersonal communication. What worked for these students was the guidance on interview questions, learning from others outside of the class, and the timing of assignments. Their experiences aligned with the DSMRI theory principles of changes in self-perception, changes in perceived action possibilities, and changes in beliefs.

In the black cluster, students struggled with unclear instructions, personal-inner-self challenges, lack of interest, developing purpose, knowledge work, and assignment length. Instructional support was a strength of students’ experiences. Their learning experiences were aligned with the transformative learning theory principles of questioning assumptions, cognitive dissonance, and transformation of beliefs, assumptions, and habits. Their experiences also aligned with the situated learning theory principle of participating in a community of practice.

In the pink cluster, there were only struggles, including issues with logistics, time management, and connecting with others.

Based on our findings from Spring 2022, design moves were developed based on strengths students identified and learning theory principles to address struggles in each cluster. First, we emphasized collaborative learning through creating opportunities for the facilitated sharing, discussing, and brainstorming of ideas for assignments, both before and after these assignments were completed. This was implemented to expand the process of envisioning one’s future life from beyond individual, isolated exploration to include group reflection and peer feedback. Second, we focused on reflection, adapting one assignment by dividing a large portfolio into two parts, the documentation of interviews, and learning experience reflection to foster students’ agency, autonomy, and authority.

3.3. Findings: Spring 2023 Iteration

The Girvan–Newman analysis produced a semantic network map of conceptual elements and practices that correlated at the p < 0.001 level in the Spring 2023 iteration, including five clusters at Q = 0.482 (see Figure 3).

In the blue cluster, we found that students faced personal challenges with their inner self, writing, understanding, comprehension, and overthinking, and faced the interpersonal struggles of communication and connections. We found strengths within students’ experiences including personal and/or development strengths, insights, strengths related to others, and instructions. Personal and/or development strengths of their experiences were goals and discipline development, empathy and awareness of others’ development, developing self-awareness, exploration of personal meaning tied to career, growth, and family, exploring their own values, aligning their work and life view, exploring their life purpose, and personal and professional conduct development. Strengths of students’ experiences included social, societal, priority balancing, and motivational insights. The strengths of students’ experiences related to others were individuals in their groups, relating to one another, building relationships with others, learning from somebody outside of the classroom, improving their interpersonal communication, and learning from the unique perspectives of others. Students benefited from their experiences related to the assignment instruction aspects, which included the hands-on nature of the activity, instructional support, course and assignments topics, outcomes, focus, prompted reflection, readings, and the overall experience of the life plan. Students’ experiences aligned with theory principles of DSMRI, transformative learning, and situated learning. Participating and developing relationships in the community within situated learning were aligned with students’ experiences. Self-reflection, the transformation of habits, the transformation of beliefs and/or assumptions, questioning one’s own assumptions, and questioning the assumptions of others within transformative learning were aligned with students’ experiences. From DMSRI, the principle of identity exploration was aligned with students’ experiences.

In the black cluster, we found that students benefited from discussions on assignments, from exploring various potential careers, from providing examples, and from opportunities to share ideas and information. Students also benefited from aspects of the instructions, such as clear directions, rubrics with detailed expectations, and fostering individual creativity. Students faced personal challenges in networking connections and developing their life purpose, and struggled with wanting a portion of the assignment to foster more realistic ideas, instead of imagining unlimited possibilities. Students experienced issues with logistics including prioritization, balance, and time management. The experiences of students in the black cluster aligned with a principle of situated learning theory, developing identity in the context of the discipline.

In the red cluster, we found that students benefited from instructions that were supported by reading and resources. The students also benefited from the timing-length of the assignment. Students faced personal challenges such as meeting assignment requirements, citations, style, APA, and wanting to have a deeper understanding. Students also struggled with the time allotted for the assignment, completing the Workview/Lifeview reflection in class, and stepping out of their comfort zone. The experiences of students in the black cluster aligned with several dynamic system models of role identities including changes in self perception, changes in purposes and goals, and changes in exploring perceived possibilities.

In the gray cluster, we noticed that students benefited from the interview questions. Students faced personal challenges such as reading. The students wanted guidance on crafting questions; they wanted to change instructional support, assignments and new aspects, and course readings; and they wanted examples and samples. The students also struggled with understanding instructions and having a better format with more structure. They also felt that specific questions were not useful and wanted to change interview assignment parameters. The experience that the students faced did not align with any theories.

In the pink cluster, we found that students were able to develop resilience, grit, and perseverance as well as develop and explore strengths. The students also benefited from disciplinary learning. Students faced interpersonal challenges such as personal extraneous issues. They also struggled personally by choosing context, narrowing ideas, and background.

Design moves from the Spring 2023 iteration focused more on the interpersonal learning aspects as well as helping students develop more authenticity in their life plans. One move specifically related to having students partner with another student to discuss their views of work and life to facilitate exploration of meaning alongside peers. Another move was centered around a class discussion about the societal perceptions of job roles to bring awareness and understanding about the influences on one’s life path direction. Another design move was created that focuses on creativity and life purpose. This design move involves an in-class activity that guides students into reflecting about their dreams in earlier stages of their life by allowing them to use different modes of engagement including drawing pictures. The final design move focuses on adding resources and steps within assignments to better help students navigate through the assignments on their own.

Building upon the framework of design moves presented in Section 3, we discuss here how these principles relate to established theory and models. Since individuals are complex creatures, we recognize that theory should guide and not prescribe leadership educators’ work with students. These design principles are empirically grounded ideas and thoughts that will hopefully spur some creative application of the principles.

3.4. Framework of Design Principles for Sustainable Leadership Learning Design

Analysis of the design moves across all iterations led to the formulation of four learning design principles for sustainable leadership learning design that promotes sustainability mindsets and ways of knowing. We categorized all 41 proposed design moves and analyzed the relationships between these design moves (see Figure 4).

3.4.1. Principle 1: Framing for Authentic Learning

In order for Designing Your Life [16,22] concepts to be implemented successfully, students must be provided with adequate support. The purpose of activities should be framed to go beyond transactional learning, particularly with authentic real-world engagement through interviews. Reframing students’ view of learning allows students to be more successful both inside and outside of the classroom. Instructors should engage students in exploring the “why” behind assignments, and to do so using the principles from transformative learning theory including reflection, questioning assumptions, cognitive dissonance, transformation of habits, and transformation of beliefs and assumptions [11,12]. Doing so allows students to engage and explore the meaning behind assignments, which helps students go beyond transactional learning and become active participants in their education. The concepts presented in Designing Your Life [16,22] are often new and uncomfortable to students who are exploring them for the first time. Instructors should provide support for students by creating opportunities for them to experience productive struggles and cognitive dissonance. This principle aligns with the “view of leadership” category in the LID model. As leadership educators encourage students to question assumptions, reflect, and transform their habits and beliefs, they are helping them develop a more nuanced and authentic understanding of leadership. By doing this, students can also move from a positional view of leadership to understanding leadership as a process that can be enacted by anyone in a group.

3.4.2. Principle 2: Scaffolding for Learner Agency

This study found that student learning was enhanced when instructors provided students with activities and assignments that gradually increased their agency. Students reported that instructions for assignments should be clear and concise and provide clear expectations for students. This aligns with the DSMRI principles of the exploration of action possibilities and changes in self-perception [14,15]. Some ways to provide structure include offering structured templates for assignments, detailed rubrics, and interactive assignment trackers to help students track their progress in the course. Activities should have relevant grade values assigned to them to provide accountability for students. This principle relates to the “individual factors” and “developmental components” categories in the LID model. Leadership educators should structure assignments to gradually increase learners’ agency and, by doing so, will support their individual leadership development and help them progress through the stages of the LID model. Scaffolding aligns with the LID model as each of the stages builds on the previous stage [5,6,7].

3.4.3. Principle 3: Social and Collaborative Learning

Our study found that learning from others helps students be successful. This aligns with the situated learning theory principles of engaging students in a community of practice, facilitating the development of relationships within the community, and developing identity within the discipline [9,10]. Regular interaction with small groups was especially helpful in facilitating meaningful learning. The small group interactions provided a safe space to explore before committing ideas to paper. They also provided a space for peer support. These learning communities leverage students’ experiences and allow for reflection and idea sharing. The principle of “social and collaborative learning” aligns with the “group factors” category of the LID model.

3.4.4. Principle 4: Multimodal Engagement

Interpersonal engagement between instructors, students, and peers was an integral part of students’ learning experience. This aligns with the situated learning theory principles of engaging students in a community of practice, facilitating the development of relationships within the community, and developing identity within the discipline [9,10]. The principle of “multimodal engagement” involves facilitating interpersonal engagement among students. By doing this, leadership educators are helping students develop a deeper understanding of their own leadership identity and how they interact with others in a leadership context. Multimodal engagement can support students in progressing through the LID stages as they move toward seeing themselves as leaders and integrating leadership into their identity.

4. Discussion

The present study delved into the learning experiences of students in a personal leadership education course, aiming to establish design principles that can aid educators in structuring leadership courses for sustainable leadership learning. The scarcity of research in the domain of sustainable leadership learning provided the impetus for this investigation, with a focus on exploring the effective pedagogies and strategies conducive to learning.

This study contributes to the evolving landscape of sustainable leadership learning research. It builds upon prior studies related to leadership pedagogy and underscores the significance of emotions, reflection, case-based learning, peer interaction, community building, and group work as impactful pedagogical approaches for leadership education.

This study aligns with and reinforces the evidence that these pedagogies play a pivotal role in nurturing sustainable leadership skills among students.

This study recognized the complex nature of learning through the use of learning network analysis to map the learning experiences of students to create design principles that foster and facilitate sustainable leadership learning for college students. By drawing upon multiple learning theories and models—situated learning theory, transformational learning theory, DSMRI, and LID—this provided a comprehensive framework from which to develop the design principles. This integration enabled the creation of design moves that resonated with learners’ strengths while incorporating established learning science theories. The inclusion of theoretical underpinnings led to the refinement of design moves, ultimately enhancing the learning experience.

The theoretical principles of situated learning, transformational learning, DSMRI, and conceptual foundations of the LID model were found to be apparent in some of the instructional strategies and activities in the course where this study took place. Based on these theoretical foundations and practical considerations for leadership educators, we would recommend some things leadership educators should include if they want to develop sustainable leadership learning in their courses. The first one is that courses should be designed in a way that allows students to interact and collaborate with their peers to foster meaningful learning.

Drawing upon the theoretical foundations and practical insights garnered from this study, several recommendations emerge for educators seeking to foster sustainable leadership learning:

• Peer interaction and Collaboration: Designing assignments and courses that foster meaningful peer interaction and collaboration will contribute to a conducive learning environment.
• Scaffolded assignments: Structuring assignments and course pacing to gradually enhance students’ agency while providing clear expectations can facilitate deeper engagement and understanding.
• Social and Collaborative Learning: Embracing an approach that encourages social and collaborative learning aligns with the tenets of the LID model and nurtures the development of leadership identity in a group context.
• Multimedia Integration: Incorporating multimedia elements, such as videos, Zoom meetings, and asynchronous discussions, diversifies engagement levels and enriches students’ participation.
• Real-World Engagement: Integrating real-world examples, guest speakers, mock interviews, and case studies bolsters students’ practical exposure and application of leadership concepts.

5. Conclusions

This research makes several important contributions to research on sustainable leadership education and designing learning experiences. First, it provides empirical support for the application of several theories including situated learning theory, transformational learning theory, DSMRI, and the LID model as frameworks for designing leadership courses. Because the design principles from our study are grounded in established learning theories and models, this demonstrates their relevance and utility for leadership education.

Second, the use of learning experience network analysis enabled us to complete a nuanced examination of the complex interrelationships between students’ struggles, strengths, theoretical principles, and effective design moves. The methodology captured the nonlinear, dynamic nature of learning and identity development. And the network maps provide visual representations of the complex associations.

Third, the iterative-design-based research approach allowed researchers to respond and adapt to the course design over multiple semesters. Each iteration built upon the previous one to progressively enhance the learning experience. This data-driven process resulted in a robust set of design principles for sustainable leadership learning.

There are some limitations to acknowledge in this study. Our data were derived from a single leadership course at one university over three semesters. Additional research is needed to determine if these findings generalize to other contexts. Longitudinal data following students beyond the course could provide insight into the sustained impact of the learning experiences. Also, direct measures of leadership identity development would strengthen the connections between design principles and outcomes.

A limitation in regard to the methodology is that the data for this study relied solely on students’ written reflections. Interviewing students about their experiences may capture deeper, more nuanced perceptions. The network analysis relied on subjective interpretation in cluster analysis and formulation of the design principles. Future studies using mixed methods could enhance the validity of this research.

Other future research could apply the design principles to different leadership courses and educational settings. Comparative studies of courses with and without these principles could further test their efficacy. Quantitative measures could also be developed to assess the relationships hypothesized in this study. Additionally, other learning theories and frameworks could be integrated into the design process. Ultimately, leadership education research should continue to link theory, design, and data through iterative cycles to create ideal, sustainable leadership learning experiences.