The Effect of Benevolent Leadership on Job Engagement through Psychological Safety and Workplace Friendship Prevalence in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry

Abstract

This study examines how job engagement (JE) is affected by benevolent leadership (BL). This study also explores psychological safety (PS) and workplace friendship (WF) as mediators. Data were collected from employees working in Egypt’s five-star hotels and category (A) travel agencies. There were 320 valid responses that were analyzed using PLS-SEM. The findings demonstrated that there is a positive relationship between benevolent leadership and job engagement. There were positive relationships between benevolent leadership and PS/WF. The findings also revealed a positive relationship between PS/WF and job engagement. In addition, the findings revealed that psychological safety and workplace friendship mediate the relationship between BL and JE. This research contributes to the studies on BL, PS, and WF in terms of JE, specifically in the hospitality and tourism context. It also includes suggestions for enhancing the workplace environment in hotel and tourism enterprises via BL, PS, and WF.

1. Introduction

The tourism and hospitality industry is renowned for its fast-moving and dynamic character, demanding employees to navigate a multitude of obstacles while delivering exceptional customer experiences [1]. Within this setting, adept leadership assumes a crucial role in fostering a constructive workplace atmosphere and improving employee results [2]. Job engagement pertains to the degree of emotional commitment and devotion that employees exhibit toward their tasks, ultimately contributing to heightened levels of performance and overall well-being [3]. In the tourism and hospitality industry, job engagement holds particular significance, as employees directly interact with customers and play a crucial role in delivering exceptional experiences [4]. Engaged employees are more likely to exhibit greater commitment, motivation, and performance, resulting in enhanced customer satisfaction and loyalty. Consequently, comprehending the factors that influence job engagement is essential for organizations operating in this industry [5,6].

In recent years, one leadership style that has gained attention is benevolent leadership. Benevolent leaders demonstrate genuine concern for the well-being of their employees, offer support, and cultivate positive relationships [7,8]. This leadership approach is associated with favorable employee outcomes, including increased job engagement, satisfaction, and productivity [9,10]. Leaders who adopt a benevolent approach prioritize employee well-being, provide support, and establish a positive work environment. This leadership style is linked to positive outcomes such as enhanced job satisfaction and organizational commitment [11,12]. Leadership styles that emphasize values, respect, dignified treatment, and support contribute to employee well-being and organizational sustainability [13]. Through its four components—spiritual depth, ethical sensitivity, positive engagement, and community responsiveness—benevolent leadership may support the long-term viability and sustainability of organizations [8]. Benevolent leadership is also connected to organizational citizenship behavior and is one of the main criteria for sustainable organizational growth, which contributes to an organization’s long-term competitive advantage [14].

By examining the impact of benevolent leadership on job engagement, valuable insights into effective leadership practices can be gained [15]. Benevolent leadership also fosters psychological safety, which refers to employees’ perception of a secure work environment for taking interpersonal risks, enabling them to freely express ideas, concerns, and opinions without fear of negative consequences [15,16]. Furthermore, this leadership style promotes the prevalence of workplace friendships, which pertains to the extent of friendly relationships among colleagues within the organization [11,12].

Furthermore, psychological safety encompasses individuals’ belief in their work environment, where they feel secure to express their thoughts, opinions, and ideas without fear of negative consequences [17,18]. When employees perceive their work environment as psychologically safe, they are more likely to actively engage, take risks, and contribute their best efforts [18]. Psychological safety acts as a mediator through which benevolent leadership influences job engagement, playing a pivotal role in fostering a supportive work environment, particularly in high-pressure situations and customer interactions [19,20,21]. When employees perceive psychological safety, they are more inclined to take risks, share ideas, and engage in collaborative problem-solving, ultimately leading to higher levels of job engagement [22].

Similarly, workplace friendships significantly impact employee engagement and well-being. In situations where teamwork and cooperation are critical, the presence of positive workplace friendships contributes to a cohesive and supportive work environment [23]. When employees experience a prevalence of workplace friendships, they feel a sense of belonging, social support, and camaraderie, which can enhance their job satisfaction and overall engagement [24].

However, our understanding of the underlying mechanisms by which benevolent leadership influences employee engagement in the tourism and hospitality industry remains limited [25,26]. The previous research on benevolent leadership, job engagement, psychological safety, and workplace friendship prevalence predominantly focused on various industries, with a lack of studies specifically addressing these concepts within the context of the tourism and hospitality sector [11,15,25,27]. Additionally, while previous studies separately examined the impact of benevolent leadership, psychological safety, workplace friendship prevalence, and job engagement, there is a scarcity of research that integrates these factors within a single study, particularly within the tourism and hospitality field.

Undertaking research that examines the combined impact of these factors can yield a more comprehensive understanding of their interplay and influence on employee engagement in the tourism and hospitality sector. This study posits that benevolent leadership positively affects job engagement, and this association is mediated by psychological safety and workplace friendship prevalence. This research aims to uncover the underlying mechanisms through which benevolent leadership influences employee engagement and highlights the importance of psychological safety and workplace friendships within the tourism and hospitality industry. Thus, this study intends to explore the relationship between benevolent leadership and job engagement in the tourism and hospitality field, specifically focusing on the mediating role of psychological safety and the prevalence of workplace friendships, as illustrated in Figure 1.

The practical implications of this research hold significant value for organizations seeking to enhance job engagement. Gaining an understanding of the positive influence of benevolent leadership, psychological safety, and workplace friendships can assist organizations in developing leadership training programs, cultivating a supportive work environment, and fostering positive relationships among employees. Ultimately, these endeavors can contribute to increased job engagement, employee satisfaction, and overall organizational success. By exploring these interconnected factors, this study aims to provide valuable insights into how the implementation of benevolent leadership practices contributes to creating a conducive work environment that enhances job engagement and promotes employee well-being. Understanding these dynamics can have implications for organizations aiming to improve employee engagement and overall performance in the fast-paced and customer-focused tourism and hospitality industry.

2. Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

2.1. Social Exchange Theory

The relationships among benevolent leadership, psychological safety, workplace friendships, and job engagement can be examined through the framework of Social Exchange Theory [28,29,30]. Social Exchange Theory posits that individuals engage in social relationships based on an exchange of resources, such as support, trust, and cooperation. Benevolent leadership can be seen as a positive manifestation of social exchanges between leaders and employees [31,32]. Benevolent leaders offer support, care, and encouragement, creating a favorable environment for social exchange that leads to positive employee outcomes, including job engagement [33]. Psychological safety and workplace friendships can be viewed as valuable resources exchanged within the workplace that have an impact on job engagement [34]. Benevolent leadership plays a crucial role in fostering psychological safety by creating an environment where employees feel supported, valued, and respected. When employees perceive their leaders as benevolent, they are more likely to experience psychological safety, which subsequently enhances their level of job engagement [35,36]. This sense of psychological safety enables employees to feel comfortable taking risks, expressing their thoughts, and engaging in open communication, which leads to increased job satisfaction and commitment [37]. Furthermore, benevolent leadership plays a crucial role in fostering the formation of workplace friendships. When leaders exhibit care, concern, and support, they cultivate a positive social climate that encourages positive relationships among employees [8]. Workplace friendships contribute to a sense of belonging, social support, and camaraderie, all of which have a positive impact on job engagement. Employees who have strong friendships at work are more likely to feel connected, motivated, and satisfied in their roles [38]. Within the framework of Social Exchange Theory, benevolent leadership acts as a catalyst for positive social exchanges, leading to the development of psychological safety and workplace friendships. These resources, in turn, contribute to higher levels of job engagement. Employees recognize the benefits of benevolent leadership and reciprocate by investing their time and effort into and committing to their work [28].

2.2. Benevolent Leadership

The literature was analyzed to determine which leadership styles launch sustainable development and aid in the implementation of sustainable human resource management [39]. The sustainability of a business may be greatly defended by its leadership style [40]. Leadership interacts with HR behavior and practices to improve employee tasks [40] and to create sustainable work environments where high levels of employee well-being can be achieved. These environments also support HR models that can coexist with social sustainability and that are advantageous to both organizations and employees [41].

Benevolent leadership is a leadership style characterized by leaders who demonstrate care, support, and concern for the well-being and growth of their followers. It goes beyond traditional leadership approaches that primarily focus on task completion and performance, placing significant emphasis on fostering positive relationships and establishing a supportive work environment [11,15]. Benevolent leaders provide guidance, mentorship, and support to their followers, offering resources, advice, and assistance to help employees overcome challenges and reach goals. They prioritize the personal and professional development of their followers. Benevolent leadership is often categorized as a relationship-oriented or people-oriented leadership style, highlighting the importance of building positive relationships, fostering trust, and creating a supportive work environment [42,43]. Leaders who embrace a benevolent leadership style give priority to the needs and concerns of their followers and endeavor to establish strong interpersonal connections [44]. Numerous favorable outcomes are associated with benevolent leadership for both individuals and organizations. Benevolent leadership cultivates a positive work environment, enhances employee well-being and engagement, boosts employee satisfaction and retention, and contributes to organizational success [11]. By prioritizing their followers’ needs, demonstrating empathy, and fostering positive relationships, benevolent leaders create a supportive and fulfilling workplace that brings out the best in their employees [31,45].

2.3. Relationship between Benevolent Leadership and Job Engagement

Job engagement pertains to the degree of enthusiasm, dedication, and involvement exhibited by employees in their work. Engaged employees are driven to invest their utmost efforts, take initiative, and actively contribute to their organization’s achievements [46]. Benevolent leaders empower their employees by granting them autonomy in decision making and task execution. This empowerment cultivates a sense of ownership and accountability, ultimately boosting job engagement. When employees feel trusted and empowered, they are more likely to be motivated, take initiative, and experience a sense of fulfillment from their work [47,48]. Benevolent leadership places a strong emphasis on fostering the development and growth of employees through mentorship, coaching, and learning opportunities. This focus on personal and professional advancement satisfies employees’ intrinsic motivation and their aspiration for continuous growth and advancement, ultimately bolstering job engagement [49]. In addition, benevolent leaders consistently offer feedback and recognition to their employees. They acknowledge contributions, provide constructive feedback, and celebrate accomplishments. This recognition and feedback enhance employees’ feelings of competence and worth, resulting in heightened job engagement and motivation for exceptional performance [10,50]. Moreover, benevolent leaders recognize the significance of work–life balance and employee well-being, emphasizing the need for a harmonious equilibrium between work and personal life. By prioritizing well-being, they alleviate stress, cultivate job satisfaction, and encourage a positive integration of work and personal life, thereby enhancing job engagement [25,51,52]. In conclusion, the connection between benevolent leadership and job engagement is a reciprocal one. Benevolent leaders establish an environment that aligns with the principles of job engagement by promoting support, trust, and personal growth opportunities. Engaged employees, in return, contribute to a positive organizational culture and enhanced outcomes. The presence of benevolent leadership acts as a catalyst for heightened job engagement, leading to heightened productivity, satisfaction, and overall success for both employees and the organization [45,53,54]. Hence, the following hypothesis is postulated:

H1. 

Benevolent leadership positively correlates with job engagement.

2.4. Relationship between Benevolent Leadership and Psychological Safety

Psychological safety refers to an individual’s perception that they can freely express themselves, share ideas, take risks, and voice their thoughts without facing negative repercussions such as embarrassment or retaliation [55]. In an environment that fosters psychological safety, individuals feel at ease being their authentic selves and openly expressing their opinions [17]. The relationship between benevolent leadership and psychological safety is mutually reinforcing [15]. As leaders exhibit benevolent behaviors, they enhance psychological safety, which, in turn, strengthens their effectiveness as leaders. Psychological safety plays a pivotal role in promoting employee well-being, satisfaction, engagement, and innovation [56]. When employees experience a sense of psychological safety, they are more inclined to contribute their utmost efforts, effectively collaborate, and take calculated risks that drive organizational success [57]. Benevolent leadership, characterized by leaders who demonstrate care, support, and concern for their followers, positively influences psychological safety in the workplace [15,58]. Benevolent leaders cultivate trust and foster open communication with their followers, establishing an environment where employees feel at ease expressing their thoughts, ideas, and concerns without the fear of negative repercussions [59,60]. When employees perceive their leaders as accessible, empathetic, and supportive, they are more likely to engage in transparent and sincere communication, thereby enhancing psychological safety. Benevolent leaders foster a nurturing work environment in which employees feel esteemed, respected, and acknowledged. They offer guidance, resources, and aid to assist employees in overcoming obstacles and attaining their objectives. Through their display of care and support, benevolent leaders establish an atmosphere that promotes employees’ willingness to take risks, express their viewpoints, and participate in decision-making processes, ultimately augmenting psychological safety [61,62]. Psychological safety is closely tied to employees’ willingness to take risks and express their opinions. When employees experience psychological safety, they are more inclined to engage in proactive behaviors, share innovative ideas, and challenge the existing norms without fear of negative repercussions [63]. This approach enhances psychological safety by assuring employees that their leaders genuinely care about their well-being and are invested in their success. Employees feel secure to make mistakes, learn from them, and receive guidance on improvement. Benevolent leadership significantly contributes to the establishment of psychological safety within the workplace [8].

Overall, benevolent leadership plays a significant role in promoting psychological safety by creating a culture characterized by trust, support, empathy, inclusivity, and a commitment to continuous learning. When employees experience psychological safety, they are more inclined to engage in open communication, take risks, share ideas, effectively collaborate, and give their utmost efforts toward the organization’s success. The nurturing of psychological safety by benevolent leaders contributes to a positive work environment and enhances employee well-being, engagement, and overall organizational performance [19,55]. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H2. 

Benevolent leadership positively correlates with psychological safety.

2.5. Relationship between Benevolent Leadership and Workplace Friendship Prevalence

Workplace friendships are characterized by strong bonds, built on shared experiences, trust, and mutual support, that go beyond professional interactions, contributing to a more cohesive and harmonious work environment [64,65]. Benevolent leaders, who demonstrate supportive behaviors such as genuine care, guidance, and fostering a positive workplace, play a role in facilitating the formation of workplace friendships [66]. When employees perceive their leaders as caring and supportive, they feel more at ease in establishing social connections with their colleagues [67]. Benevolent leadership fosters a culture of open and transparent communication, establishing an environment where individuals feel secure in expressing their thoughts, concerns, and ideas. This atmosphere of open communication can facilitate the development of workplace friendships, as individuals engage in meaningful conversations and establish connections based on shared interests or goals [44]. Through cultivating a culture characterized by respect, fairness, and collaboration, benevolent leadership contributes to fostering a positive organizational climate. This climate creates a supportive and amiable work environment that promotes social interactions and the establishment of workplace friendships [68]. Benevolent leaders demonstrate empathy and offer emotional support to their employees, taking the time to comprehend their team members’ emotions, challenges, and personal circumstances. This empathetic approach nurtures a sense of connection and closeness, leading to the formation of workplace friendships based on mutual understanding and support [8,69]. Moreover, benevolent leadership contributes to fostering a positive emotional climate within the workplace. Leaders who exhibit positivity, optimism, and gratitude have the ability to influence the overall mood and atmosphere of the organization. A positive emotional climate enhances employee well-being and satisfaction, creating an environment conducive to the establishment and sustenance of workplace friendships [25]. The relationship between benevolent leadership and the prevalence of workplace friendships highlights the significant connection between leadership style and the development of meaningful interpersonal relationships among employees within an organization [70,71,72]. So the following hypothesis is assumed:

H3. 

Benevolent leadership positively correlates with workplace friendship prevalence.

2.6. Relationship between Psychological Safety and Job Engagement

Psychological safety and job engagement are closely intertwined concepts that exert a significant influence on individual and team performance within organizations [73]. Organizations that prioritize and cultivate psychological safety are more likely to observe higher levels of job engagement, employee satisfaction, and overall organizational success [74]. Psychological safety plays a vital role in fostering job engagement, as individuals who feel psychologically secure in their work environment are more inclined to actively participate in their roles [73,75]. Furthermore, psychological safety encourages individuals to take risks and engage in experimentation without the fear of failure or negative repercussions [76]. It establishes an environment where employees feel at ease suggesting new ideas, challenging the status quo, and pursuing innovative approaches. This freedom to take risks stimulates engagement by providing a sense of autonomy and empowerment, ultimately fostering creativity [17]. Psychological safety also cultivates a feeling of inclusiveness and support within teams and organizations. When individuals perceive acceptance, respect, and value, it strengthens their connection to the work and the organization. This sense of belonging promotes job engagement by establishing a positive work environment, reducing stress, and enhancing overall well-being [77]. Psychological safety mitigates fear and anxiety in the workplace. When individuals feel secure in expressing themselves, sharing ideas, and voicing concerns without apprehension of negative consequences, it fosters a relaxed and positive work atmosphere. Decreased fear and anxiety contribute to higher levels of job engagement, as employees can dedicate their energy to tasks rather than worrying about potential adverse outcomes [76,78]. Similarly, psychological safety is closely intertwined with trust and relationship building. When employees experience psychological safety, it establishes a foundation of trust within teams and across the organization. Trust enhances job engagement by fostering positive relationships, effective communication, and a sense of support and camaraderie. In the presence of trust, employees are more inclined to go the extra mile and efficiently collaborate [17,79].

Overall, psychological safety plays a crucial role in nurturing job engagement. By fostering an environment characterized by trust, open communication, collaboration, learning, and support, organizations can create a safe space where employees are encouraged to fully engage in their work, resulting in heightened levels of job engagement. So the following hypothesis is suggested:

H4. 

Psychological safety positively correlates with job engagement.

2.7. Relationship between Workplace Friendship Prevalence and Job Engagement

The presence of workplace friendships has a significant influence on job engagement, contributing to a positive and captivating work environment [24]. Workplace friendships provide social support and foster a sense of connection among colleagues. When individuals have friends in the workplace, they experience a feeling of belonging and camaraderie, which enhances their level of job engagement [24,80]. The prevalence of workplace friendships establishes a support system where employees can seek advice, share experiences, and receive emotional support, resulting in increased job satisfaction and engagement [81,82]. Moreover, workplace friendships play a vital role in promoting collaboration and teamwork. When employees have close relationships with their colleagues, it facilitates effective communication, trust, and cooperation. Having friends at work increases the likelihood of collaboration, knowledge sharing, and cohesive teamwork, resulting in elevated levels of job engagement as individuals experience a sense of unity and a shared purpose [83,84,85]. Additionally, the prevalence of workplace friendships contributes to a positive work environment. Positive relationships among coworkers create a friendly and enjoyable atmosphere. This positive work environment heightens job satisfaction and engagement, as individuals eagerly anticipate interacting with their friends and experience increased happiness and fulfillment in their work [86,87,88]. Additionally, workplace friendships have a positive influence on employees’ emotional well-being. These friendships offer emotional support, alleviate stress, and contribute to overall well-being. When employees have friends at work, it enhances their job engagement by fostering happiness and motivation and providing a support system to navigate challenges and celebrate achievements [23,89]. The presence of workplace friendships can contribute to stress reduction and increased resilience. Colleagues who are friends offer emotional support during difficult periods, providing a listening ear and words of encouragement. Having dependable friends can mitigate the adverse impact of stress, fostering well-being and job engagement. Employees with strong friendships are more capable of coping with work-related stressors, resulting in elevated levels of engagement [90,91]. Hence, the following hypothesis is formulated:

H5. 

Workplace friendship prevalence positively correlates with job engagement.

2.8. Mediating Role of Psychological Safety

Benevolent leadership cultivates trust and promotes open communication among team members. This trust and open communication foster a sense of psychological safety, enabling employees to feel at ease when expressing their thoughts, sharing ideas, and engaging in honest discussions. Psychological safety empowers employees to freely express themselves, leading to heightened job engagement [17,92]. By creating a supportive work environment, benevolent leaders enhance psychological safety. When employees perceive their leaders as caring and supportive, it nurtures trust and psychological safety within the team [17]. Benevolent leadership plays a role in fostering psychological safety, which, in turn, enables individuals to express their unique viewpoints and ideas, leading to heightened job engagement and motivation [93]. Benevolent leadership empowers employees by granting them decision-making autonomy. When combined with psychological safety, this empowerment empowers employees to assume responsibility for their tasks, make choices, and contribute to team achievements. The presence of psychological safety instills confidence in employees to take the initiative, thereby cultivating their job engagement and sense of responsibility [35,94]. Benevolent leaders place a strong emphasis on nurturing the progress and evolution of their team members. They offer guidance, mentorship, and chances for learning and progression. This guidance, when combined with psychological safety, establishes a climate in which employees are motivated to enhance their abilities and realize their utmost potential [8,12]. Through the cultivation of psychological safety, benevolent leaders forge an atmosphere that encourages job engagement. Employees experience a sense of security, encouragement, and empowerment to contribute their utmost capabilities, leading to elevated levels of job contentment, drive, and dedication to the organization’s objectives [95]. Comprehending and nurturing psychological safety offers benevolent leaders the potential to significantly influence the level of job engagement within their teams [17]. The intermediary function of psychological safety indicates that the impact of benevolent leadership on job engagement is indirectly manifested through the creation of a psychologically secure environment. As benevolent leaders cultivate trust and assistance, they lay the foundation for employees to confidently express themselves and undertake risks. This, consequently, results in heightened job engagement levels among the workforce [36]. Psychological safety serves as a conduit connecting benevolent leadership with job engagement. When employees perceive their leaders as benevolent and encounter psychological safety, their likelihood of becoming deeply engaged in their duties increases [30].

To recap, benevolent leadership has the potential to generate a favorable impact on job engagement through the cultivation of psychological safety in the work environment. When employees perceive a secure space for expressing their viewpoints and ideas, their engagement with their tasks is enhanced [96]. Organizations that encourage benevolent leadership qualities and give prominence to psychological safety are poised to witness heightened employee engagement levels, leading to enhanced performance and overall organizational achievements [97,98]. Consequently, the following hypothesis is postulated:

H6. 

Psychological safety mediates the link between benevolent leadership and job engagement.

2.9. Mediating Role of Workplace Friendship Prevalence

Benevolent leaders establish a nurturing workplace atmosphere that amplifies the prevalence of friendships among colleagues. When employees perceive their leaders as compassionate and supportive, it cultivates a feeling of reliance and companionship within the team, resulting in the formation of workplace friendships [99]. Benevolent leadership encourages social support and fosters affirmative relationships among team members. Employees who sense camaraderie from their peers and cultivate robust workplace friendships experience an augmented sense of belongingness and overall well-being [15,100]. Through the cultivation of workplace friendship prevalence, benevolent leaders can effectively contribute to the enhancement of job engagement within their teams. Workplace friendships contribute to trust, cooperative efforts, and emotional welfare—all of which bolster job engagement and add to a constructive workplace environment. Benevolent leadership has the potential to foster the establishment of workplace friendships. When employees perceive their leaders as compassionate and supportive, it has the potential to stimulate positive interactions among coworkers. These friendships, consequently, elevate the overall work environment and contribute to increased levels of job engagement [48,50,101]. The amalgamation of benevolent leadership and the prevalence of workplace friendships can result in elevated job engagement. Employees who maintain positive connections with their colleagues are more likely to experience motivation, contentment, and engagement in their job roles [54,102].

To conclude, the prevalence of workplace friendships serves as an intermediary element that clarifies the mechanism through which benevolent leadership impacts job engagement. Leaders demonstrating benevolent conduct establish a setting conducive to nurturing workplace friendships, subsequently elevating employees’ emotional dedication to their tasks. Organizations acknowledging the significance of both benevolent leadership and constructive workplace connections are poised to foster a workforce that is more engaged and content [9,82,103,104]. So the following hypothesis is proposed:

H7. 

Workplace friendship prevalence mediates the link between benevolent leadership and job engagement.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Measures and Instrument Development

The survey was divided into two sections: one covered latent variable and had 26 items, while the other covered the characteristics of the research sample and contained 5 questions. The questionnaire was written in English, then translated into Arabic by a specialist who is bilingual in English and Arabic, and finally translated back into English by a second bilingual professional. To confirm that the information was consistent, the earlier and later English translations were examined. When there was a match, the questionnaire was given in Arabic to guarantee that the sentences were well-understood and to gain the highest achievable response rate. Benevolent leadership was assessed using a 10-item (codes: BL.1–BL.10) scale adapted from [105]. For example, “Beyond work relations, my supervisor expresses concern about my daily life” and “My supervisor is like a family member when he/she gets along with us”. The job engagement scale was adapted from [106] and consisted of five items (codes: JE.1–JE.5). For instance, “I find the work that I do full of meaning and purpose” and “I am enthusiastic about my job”. A five-item scale by [107] was used to evaluate psychological safety (codes: PS.1–PS.5). For example, “There are many kinds of potential threats at work” and “I don’t need to always be careful when I am at work”. Finally, workplace friendship prevalence was measured by a six-item scale (codes: WFP.1–WFP.6) adapted from [108]. For instance, “I have formed strong friendships at work” and “I socialize with coworkers outside of the workplace”. The whole scale’s items are attached in Appendix A. Finally, a five-point Likert scale, ranging from “1 = for strongly disagree to 5 = for strongly agree”, was used to measure all latent variables.

3.2. Sampling and Data Collection

The study model was examined using data gathered from full-time employees working in five-star hotels and category (A) travel agencies in Egypt during March and April 2023. These two categories of businesses were chosen since they dominate Egypt’s hospitality and tourism industries and share common features in between, “i.e., they both deal with international visitors” [109]. According to the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism, there were 158 and 2222 5-star hotels and category (A) travel agencies in 2018, respectively. The convenience sample approach was chosen in the present research because it is widely used in circumstances where randomization is impractical due to a large population and the researchers’ limited resources, as in the case of the current study. The studied enterprises were given 500 questionnaires. Only 320 valid forms were acquired, resulting in a 64% response rate; 188 (58.8%) surveys were obtained from 25 five-star hotels, and 132 (41.2%) questionnaires were obtained from 55 category (A) travel agencies. The authors of [110] suggest calculating the appropriate sample size based on the number of explored variables, with a minimum acceptable ratio of “variable: sample = 1:10”. The minimum sample size for this study was 260 respondents, due to the 26 items under investigation. So, for the purposes of the analysis, our sample size of 320 employees looked good enough.

3.3. Data Analysis

The current study employed the PLS-SEM technique with WarpPLS software version 7.0 to analyze the study’s measurement and structural model as well as to validate the research hypotheses. PLS-SEM is a popular analytical technique in tourism and hospitality research [110].

4. Results

4.1. Participant’s Characteristics

There were 271 (84.7%) men and 49 (15.3%) women among the 320 participants in this study. There were 164 (51.2%) responders under the age of 30, and 126 (39.4%) between the ages of 30 and 40. Furthermore, most of them (n = 257, 80.3%) had a bachelor’s degree. Furthermore, 125 employees (39.1%) had fewer than 2 years of work experience, 154 employees (48.1%) had 2–5 years, and 41 of them (12.8%) had 6–10 years. Further, 188 (58.8%) of those surveyed worked at five-star hotels, while 132 (41.2%) worked in travel agencies, please see

Table 1. Participants’ profiles (N = 320).

		Frequency	Percentage
Gender	Male	271	84.7
	Female	49	15.3
Age	<30 years	164	51.2
	30: <40 years	126	39.4
	40: <50 years	10	3.1
	>50 years	20	6.2
Education	High school/institute	53	16.6
	Bachelor	257	80.3
	Master/Ph.D.	10	3.1
Experience	<2 years	125	39.1
	2–5 years	154	48.1
	6–10 years	41	12.8
Work Organization	Hotel	188	58.8
	Travel agency	132	41.2

.

4.2. Descriptive Statistics and Confirmatory Factor Analysis

According to

Table 2. Descriptive statistics and item loadings.

	Mean *	SD	Item Loading	p Value **
Benevolent Leadership	3.13	0.95
BL.1	2.94	1.314	(0.708)	0.012
BL.2	3.06	1.243	(0.778)	0.006
BL.3	3.23	1.085	(0.747)	0.008
BL.4	3.05	1.234	(0.779)	0.006
BL.5	3.04	1.149	(0.794)	0.005
BL.6	3.03	1.139	(0.728)	0.010
BL.7	3.17	1.399	(0.798)	0.005
BL.8	3.17	1.385	(0.749)	0.008
BL.9	3.27	1.395	(0.711)	0.011
BL.10	3.32	1.322	(0.724)	0.010
Job Engagement	3.48	1.04
JE.1	3.36	1.310	(0.895)	<0.001
JE.2	3.52	1.272	(0.836)	<0.001
JE.3	3.46	1.327	(0.865)	<0.001
JE.4	3.50	1.211	(0.700)	<0.001
JE.5	3.59	1.236	(0.773)	<0.001
Psychological Safety	3.60	0.94
PS.1	3.40	1.191	(0.835)	<0.001
PS.2	3.50	1.237	(0.828)	<0.001
PS.3	3.71	1.193	(0.824)	<0.001
PS.4	3.79	1.135	(0.819)	<0.001
PS.5	3.59	1.037	(0.733)	<0.001
Workplace Friendship Prevalence	3.34	0.88
WFP.1	3.66	1.150	(0.785)	<0.001
WFP.2	3.43	1.215	(0.779)	<0.001
WFP.3	3.45	1.187	(0.822)	<0.001
WFP.4	3.33	1.260	(0.809)	<0.001
WFP.5	3.06	1.135	(0.611)	<0.001
WFP.6	3.12	1.141	(0.629)	<0.001

* Mean score: “Low: 1.00 to 2.33, Average (Moderate): 2.34 to 3.66, High: 3.67 to 5.00”. ** p value for item loading.

, the item loadings were calculated and ranged from 0.611 to 0.895. Hair et al. [110] considered factor loading levels larger than 0.5 to be acceptable. Table 2 further demonstrates that the mean scores of benevolent leaderships, job engagement, psychological safety, and workplace friendship prevalence, as reported by hotels and travel agencies’ employees, were (3.13 ± 0.95), (3.48 ± 1.04), (3.60 ± 0.94), and (3.34 ± 0.88), respectively.

4.3. Reliability and Validity

Table 3. Reliability and convergent validity.

Construct	Benevolent Leadership	Job Engagement	Psychological Safety	Workplace Friendship Prevalence
Composite reliability	0.929	0.909	0.904	0.880
Cronbach’s alpha	0.914	0.873	0.867	0.836
AVE	0.566	0.667	0.654	0.554

demonstrates that all variables have Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability values greater than 0.7. Furthermore, because the AVE values are larger than 0.5, the validity of the scales is confirmed using the criteria of [111].

Furthermore, according to [112], “the correlation between two latent variables must be significantly less than unity in order to prove discriminant validity, and the AVE value for each variable must be greater than the greatest common value”. As a result, the discriminant validity of the study model is achieved as shown in

Table 4. Discriminant validity results.

Construct	WF	BL	JE	PS
Workplace friendship (WF)	0.744
Benevolent leadership (BL)	0.706	0.752
Job engagement (JE)	0.698	0.596	0.817
Psychological safety (PS)	0.703	0.647	0.644	0.809

.

HTMM for validity was also computed (see

Table 5. HTMM for validity.

HTMT Ratios
	Psychological safety	Benevolent leadership	Job engagement
1- Psychological safety
Benevolent leadership	0.224
Job engagement	0.314	0.663
Workplace friendship	1.110	0.235	0.301

), indicating that it is best, as all values were <0.85.

Finally, the current study satisfied all 10-model fit and quality index criteria provided by [113] (see Appendix B).

4.4. Structural Models for Hypotheses Testing

To check the structural model of the current study, measurements of the path coefficient (β), p-value, and R-square (R²) were executed. The findings of the hypothesis testing (see Figure 2 and

Table 6. Mediation analysis.

Hypothesis	Path A	Path B	Indirect Effect	SE	t-Value	Bootstrapped Confidence Interval		Decision
						95% LL	95% UL
H6	0.780	0.170	0.133	0.038	3.489	0.058	0.207	Mediation
H7	0.770	0.400	0.308	0.037	8.324	0.235	0.381	Mediation

) revealed that there is a positive relationship between benevolent leadership and job engagement (β = 0.24, p < 0.01), psychological safety (β = 0.78, p < 0.01), and workplace friendship prevalence (β = 0.77, p < 0.01). This means that when benevolent leadership increases, job engagement, psychological safety, and workplace friendship prevalence tend to be high. Thus H1, H2, and H3 are supported. In addition, psychological safety positively correlates with job engagement (β = 0.17, p < 0.01). Also, workplace friendship prevalence positively correlates with job engagement (β = 0.40, p < 0.01). This means that when psychological safety and workplace friendship prevalence are higher, employee job engagement tends to be high. Therefore, H4 and H5 are supported.

Furthermore, Figure 1 shows that benevolent leadership interpreted 60% and 59% of the variance in psychological safety and workplace friendship prevalence (R² = 0.60, R² = 0.59), respectively. Moreover, benevolent leadership, psychological safety, and workplace friendship prevalence interpreted 67% of the variance in employee job engagement (R² = 0.57).

In addition, indirect influence was investigated to evaluate the role of psychological safety and workplace friendship as mediators (see Table 6). For psychological safety, the indirect effect’s std. β = 0.133 (0.780 * 0.170) was significant according to the “bootstrapping analysis”, which had a t-value of 3.489. In addition, the indirect effect of 0.133, “95% Bootstrapped Confidence Interval”: (LL = 0.058, UL = 0.207) did not cross a zero in the middle, indicating the existence of mediation. Thus, it can be included that the mediation effect of psychological safety in the relationship between benevolent leadership and job engagement is statistically significant. So H6 is supported.

For workplace friendship, the indirect effect’s std. β = 0.308 (0.77 * 0.40) was significant according to the “bootstrapping analysis”, which had a t-value of 8.324. In addition, the indirect effect of 0.308, “95% Bootstrapped Confidence Interval”: (LL = 0.235, UL = 0.381) did not cross a zero in the middle, indicating the existence of mediation. Thus, it can be included that the mediation effect of workplace friendship in the relationship between benevolent leadership and job engagement is statistically significant. So H7 is supported.

5. Discussion

This study investigated the effect of benevolent leadership, as perceived by hotel and tourism employees, on job engagement. We also investigated the mediating effects of psychological safety and workplace friendship in the relationship between benevolent leadership and job engagement. The findings showed that perceptions of benevolent leadership had a positive effect on job engagement, which is consistent with earlier research [50,52,53,54,114] that claimed that leadership is regarded as a crucial resource for job engagement in the hotel and tourism industry. Benevolent leaders establish clarity regarding roles and expectations, ensuring that employees have a comprehensive understanding of their responsibilities and the impact of their work on the organization’s objectives. When employees possess a clear understanding of their roles and perceive the alignment with broader goals, it strengthens their sense of purpose and significantly enhances job engagement [99,115].

The findings also showed that perceptions of benevolent leadership had positive effects on psychological safety and workplace friendship prevalence, which is consistent with earlier research [56,57,60] that claimed that psychological safety is affected by benevolent leadership and with [36,70,72,116] that claimed that workplace friendship prevalence is affected by benevolent leadership. On the one hand, benevolent leaders establish a secure environment where employees are encouraged to take calculated risks, thereby fostering a culture of psychological safety. They provide constructive feedback and acknowledge employees’ contributions, nurturing a feedback culture focused on growth and improvement rather than blame or punishment [10,117]. On the other hand, benevolent leadership develops an open and transparent communication culture, creating a climate in which individuals feel safe sharing their opinions, concerns, and ideas. Since people are more likely to participate in meaningful discussions and form connections based on common interests or objectives, a culture of open communication can help people form friendships at work [44].

Moreover, the findings revealed that psychological safety and workplace friendship prevalence had positive effects on job engagement, which is consistent with earlier research [73,74,75] that claimed that psychological safety positively correlates with job engagement and with [23,89,90] that claimed that workplace friendship prevalence positively correlates with job engagement. When employees feel safe expressing themselves, discussing ideas, and raising issues without fear of repercussions, it generates a comfortable and enjoyable work environment. Employees can devote their focus to work rather than thinking about potential negative outcomes, so their fear and anxiety are reduced [76,78]. Further, employees who have close ties with their coworkers have easier communication, trust, and collaboration. Having coworkers who are friends enhances the chance of cooperation, information sharing, and cohesive teamwork, resulting in higher levels of workplace engagement, as individuals feel a feeling of unity and a shared purpose [83,85]

Furthermore, the findings revealed that psychological safety and workplace friendship mediate the relationship between benevolent leadership and job engagement, which is consistent with earlier research [9,82,93,97,103,104]. Benevolent leadership contributes to psychological safety, which allows employees to express their unique perspectives and ideas, resulting in increased job engagement and motivation. Organizations that promote benevolent leadership attributes and prioritize psychological safety are likely to see increased employee engagement, which leads to improved performance and overall organizational success [98]. In addition, the presence of friendships in the workplace works as a clarifying intermediary factor that explains how benevolent leadership affects job engagement. A culture that fosters friendships among employees is created by leaders who act with benevolence, which increases the emotional commitment of team members to their jobs. Organizations that recognize the need for both benevolent leadership and constructive friendships, “having people who understand each other and whose relationship is built on loyalty” at work, are better positioned to generate a more engaged and content workforce.

On one hand, the shift in dominant leadership style encourages tourism hospitality organizations to focus on a more value-oriented model that places attention on the role and expectations of many stakeholders in order to assure innovation, creativity, and sustainability in tourism and hospitality enterprises [118]. Tourism and hospitality leaders are concerned with sustainable and responsible leadership practices, such as “benevolent leadership”, which may have a direct impact on personnel and customer involvement in sustainable behaviors [119]. On the other hand, because of present economic pressures, practitioners may regard the benevolent leadership paradigm as too difficult to apply. However, while considering the deep needs of people (moral, spiritual, emotional, and social) as employees, customers, and consumers leads to long-term sustainable organizational performance, benevolent leadership may still be seen as unfeasible, unreachable, or hyperbolic in today’s highly competitive environment [8].

6. Implications

6.1. Theoretical Implications

This research enhances our comprehension of social exchange theory by emphasizing the significance of benevolent leadership and psychological safety and the prevalence of workplace friendships as pivotal elements that promote favorable social interactions in the work setting. It broadens the horizons of social exchange theory from a conventional focus on economic transactions to encompass interpersonal associations, systems of support, and emotional bonds within organizational contexts. Historically, social exchange theory centered on economic transactions like compensation, perks, and incentives. Nevertheless, this research underscores the importance of non-monetary transactions, notably friendships, in cultivating favorable social interactions. It accentuates that these non-monetary transactions hold pivotal importance in influencing job engagement. This research highlights the significant impact of benevolent leadership in promoting favorable social interactions. It proposes that leaders showcasing concern, backing, and understanding can establish a professional setting that cultivates both psychological safety and workplace friendship prevalence. This discovery harmonizes with the principles of social exchange theory, which emphasizes leaders’ role in furnishing resources, backing, and equitable treatment within relationships, thereby shaping employee commitment and engagement. This research identifies psychological safety and the prevalence of workplace friendships as intermediaries that convey the impact of benevolent leadership on job engagement. This underscores the significance of comprehending the inherent processes and pathways that connect leadership actions to employee results within the context of social exchange theory. This study accentuates these constructive social interactions, facilitated by psychological safety and workplace friendships, which act as mediators that bridge the connection between benevolent leadership and job engagement. This research also centers its attention on the domain of tourism and hospitality, offering particular perspectives on the implementation of social exchange theory within this field. It underscores the significance of favorable social interactions, psychological safety, and workplace friendships in amplifying job engagement and employee welfare, particularly within this industry. This specialized comprehension within this context contributes to the wider relevance and versatility of social exchange theory across diverse organizational landscapes. In summary, this research, regarding the impact of benevolent leadership on job engagement through the mediation of psychological safety and workplace friendship prevalence, presents theoretical ramifications for social exchange theory. It widens the theory’s boundaries to encompass non-monetary interactions, accentuates leadership’s significance, pinpoints intermediary mechanisms, and imparts insights tailored to a specific context. This study deepens our comprehension of the intricacies of social transactions within organizations and their influence on employee engagement and overall well-being.

Moreover, the influence of benevolent leadership on job engagement, mediated through psychological safety and workplace friendship, has received little attention in the hotel and tourism sectors, particularly in developing countries [120]. As a result, this study contributes to the academic literature regarding ways to increase employee job engagement in the hotel and tourism industry. First, our research adds to the body of knowledge regarding benevolent leadership and job engagement. By extending the past research that only focused on data from developing countries, this study, for instance, increases our understanding of how benevolent leadership affects job engagement through psychological safety and workplace friendship. None of the research on the relationship between job attitudes and workplace friendship examined friendship prevalence and work engagement in the hotel sector [24]. As a result, this is the first research in Egypt to investigate this relationship in five-star hotels and category (A) travel agencies. Second, studies that have a particular focus on the hospitality and tourism industry examined topics like transformational leadership [121], green transformational leadership [122], servant leadership [123], inclusive leadership [120], green inclusive leadership [124], and leader–member exchange [125]. However, such leadership styles may be ubiquitous [53]. Since benevolent leadership is prevalent in Eastern cultures, our research focuses on the extent to which benevolent leadership influences job engagement in Egyptian-based hotel and tourist organizations. Third, by examining the mediating effects of psychological safety and workplace friendship on job engagement, our research adds new knowledge to both the literature on job engagement and the stream of research on benevolent leadership. Thus, the current study differs from the previous research in that it focuses on a psychological process that mediates the connection between paternalistic leadership and workers’ attitudes toward their employment [126]. By identifying psychological states as the fundamental processes driving the links between HR practices and job engagement, our results add to the body of research on HR. Only a few studies examined psychological safety’s mediating role in the tourism and hospitality sectors of developing nations. The research that looked at it focused more on developed countries [120]; thus, studying developing nations contributes to theory. Finally, the hotel and tourist industry has substantial workforce turnover, which is a severe indicator of employee job disengagement [127]. Employee job disengagement suggests that conventional forms of employee job engagement, such as pay and benefits, and traditional leadership approaches, do not significantly boost employee job engagement. Benevolent leadership, psychological safety, and workplace friendship may now be added to the literature as employable as tactics to increase employee job engagement in the hotel and tourist industry.

6.2. Managerial Implications

Our findings propose certain management practices for organizations in the hospitality and tourist industries. First, job engagement should be stimulated and enhanced by means of benevolent leadership. Businesses in this sector ought to develop benevolent leadership philosophies that are more sympathetic in nature [128]. Managers should communicate these benevolent leadership behaviors with other managers in order to further encourage them. Furthermore, recruiting and training for managerial jobs should be focused on finding, developing, and increasing benevolence in existing or potential leaders. As part of the succession planning process for lower-level managers, managers should also emphasize benevolent leadership behaviors. Benevolent leaders may awaken latent values in employees and convey these values to greater workplace engagement. Since the hospitality and tourism sector demands that a leader tightly directs their employees’ performance inside the industry’s professional framework, benevolent leadership would appear to have significant significance in this sector. Second, it is advised that hiring managers take into account potential workers’ qualities, by utilizing psychological assessments and in-depth interviews, and then choose candidates who have the necessary qualifications for the open posting. Since psychological safety is a prerequisite for employee engagement [129], human resource professionals must maintain a safe work environment that supports job security and career advancement [116]. Managers’ social support, fairness, and justice might improve the safety of the working environment [116,129]. Lastly, because the presence of workplace friendship may increase job engagement, five-star hotel and travel agency management must create a friendly workplace atmosphere for staff. It may be possible to increase job engagement by giving employees a task or job that encourages collaboration or by giving them time to communicate with coworkers during working hours. In addition, the managers of hotels and travel agencies can make an effort to create a network among their staff members that allows staff members to form lasting connections by planning events like meals, sporting events, or book clubs for them to attend after work. To guarantee that psychological safety, workplace friendship, and business goals are congruent, hospitality enterprises should also follow [83]’s recommendation to speak with organizational psychologists when developing and executing training programs for staff members.

7. Limitations and Future Research Avenues

Our research has certain limitations that offer up new research avenues. First, the current study conceptualized benevolent leadership as a neutralized behavior. However, recent research by [130] claimed that if leaders show excessive benevolence, they should take effective efforts to lessen the impacts of excessive benevolence. It could be possible for further studies to look into ways to make benevolent leadership neutral and how to mitigate the negative impacts of benevolent behavior. Second, it is conceivable that psychological safety and workplace friendship are key interpersonal factors in this study since they are the major causes of job engagement variance among hospitality enterprises in this research. Therefore, further research may be required to determine if the results of this study are sample-specific. Further research could also investigate other contextual elements, such as organizational structure or human resource practices, which may become significant in different contexts [15]. Third, while employee self-reporting should be used to measure job engagement, more objective measures may also be used to gather information on workplace friendship and benevolent leadership [53]. Therefore, participant observations in the workplace, for example, may be used to objectively gather data on benevolent leadership and workplace friendship for future research. Lastly, the present study paradigm should be reproduced in other hospitality and tourist firms, such as budget hotels, airline companies, and restaurants, to improve its generalizability. In those organizations, the level of benevolent leadership and its influence on job engagement through psychological safety and workplace friendship as mediators should be examined in order to create managerial implications for improving job engagement among hospitality and tourism personnel. Longitudinal study designs can also be employed in future research to discover causality links among variables. Further research can be conducted in the setting of another developing country to see whether different outcomes can be obtained.