Accumulated Carbon Fractions in Tropical Sandy Soils and Their Effects on Fertility and Grain Yield in an Integrated Crop–Livestock System
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of the Study Site and Local Climatic Conditions
2.2. Experimental Design and Treatments
2.3. Sowing, Management, and Evaluation of Corn and Intercropped Forage
2.4. Soybean Sowing and Evaluation of Soybean Yield and Soil Moisture and Temperature
2.5. Soil Sampling and Enzymatic Activity Analysis
2.6. Soil Sampling and Chemical, Physical, and SOM Fractionation Analyses
2.7. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
3.1. Changes in Soil Physical and Chemical Properties
3.2. Changes in Grain Yield, Temperature, Moisture, and Enzymatic Activity in the Soil
3.3. Relationships and Correlations between Management Types and Physical and Chemical Soil Properties
3.4. Correlations between Management, Grain Yield, and Soil Temperature, Moisture, and Enzymatic Activity
3.5. Similarities and Dissimilarities in Parameters According to Land-Use Type
4. Discussion
4.1. Relationships between Management and Soil Physical and Chemical Properties
4.2. Relationships among Management, Grain Yield, and Soil Temperature, Moisture, and Enzymatic Activity
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Minimum | Mean | Maximum | SD | CV | Minimum | Mean | Maximum | SD | CV |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2017 | 2019 | |||||||||
FAF stock (t ha−1) | - | - | - | - | - | 1.0 | 1.5 | 2.2 | 0.37 | 25 |
HAF stock (t ha−1) | - | - | - | - | - | 0.5 | 1.2 | 1.8 | 0.36 | 31 |
HU stock (t ha−1) | - | - | - | - | - | 3.0 | 5.1 | 8.1 | 1.23 | 24 |
Total N stock (t ha−1) | - | - | - | - | - | 1.0 | 1.4 | 2.1 | 0.26 | 19 |
POC stock (t ha−1) | - | - | - | - | - | 2.2 | 4.0 | 5.9 | 1.01 | 25 |
MA (m−3 m−3) | - | - | - | - | - | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.04 | 24 |
Al (mmolc dm−3) | - | - | - | - | - | 0.1 | 0.3 | 2.0 | 0.64 | 125 |
TOC stock (t ha−1) | 11.09 | 12.7 | 14.85 | 1.07 | 8 | 10.6 | 13.7 | 18.6 | 1.85 | 14 |
M-C stock (t ha−1) | 6.46 | 9.10 | 11.68 | 1.50 | 17 | 5.9 | 9.7 | 13.6 | 2.5 | 26 |
pH (CaCl2) | 5.10 | 5.63 | 6.90 | 0.43 | 8 | 4.8 | 5.4 | 6.2 | 0.33 | 6 |
K (mmolc dm−3) | 1.30 | 2.90 | 5.90 | 1.35 | 46 | 1.3 | 2.8 | 5.0 | 1.06 | 38 |
Ca (mmolc dm−3) | 16.00 | 30.71 | 162.00 | 30.55 | 99 | 8.0 | 14.3 | 26.0 | 4.23 | 30 |
Mg (mmolc dm−3) | 6.00 | 13.57 | 62.00 | 11.57 | 85 | 5.0 | 8.7 | 21.0 | 3.68 | 42 |
H+Al (mmolc dm−3) | 10.00 | 16.57 | 22.00 | 3.20 | 19 | 11.0 | 15.6 | 25.0 | 3.61 | 23 |
CEC (mmolc dm−3) | 41.30 | 63.55 | 235.60 | 40.18 | 63 | 30.9 | 41.4 | 59.9 | 8.24 | 20 |
Cu (mmolc dm−3) | 0.30 | 0.58 | 0.80 | 0.15 | 26 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 0.15 | 33 |
Fe (mmolc dm−3) | 2.00 | 6.62 | 11.00 | 2.52 | 38 | 6.0 | 13.4 | 29.0 | 6.54 | 49 |
Mn (mmolc dm−3) | 4.80 | 8.80 | 13.70 | 2.64 | 30 | 4.2 | 7.5 | 12.7 | 2.64 | 35 |
B (mmolc dm−3) | 0.08 | 0.17 | 0.34 | 0.07 | 39 | - | - | - | - | - |
Zn (mmolc dm−3) | 0.40 | 1.04 | 1.90 | 0.38 | 36 | - | - | - | - | - |
Parameter | Minimum | Mean | Maximum | SD | CV | Minimum | Mean | Maximum | SD | CV |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2017/18 | 2018/19 | |||||||||
Soybean GY (kg ha−1) | 2442 | 3185 | 3499 | 273 | 9 | - | - | - | - | - |
Corn GY (kg ha−1) | 3979 | 5708 | 7274 | 947 | 17 | 1173 | 1857 | 2705 | 410 | 22 |
Temperature (°C) | 30.5 | 34.0 | 41.9 | 3.3 | 10 | 29.0 | 32.7 | 41.0 | 2.3 | 10 |
Moisture (%) | 4.5 | 6.8 | 8.7 | 1.2 | 17 | 4.7 | 7.3 | 11.9 | 2.1 | 29 |
β-Glucosidase * | 63.0 | 76.4 | 90.9 | 8.6 | 11 | 62.3 | 96.9 | 139.3 | 20.9 | 22 |
Phosphatase * | 141.4 | 319.8 | 454.5 | 83.0 | 26 | 23.0 | 50.6 | 92.5 | 17.8 | 35 |
Arylsulfatase * | 12.2 | 28.6 | 57.1 | 12.4 | 43 | 11.6 | 24.3 | 50.8 | 11.9 | 39 |
----------2017---------- | ----------2019---------- | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
PCA | PC1 | PC2 | PC1 | PC2 |
Eigenvalue | 6.96 | 2.67 | 7.90 | 4.26 |
Explained variance (%) | 53.57 | 20.51 | 43.91 | 23.69 |
Cumulative variance (%) | 53.57 | 74.08 | 43.91 | 67.60 |
Parameters 1 | Correlation 2 | |||
FAF stock | - | - | 0.90 | −0.03 |
HAF stock | - | - | 0.53 | 0.05 |
HU stock | - | - | 0.70 | 0.22 |
Total N stock | - | - | 0.69 | 0.29 |
POC stock | - | - | 0.59 | 0.59 |
MA | - | - | −0.48 | −0.05 |
Al | 0.44 | −0.64 | ||
TOC stock | 0.67 | 0.59 | 0.88 | 0.19 |
M-C stock | 0.74 | 0.44 | 0.64 | −0.11 |
pH | −0.85 | 0.40 | −0.36 | 0.91 |
K | 0.52 | 0.58 | 0.82 | −0.24 |
Ca | −0.69 | 0.60 | 0.40 | 0.84 |
Mg | −0.73 | 0.62 | 0.29 | 0.91 |
H+Al | 0.89 | −0.02 | 0.70 | −0.60 |
CEC | −0.65 | 0.65 | 0.75 | 0.54 |
Cu | 0.87 | 0.22 | 0.73 | −0.28 |
Fe | 0.88 | −0.09 | 0.85 | −0.42 |
Mn | 0.73 | 0.07 | 0.73 | −0.05 |
B | 0.78 | 0.15 | - | - |
Zn | 0.31 | 0.63 | - | - |
PCA | PC1 | PC2 | PC1 | PC2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
----------2017---------- | ----------2019---------- | |||
Eigenvalue | 4.07 | 1.29 | 3.09 | 1.44 |
Explained variance (%) | 58.10 | 18.37 | 51.51 | 24.04 |
Cumulative variance (%) | 58.10 | 76.48 | 51.51 | 75.55 |
Parameter 1 | Correlation 2 | |||
Corn grain yield | 0.88 | −0.20 | 0.59 | −0.21 |
Soybean grain yield | −0.02 | 0.90 | - | - |
Temperature 3 | −0.75 | −0.36 | −0.68 | 0.55 |
Moisture 1 | 0.83 | 0.37 | 0.56 | −0.72 |
β-Glucosidase | 0.84 | −0.36 | 0.85 | 0.44 |
Phosphatase | 0.82 | −0.19 | 0.75 | 0.61 |
Arylsulfatase | 0.81 | 0.09 | 0.82 | 0.09 |
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Soares, D.d.A.; Sekiya, B.M.S.; Modesto, V.C.; Nakao, A.H.; Freitas, L.A.; Souza, I.M.D.d.; da Luz, J.H.S.; Galindo, F.S.; Lupatini, G.C.; Pavan Mateus, G.; et al. Accumulated Carbon Fractions in Tropical Sandy Soils and Their Effects on Fertility and Grain Yield in an Integrated Crop–Livestock System. Sustainability 2023, 15, 13829. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813829
Soares DdA, Sekiya BMS, Modesto VC, Nakao AH, Freitas LA, Souza IMDd, da Luz JHS, Galindo FS, Lupatini GC, Pavan Mateus G, et al. Accumulated Carbon Fractions in Tropical Sandy Soils and Their Effects on Fertility and Grain Yield in an Integrated Crop–Livestock System. Sustainability. 2023; 15(18):13829. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813829
Chicago/Turabian StyleSoares, Deyvison de Asevedo, Bianca Midori Souza Sekiya, Viviane Cristina Modesto, Allan Hisashi Nakao, Leandro Alves Freitas, Isabela Malaquias Dalto de Souza, João Henrique Silva da Luz, Fernando Shintate Galindo, Gelci Carlos Lupatini, Gustavo Pavan Mateus, and et al. 2023. "Accumulated Carbon Fractions in Tropical Sandy Soils and Their Effects on Fertility and Grain Yield in an Integrated Crop–Livestock System" Sustainability 15, no. 18: 13829. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813829