Sustainable Agricultural Practices for the Production of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Evidence and Recommendations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Productive Activities
2.1. Cultivation
2.1.1. Conservation Agriculture
2.1.2. Site Selection
2.1.3. Ecological and Social Impact
2.1.4. Climate
2.1.5. Soil and Fertilization
- It is necessary to ensure the use of appropriate types and amounts of fertilizers (both organic and chemical) through agricultural research [13]. Obtaining documented information about the type and amount of fertilizer used and the results obtained can help determine the appropriate amount to use.
- To promote soil conservation and reduce erosion, producers should create streamside buffer zones and plant cover crops and “green manure”, such as alfalfa [13].
2.1.6. Irrigation and Drainage
2.1.7. Field Maintenance and Plant Protection
- The crop must be adapted to the growth and needs of the plants [16].
- Insecticides and herbicides should be avoided as much as possible. If application of approved plant protection products is required, the following should be considered:
- Products should be applied at the minimum effective level according to the manufacturer’s and authority’s recommendations [16].
- The order should only be performed by qualified personnel, using approved equipment [16].
- Information about the order and the pesticide should be documented and made available to the purchaser if requested [15].
- The organization/company carrying out the cultivation must assign someone to check compliance with the processing and sign the necessary documents to accept responsibility [15].
- The minimum interval between this treatment and the time of harvest must be specified by the purchaser or as recommended by the manufacturer of the plant protection product [13].
- Regional and/or national regulations on remaining maximum limits must be respected. If the product is intended for the European market, compliance must be ensured, for example, with European Pharmacopoeia regulations, the EU pesticide database, and other European directives (e.g., Codex Alimentarius, etc.) [15,16].
- Particular attention should be paid to monitoring and removal of toxic herbs (e.g., herbs containing pyrrolizidine and tropane alkaloid) [15].
2.1.8. Seeds and Propagation Material
- Seeds and vegetative propagating material must be identified botanically and, to be traceable, the species and, whenever necessary and possible, the subspecies of the plant variety, chemotype, and origin, must be documented. Recording these characteristics allows for the control and identification of incompatible plants, especially incompatible toxic ones, which should be eliminated as much as possible [15].
- Seeds should have an appropriate degree of purity, vigour, and germination rate so that they are, as much as possible, free from pests, diseases, and (poisonous) weed seeds [15].
2.2. Harvest
- To limit the MAP harvest to a sustainable level, an effective management system must be established that considers annual harvest quotas, seasonal or geographic restrictions, and harvest restrictions to certain plant parts or size classes [20].
- Harvest time depends on the part of the plant that will be used. Detailed information on the appropriate timing of sample collection should be consulted, which is often available in the national pharmacopoeia, published standards, formal studies, and major reference books [13].
- The best harvest time should be determined according to the quality and quantity of the bioactive components and not according to the total vegetative yield of the target parts of the medicinal plant [13].
- Continuous monitoring and evaluation of harvesting practices should be undertaken to adapt the management strategy as necessary [23].
- Continuous improvement of harvesting techniques should be sought to reduce waste at this stage, avoid loss of quality, and reduce yield [24].
- Harvesting should take place when the plants are of the best possible quality, according to the different uses [14].
- Plants should be harvested in the best possible conditions, avoiding wet soil, dew, rain, or exceptionally high air humidity. If harvesting takes place in humid conditions, the potential adverse effects on the plant should be neutralized [14].
- During harvesting, care must be taken to ensure that toxic herbs do not mix with the harvested crop [14].
- Materials from decaying medicinal plants must be identified and disposed of during harvesting, post-harvest inspections, and treatment processes to avoid microbial contamination and loss of product quality [13].
- When necessary, large drop cloths, preferably made of clean cotton cloth, can be used as an interface between the harvested plants and the soil [13].
- Equipment used for harvesting must be kept clean and in perfect working order. Parts of equipment/machinery that have direct contact with the harvested crop should be cleaned regularly and kept free of oils and other contaminations, including plant residues [14].
- Cutting devices should be adjusted so that aggregation of soil particles can be minimized [14].
- All containers used for collection must be kept clean and free from contamination from previously harvested medicinal plants and other foreign matter. When not in use, containers should be kept in a dry place and should be protected from insects, rodents, birds, pests, livestock, and pets [13].
- Harvested plants should be collected and transported immediately in dry, clean conditions and in a way that prevents overheating [14].
- Mechanical damage and compaction of the harvested plant, which may result in undesirable changes in quality, should be avoided. In this sense, attention should be paid to cyst overfilling or overcrowding [16].
- The collection organization must assign a person to verify the compliance of the processing with the rules established in the management system [14].
2.3. Drying
- Solar dryers are recommended for drying medicinal herbs when it is necessary to reduce or remove moisture from herbs and other medicinal plant parts without affecting their quality for medicinal use [26].
- Freshly harvested material should be transported in clean, dry, and well-ventilated containers as soon as possible to the drying site [14].
- In the case of natural drying in the open air, the crop should be spread in a thin layer. To ensure adequate air circulation, drying racks should be placed at a sufficient distance from the floor. An attempt must be made to obtain uniform drying of the crop and thus avoid mould formation. When drying with oil, the released gases must not be reused for drying. Direct drying should not be allowed, except with butane, propane, or natural gas [16].
- In the drying room, the fresh material should be spread in thin layers on a clean surface (for example, drying racks or plastic cloths), avoiding direct contact with the ground, to protect the material from rain and moisture, other materials (such as other plants in the surrounding area, stones, dust, plastics, etc.), pollutants (detergents, smoke, allergens, etc.), pests, and pets [14].
- Harvested material that has been spoiled or damaged (which can be identified by bite marks and/or unusual colour, texture, and/or smell) should be excluded [14].
- When MAP materials are prepared for use in a dry form, the moisture content of the material should be kept as low as possible to minimize damage from mould and other microbial infections [13].
- When possible, temperature and humidity should be controlled to avoid spoilage of active chemical ingredients [13].
- It must be considered that drying by traditional methods, such as an open-air dryer, reduces the quality of the product while increasing the cost and time of the drying process [30].
- The drying process is characterized by an ideal relative humidity level of 50 to 60% [30].
- Information on the appropriate moisture content of some herbal substances may be available in pharmacopoeia or other formal monographs and should be consulted [13].
2.4. Extraction
2.4.1. Solvents
2.4.2. Methods
2.5. Packaging
- Medicinal plant materials should be packaged as quickly as possible to prevent damage to the product and to protect it from potential pest attacks and other sources of contamination [16].
- Batch packing records must be kept for three years or as required by national and/or regional authorities, which include product name, place of origin, batch number, weight, job number, and date [13].
2.5.1. Packing Materials
- After final inspection and disposal of any foreign matter, the product should be packed in clean and dry bags, sacks, bales, or cans suitable for food, preferably new [15].
- Packaging materials should be stored in a clean, dry, pest-free place, inaccessible to livestock, pets, and other sources of contamination. Moreover, it must be ensured that the product is not contaminated with the packaging material (especially in the case of a fibre bag) due to losing plastic fibres, chemical residues, strange odours, or any kind of household waste [14,15,16].
- When packaging, follow standard operating procedures and national and/or regional regulations of the producing countries and the end user [13].
- It is recommended that fragile medicinal plant materials be packed in rigid containers [13].
- Whenever possible, the packaging used should be agreed upon between the supplier and the purchaser [13].
2.5.2. Label
- The label must be visible and permanently attached and must be made of a non-toxic material [15].
- The common and scientific name of the plant.
- Used parts of the plant.
- The name and address of the product.
- Production batch number.
- Quantitative information (e.g., package weight).
- Preservation techniques (if any).
- Place of origin, i.e., place of cultivation or assembly.
- Date of cultivation or collection.
- Hazard information (if any).
- Packing and moving arrangements (if any).
- In the case of organic products: the organic certificate control number.
- Information indicating quality approval and compliance with other national and/or regional labelling requirements.
- Additional information on production standards and quality of medicinal plant materials can be added in a separate certificate attached to the package with the same batch number.
2.5.3. Shelf-Life Extension
3. Waste Valorisation
3.1. Distillation
3.1.1. Solid Waste
- The solid residue from the water distillation of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) can be used as an antioxidant supplement for pregnant ewes to reduce fat oxidation in meat. Furthermore, the European Commission considers this residue as a semi-natural food preservative additive (regulated under code E-392) [49].
- Solid residues from the distillation of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and lavandin (sterile mixture of L. angustifolia × L. latifolia), i.e., straw, are cheap, readily available, and useful industrial by-products for the production of high-value compounds as platform particles (such as antioxidants) and fungal enzymes involved in the decomposition of lignocellulosic biomass, which have potential as raw materials for the green chemistry industry [52].
3.1.2. Liquid Waste
- Hydrolats from different parts of the elderberry (Sambucus nigra) can be used in therapeutic applications due to their pH and trace amounts of the oils. The hydrolats obtained are milder therapeutic agents than essential oils, non-toxic, and therefore ideal for use as a skin tonic or for therapeutic baths [53].
- The hydrolat from the hydrodistillation of lemongrass (Sympopogon citrate) is composed of an essential oil rich in emulsified citral, making it a suitable ingredient for food applications. This hydrolat can be used as a functional ingredient in formulations of matcha tea in compliance with beverage safety regulations [47].
- The liquid distillation residue of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) contains phenolic compounds, such as rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid, and can be used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries [51].
- Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) hydrolats that are aromatic and have antioxidant properties are used directly on the skin and hair or incorporated into cosmetic formulations [54].
3.1.3. Waste Extraction
3.2. Other Waste
- Although the roots of lovage (Levisticum officinale W.D.J. Koch) are generally discarded, they can be a source of valuable bioactive compounds, such as phthalides and phenolic acids, and offer biological properties worth exploring, which can lead to a circular economy in the food and/or pharmaceutical industry [63].
- The alcoholic extract of elderflower (Sambucus nigra) has good antioxidant activity, and the glycerine extract contains appreciable amounts of anthocyanins and other nutrients. The evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of the extract reveals the great potential of bioactive compounds as nutraceuticals, drugs, and cosmetics for therapeutic purposes [53].
- Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) processing waste can be transformed into new raw materials. Compounds are found in tobacco that exhibit important biological activities, including resistance to many diseases, human health regulation, sterilization, and pest control. The wide range of application scenarios gives by-products of the tobacco processing industry a high potential for recovery [64].
- The use of residual hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) biomass as an alternative and renewable lignocellulosic raw material in the manufacture of lightweight board products is a fundamental principle of the circular economy and an environmentally sound strategy to deal with the increasing scarcity of resources in the wood-based board industry [65]. In addition, hemp residue can be used for composting, incineration, and anaerobic digestion [66].
- Pine bark and buds, previously considered inappropriate waste, have been identified as a rich source of natural polyphenols, which have beneficial nutritional, medicinal, and health properties [67].
- The roots of the aloe vera plant (Aloe barbadensis Miller), due to its quinone content, have pharmacological significance and antiviral activity [51].
- A study suggests including the ethanolic extract of the solid remains of female Santolina chamaecyparissus as a natural ingredient for the development of natural coatings to preserve cheese and prevent oxidation and fungal development [49].
- The use of ethanolic extracts from solid residues of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and lemongrass (Melissa officinalis) has the potential to extend the shelf life of bread [49].
- After extraction of essential oils from the aerial parts of Lavandula angustifolia and Lavandula x intermedia, a biomass is obtained which, although frequently used for vegetation in other crops or energy production through combustion, is still rich in polyphenols and represents an interesting source of bioactive compounds, although they may have been partially lost during the steam distillation process. Due to their anti-enzyme properties, the biomass extracts used to extract the essential oils may represent a valid therapeutic alternative for the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease, hyperpigmentation, and other chronic diseases where the roots play a major role. Thus, since they are important sources of bioactive compounds, these extracts are suitable for various applications in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries [56].
4. Discussion
- Follow standard practices or traditional methods. Apply conservation agriculture principles.
- Consider permanent organic soil cover and species diversification to promote soil health and prevent pests and diseases.
- Consider the external environmental conditions and avoid the risks of pollution.
- Consider the environmental and social impact on local communities and monitor the impact over time.
- Know in advance the duration of sunlight, average precipitation, and average temperature, including temperature differences during the day and night.
- The crop must be adapted to the needs of the plants, and the use of pesticides and herbicides should be avoided. Particular attention should be paid to weeding.
- Seeds and vegetative propagating materials must be identified botanically and have an appropriate degree of purity and vitality.
- Assure that the number of harvested MAPs does not affect environmental processes or the welfare of local communities.
- Create an effective management system that considers:
- Quantity harvested.
- Harvest season.
- Condition of the vegetal community.
- Promote continuous improvement of harvesting techniques to reduce waste at this stage, avoiding loss of quality and yield reduction.
- Keep all containers and tools used in harvesting clean and free from contamination.
- Avoid unwanted alterations in plant quality during collection and post-harvest transportation.
- Checking the compatibility of processing with the established effective management system.
- Determinate, control, and verify the basic economic and environmental criteria in the drying process that affect energy consumption and the quantity and quality of the active ingredients of the plants, namely:
- Drying method.
- Airspeed.
- Air temperature.
- Exposure time.
- Ensure optimal final moisture content to avoid over-drying and reduce drying time, energy costs, mass loss, and risk of quality degradation.
- Choose non-toxic solvents.
- Estimate relative CO2 emissions associated with extraction methods and prefer methods with greater energy efficiency, lower CO2 emissions, and lower cost.
- Keep packaging materials and storage areas clean and dry.
- Uncontaminated packaging materials are preferred.
- Ensure that reuse does not cause contamination of the product.
- The label must be made of non-toxic material and must contain the relevant information.
- If appropriate, integrate packaging pretreatment measures that extend its shelf life.
- Follow food safety management system standards applicable to packaging.
- Maintain proper storage temperature (10 °C is a recommended value) to prolong the shelf life of herbs.
- Energy purposes through direct combustion, making briquettes after drying, pelletizing, gasification, and in methanol and pyrolysis processes to obtain biodiesel and biochar.
- Composting.
- Cellulose production.
- Biosorbents.
- Bio-aggregates for building materials.
- Fodder or nutritional supplements for animals.
- Food industry as preservatives.
- Chemical industry in the production of enzymes and platform molecules.
- Eco-friendly bio-pesticides.
- Liquid fertilizers.
- Functional dietary fibre and functional ingredient in matcha tea formulations in the food industry.
- Sources of phenolic compounds such as rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries.
- Solid residue extracts showed antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and germination-stimulating properties as food preservatives suitable for various applications in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.
- Hydrolat extracts contain biological properties such as nematocidal, insecticidal, antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory, favouring their use as a medical treatment for hyperlipidemia and cardiovascular diseases.
- Wastewater extracts contain many antioxidants and antifungal, bacterial, enzymatic, and anti-inflammatory biological activities, which favours their use in food additives, cosmetics, or even medical treatments.
- Parts of plants that are often considered waste products (roots, bark, and buds) can be a source of valuable bioactive compounds useful in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries.
- Residues resulting from harvesting, drying, and processing can be used in composting to obtain organic fertilizers.
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Species | Number of Weeks after Planting Date |
---|---|
Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) | 9 |
Dill (Anethum graveolens) | 14 |
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) | 3 |
Peppermint (Menthaxpiperita) | 6 |
Species | Ingredients | MCr (%) |
---|---|---|
Althaea officinalis L. | Roots | 10 |
Arnica montana L. | Flowers | 10 |
Calendula officinalis L. | Flowers | 12 |
Chamomilla recutita [L.] Rauschert | Flowers | 12 |
Coriandrum sativum L. | Seed | 10 |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. | Seed | 8 |
Hypericum perforatum L. | Herb | 10 |
Levisticum officinale Koch | Leaves | 12 |
Malva silvestris L. | Leaves | 12 |
Melissa officinalis L. | Leaves | 10 |
Menthaxpiperita L. | Leaves | 11 |
Plantago lanceolata L. | Herb | 10 |
Valeriana officinalis L. | Roots | 12 |
Verbascum phlomoides L. | Herb | 12 |
Species | Drying Temperature (°C) | MCr (%) | Air Speed (m/s) |
---|---|---|---|
Purple coneflower | 50 | 0 | |
Bay leaf | 60 | 10 | 15 |
Andrographis | 7 | ||
Mint- common | 50 | 0 | |
Ginger | 47.2 | 10 | |
Pistachio | 21.32 | 0.8 | |
Coconut copra | 7.8 | ||
Hibiscus | 32.24 | 9.2 | |
Gourd | 9 | ||
Garlic | 55–75 | 6.5 | 0.2 |
Pepper | 55, 60 and 70 | 10 | 1.5 |
Zedoary | 6.86 | ||
Spinach | 230 | ||
Pear | 50–60 | ||
Bitter orange | 50–60 | ||
Tarragon | 60 | 10 | |
Longan | 31–58 | ||
Saffron | 45 ± 5 | ||
Citronella | 60 | ||
Lemongrass | 40 | ||
Summer savory | 45 |
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Marcelino, S.; Hamdane, S.; Gaspar, P.D.; Paço, A. Sustainable Agricultural Practices for the Production of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Evidence and Recommendations. Sustainability 2023, 15, 14095. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914095
Marcelino S, Hamdane S, Gaspar PD, Paço A. Sustainable Agricultural Practices for the Production of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Evidence and Recommendations. Sustainability. 2023; 15(19):14095. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914095
Chicago/Turabian StyleMarcelino, Sara, Samia Hamdane, Pedro D. Gaspar, and Arminda Paço. 2023. "Sustainable Agricultural Practices for the Production of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Evidence and Recommendations" Sustainability 15, no. 19: 14095. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914095