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Article

A Critical Discourse Analysis on Climate Change in a Globalized World: The Nexus of Islam and Sustainable Development

by
Odeh Al-Jayyousi
1,
Wan Norhaniza Wan Hasan
2,
Shereeza Mohamed Saniff
2,
Seda Duygu Sever
3,* and
Evren Tok
3
1
Department of Innovation and Technology Management, College of Graduate Studies, Arabian Gulf University, Manama 26671, Bahrain
2
Centre for Islamic Development Management Studies (ISDEV), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
3
College of Public Policy, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha 34110, Qatar
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(19), 14515; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914515
Submission received: 6 August 2023 / Revised: 23 September 2023 / Accepted: 28 September 2023 / Published: 6 October 2023
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Abstract

:
The interplay between climate change and society requires the cultivation of deeper insights into the interdisciplinary connections between faith and development. This study seeks to undertake a grounded theory analysis of the Islamic narrative among policy makers about climate change and Islamic values. A focus group panel of key experts was conducted on the topic of sustainability and faith, using a climate policy canvas to gain insights into the role of faith in shaping perceptions and policies to mitigate climate change. The results showed that Islamic values can be in positive interaction with environmental responsibility and ecologically friendly behavior. Despite the divergent narratives between the Global South and North with regard to equity and liability, policy makers are mindful of the ecological imperatives and the need to mainstream ethical values in order to influence climate policy. This research reveals that Islamic values can influence the perceptions on and practice of climate action for both policy makers and the public. The study recommends supporting value-based initiatives for shaping a new discourse around climate policy.

1. Introduction

Climate change is a global challenge that requires local action across different sectors and disciplines. Framing faith-inspired discourses to mitigate climate change is critical to achieving sustainable development. However, the dominant logic for assessing potential avenues for the mitigation of climate change is underpinned by technical solutions or positivist views of natural phenomena, with limited analysis of behavioral and sociological dimensions [1,2]. Rethinking and framing climate policy within faith-based worldviews is likely to offer new interpretations on the root causes of the ecological crisis. This study aims to address a set of key questions including “What are the drivers and paradigms for explaining climate change?” and “How do policy makers perceive the impact of and solutions to climate change?” The complexity of climate change is propelling researchers to incorporate social science and spirituality into the design of value-based climate policy, especially since climate action is embedded within cultural beliefs, values, and social practices [2,3,4]. Studying the interlinkages between faith and sustainability broadens the perspectives and informs climate policy options beyond simple technical fixes to include other dimensions that influence human behavior such as value-systems, religion, and socio-economic structures [5]. Accordingly, efforts to enhance mitigation measures for climate change can benefit from a deeper understanding of faith-based values, which can also contribute to examining mental models and belief systems that reinforce contemporary policies, institutions, and practices.
Globally, climate change, along with pandemics, conflicts, and natural disasters, constitutes a threat to human security. Even though the Paris Climate Agreement forms a commitment from the global community to address climate risks, it is argued that global inequalities embedded in climate change have created a policy gridlock between the Global North and the Global South. Critically, both the threats and potential mitigation and adaptation strategies for climate change move beyond this international level and travel across different levels of analysis including nations, communities, and individuals. Within the Muslim world, which constitutes about 20% of the global population, some Muslims interpret climate change risks as divine or as a “warning signal” of the end of time, i.e., they embrace a fatalistic worldview, while others adopt a rational and evidence-based scientific discourse [2]. How these interpretations and Islamic values in general are reflected in policy design and climate action emerges as an interesting puzzle.
The climate–faith nexus is underpinned by human behavior and perceptions linked to perceived risks, human responsibility, and intergenerational equity [2,6]. Correlations between perceptions about climate change and religious affiliation were documented by Morrison et al. [7]. In addition, Harlan et al. [8] argued that many factors play critical roles in shaping climate change discourse, including global governance, the poverty gap among nations [9,10], vulnerability [10,11,12], “plural environmental governance” [13], human behavior, and shifting consumption patterns [14,15].
The significance and contribution of this paper stems from its exploration of Islamic climate discourse among scientists, researchers, and policy makers engaged in climate science and practice. Additionally, this research adopts grounded theory to identify the key drivers and enablers of shifts in climate change discourse within the Muslim world, because of the importance of the Islamic worldview in shaping human behavior and eco-cosmic intelligence across parts of the globe. To illustrate this point, Al-Jayyousi et al. [2] commented that the Islamic worldview is underpinned by a set of core guiding principles, i.e., oneness (Tawhid), trusteeship (Khalifa), natural state (Fitra), and balance (Mizan) [2,16,17].
This exploratory study aspires to understand the Muslim mindset and the underlying drivers of policy making at the global level and to trigger positive climate action on the levels of community and the individual. This paper applies an inductive approach, utilizing grounded theory to map environmental discourse and to better understand the role of faith in mitigating climate change in a way that considers the dominant three narratives in the Muslim world, i.e., fatalistic, conspiratorial, and rational. Specifically, this research reviews the impact of the Islamic worldview in shaping public policy discourse around climate change policy with the following objectives: (a) to provide an Islamic perspective on the climate change policy debate; and (b) to point out emerging concepts, themes, and paradigms in order to explain the root causes of and policy options available to address climate change. Overall, this article articulates the imperative to enhance consciousness among Muslim communities of global risks like climate change by addressing the scientific evidence, driving progress and enlightenment rather than being prisoners of fatalistic or conspiratorial mindsets.
The paper is structured as follows: Section two outlines the multiple methods used in this study by introducing the framework used for the focus group discussions and the grounded theory approach. Section three addresses the narratives around climate change. Section four presents the perspectives about Islam and climate change. The results, discussion, and conclusions are presented in the following sections.

2. Materials and Methods

This research is based on a mixed-methodology approach combining a systematic literature review, grounded theory, and focus group discussions. The systematic literature review has been used to analyze the coverage of “Islam and climate” in the literature. The criteria for the selection of articles covered peer-reviewed articles available from Web of Science during the period of 2000–2022.
To perform a deeper examination of how the link between Islam and climate change is reflected in the overall discourse, we have organized an online focus group discussion. The focus group consisted of 27 experts from the global and regional scientific community, with researchers, policy makers, experts, and civil society representatives. A climate policy canvas, as shown in Figure 1, was developed to frame research questions, such as “What are the drivers and causes of climate change?”; “How can Islam contribute to a new narrative in order to address climate change?”; and “What are the Islamic values around and responses to climate change?”.
In order to analyze the focus group discussion, we followed a grounded theory approach. The grounded theory approach, which has its roots in the works of Glaser and Strauss [18], is based on inductive theory development and aims to develop a theory informed by systematic methodological approaches based on data analyses.
Conceptually, grounded theory is positioned within the paradigm of post-positivism. However, Charmaz argued that grounded theory should be framed as being positioned within the constructivist paradigm, which means that “both the participants and the researcher(s) are viewed as interpreters of meaning” [19].
Another model of grounded theory, referring to a “coding paradigm” that synthesizes concepts and themes in a structured manner in order to apply grounded theory, was developed by Strauss and Corbin [20]. However, this approach was criticized for being prescriptive and deductive [21] and was characterized as part of the post-positivism paradigm [22]. Another type of grounded theory, referred to as “the constructivist grounded theory”, was developed by Charmaz [23]. This type of grounded theory is characterized by “acceptance of subjectivity” and the recognition of the researcher’s engagement in constructing and interpreting data through interaction with the participants [22].
Three forms of grounded theory evolved, known as “the emerging design” [24], “the systematic design” [20,25], and “the constructivist paradigm” [26]. Overall, it is argued that grounded theory can incorporate all three aspects, i.e., a systematic approach, an emerging design, and the use of codes to capture the experiences of participants. Grounded theory was widely applied to develop theories in many disciplines including education, social sciences, psychology, and sociology, as shown in Figure 2 [27].
Morse and Richards [28] comment that “the strength of qualitative research inquiry is integration of the research question, the data, and data analysis”. “Grounded theory enables the researcher to hear participants’ voices, develop insights, and conceptualize a theory” [29].
For data analysis, an inductive approach was chosen. This followed the thematic content analysis method, as described by Braun and Clarke [30]. Epistemologically, the research is rooted within a constructivist approach. Figure 3 below outlines the data analysis process.
The qualitative data analysis was conducted using MAXQDA software, version 2022, in order to synthesize concepts, themes, and categories that can explain the linkage between the Islamic worldview and climate change policy, mitigation practice, and perceptions. The online recording of the focus group discussion was transcribed anonymously and was imported to MAXQDA for further analysis. The process of analyzing data was initiated via a line-by-line, open coding of the data until core themes and their interactions were discovered within the data.
Overall, this mixed-methods approach offered a rich analysis in terms of (a) providing a strong scientific foundation based on a systematic literature review, (b) bringing in the “practice” dimension and human factor through focus group discussions, (c) allowing novel ideas, observations, and arguments to emerge from discussions through the grounded theory approach, and finally, (d) providing both quantitative and qualitative results through MAXQDA analysis. While we acknowledge the limitations of the study with regard to the generalization and replication of focus group discussions, we aimed to overcome this challenge through cross-validation with the literature and the diversity of the participants taking part in the study.

3. Framing the Climate Crisis: Divergent Narratives

Climate change is framed within three main narratives within the literature, i.e., fatalism, skepticism, and rationalism. Forte [31] noted that the apocalyptic framing of climate discourse incorporates several notions, i.e., industrial fatalism and climate skepticism discourse. Specifically, Morell [32] undertook a cultural criticism of climate change, investigating the divide between apocalypse and utopia by making a distinction between science “fiction” from science “fact”. This research highlighted the role of science fiction in constructing an “ecological imagination”.
Assessing the fatalistic narrative, Gall-Maynard [33] argues that premillennial apocalyptic rhetoric constitutes a rhetorical frame through which climate reformers articulate the environmental impacts of climate change. Kondenar [34] asserts that the apocalyptic worldview is underpinned by the notion that, although climate problems are immense, there is a higher purpose for existence and a hope for a better future. The apocalypse and doomsday have become a part of cultural identity and how we make decisions. In addition, Foust and Murphy [35] argue that climate discourse framed with an apocalyptic rhetoric emphasizes a catastrophic endpoint that is outside the realm of human agency, where tragic apocalypse constitutes climate crisis as a cosmic fate, and another view that suggests humans have a capacity to influence the global warming narrative.
Conceptually, Arnold [36] identified five narratives, i.e., the intrinsic value of environment; the climate as a driver of human solidarity; historical responsibility; the economic externality of climate change; and the advocacy and politics of climate. Guided by scenario building, the rationalist narrative maps alternative pathways for the future, as seen in Gunderson [37], by identifying possible climate change futures, e.g., the pursuit of ineffective mitigation strategies (e.g., carbon markets); radical climate policy transformation; and apocalyptic or fatalistic approaches.
On the other hand, the pragmatic or rational narrative, which is informed by science, as articulated in the Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, calls for constructing possible future climates through re-imagining the human–environment nexus in order to communicate across disciplines and overcome the schism between social and natural sciences. Specifically, at the global arena, IPCC and UN assessment initiatives employ scenario building to provide a critique of our current socio-technological landscape and suggest future pathways that are underpinned by disruptive and radical structural reform.
The skeptical narrative, as reflected in Grundmann [38], argues that climate skepticism is attributed to failed climate policies. In this narrative, much of this skeptical debate revolves around who is a legitimate expert on climate science. However, there are attempts to delegitimize skeptical views. Machin [39] argues that the skeptical narrative reflects limited faith in democratic mechanisms to respond rationally to the climate change crisis. Moreover, Bevan, Colley, and Workman [40] called for the state to drive the transition to a fossil fuel-free economy. However, other narratives include emergency climate responses, as is evident in US ecological and planetary crisis discourse which is due to neoliberal globalization.
In the global arena, it is argued that the climate crisis constitutes a severe threat to human security through disruptive crises, including natural disasters, extreme weather events, or pandemics. The increasing frequency and scope of climate change’s impacts is causing economic and non-economic damage to the lives and livelihoods of local communities, destroying cultural heritage, and threatening food, water, and human security [41]. Some interpret these as “warning signals” [42] from the Earth in response to the human-made destruction of the environment, ecological balances, and biodiversity [43]. Guided by a rational narrative and policy response, there was a global commitment from the global community to take mitigation measures to ensure responsible growth within planetary boundaries, as articulated in the Paris Agreement, in order to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels [44]. This climate target necessitates a significant commitment to emission reductions, decarbonization of high-emitting sectors, and the decoupling of growth and consumption [45].
Although the climate targets in the Paris Agreement have been globally endorsed and many countries agreed to mitigate risks by submitting their intentionally determined contributions (INDCs) [46], global inequalities embedded in the climate crisis limit the capacity of countries to make a transition to a low-carbon economy. Some scholars have already emphasized that, in climate policy making, there are power dynamics of the “core” and the “periphery”. This is manifested in the unequal exchange of labor and natural resources between developed and developing nations [2,47], which is underpinned by global inequality and the “tragedy of commons” [48].
The cleavages between the Global North and the Global South have been creating a policy gridlock that limits global collaboration on the climate agenda [49,50]. This equity component of the climate crisis has increasingly revealed itself in global governance for climate change mitigation, with emphasis placed on the “special national circumstances” and “common but differentiated responsibilities” [49,51] of developing countries in the Global South, as opposed to post-industrial countries in the Global North.
The climate–faith nexus is underpinned by notions of intergenerational equity, human responsibility, and moral governance [2]. The equity argument of the Global South follows the logic that declares that despite their minimal historical contributions to greenhouse gas emissions, they are liable to address the consequences of global warming [52]. In the global policy arena, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) Commission argues that the climate crisis constitutes an “existential threat to communities given the increasing weather volatility, declining agricultural productivity, and the receding water levels and quality” [53].
Despite the divergent narratives between the Global South and North with regard to equity and liability, policy makers are mindful of the ecological imperatives and the need to take urgent action [54,55,56]. COP 27 has also reaffirmed the parties’ commitment to limiting the global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels by increasing cooperation and support for green finance and technology transfer [41].
It is evident that policy makers are faced with a severe problem due to the complexity of the dynamics and actors in policy making aimed at climate change mitigation. Harlan et al. [8] and Raza et al. [57] argue that, in order to gain a deeper insight into climate disruption, policy makers should be mindful of the governance, poverty, and vulnerability gap among nations [9,10,11,12]. This would allow scholars to address “just sustainability” [58], “plural environmental governance” [13], and pathways of adaptation, including technological, institutional, and societal, in order to enhance adaptive capacity [2] and reduce household emissions by shifting consumption patterns [14,15].
These multi-dimensional dynamics embedded in climate global discourse reveal that social justice, climate change, and livelihoods are closely linked [17]. Since the root of the ecological crisis is spiritual and moral [17,59], the environmental crisis should be addressed through the spiritual healing of humankind [60]. This brings the role of faith into sustainable development and climate change mitigation in a way that considers the three narratives (fatalistic, conspiratorial, and rational).
Global Islamic discourse was influenced when a covenant for the Earth was completed. This was led by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and sought to shed light on the relationship between nature and humanity’s attempt to reduce its ecological footprint [61]. Additionally, faith-based organizations (FBOs) articulated a value-based vision that supports moral and socio-ecological sustainability [62,63]. For instance, various platforms discussed attempts to incorporate faith-based actors, both Islamic and non-Islamic, into the discussion, highlighting the common values and converging interests that can be critical to advancing collective action related to climate change. UNEP’s Faith for Earth Initiative, G-20’s Interfaith Forum, and the Parliament of the World Religions are all concrete manifestations of how faith-based values and communities coordinate and collaborate together at a global level.
The global Muslim community is multi-ethnic and diverse; hence, it is unclear to what extent the climate narrative and “greening” affects the global Muslim community. Koehrsen [64] argues that there is no univocal perspective on climate change among Muslims. Muslims interpret climate change in different perspectives, i.e., the fatalistic, skeptical, and rationalist. Nevertheless, despite different interpretations, core principles and traditions of Islam have the potential to inform the understanding of phenomena related to climate and sustainability and contribute to the efforts to address these challenges. Islamic teachings clearly state that human wellbeing is holistic and not dependent on material wealth alone. Al-Jayyousi et al. [2] and Khalid [65] point out many instances in which the Quran addresses ecological phenomena and ecology as signs of creation. The Islamic worldview is underpinned by a set of core guiding principles, i.e., oneness (Tawhid), trusteeship (Khalifa), natural state (Fitra), and balance (Mizan) [2,16,17]. Tawhid, the unity principle, refers to the Oneness of God and is interpreted as relating to Unity of Creation, meaning that humans and nature are derived from the same source: “God is the Creator of all things; He has charge of everything” (Al-Zumar, 39:62) (Quran, Surah Al-Zumar, Chapter 39, Verse 62).
Khalifa, the responsibility principle, refers to humans as God’s vicegerents and is interpreted as relating to humans as stewards of God’s Creation. Allah has made the human race, His khalifa on Earth. The word is often translated as successor, trustee, vicegerent, and other terms meaning responsibility. Islam teaches its followers to take care of the Earth. Muslims believe that humans should act as guardians, or khalifah, of the planet, and that they will be held accountable by God for their actions. This powerful concept of stewardship was used in the Islamic Declaration on Climate Change to propel change in environmental policy in Muslim countries [66].
According to the creation principle (Fitra), the Quran teaches that the human species was created as a part of nature, with an innate natural disposition like other creations. Accordingly, Islam views the root cause of global warming and ecological crisis as the absence or lack of human stewardship and the deviation and departure from the “natural state” or Fitra. The Islamic notion of humankind’s stewardship of the Earth entails a profound responsibility. Islam does view the Earth as subservient to humankind, arguing instead that it should be administered responsibly.
The role of Tawhid and Khalifa within Islamic environmentalism is related to other important principles: Mizan and Maslahah. Mizan refers to balance and is interpreted as relating to harmony of all parts of creation, while Maslahah refers to the public interest and is interpreted as relating to care for future generations [45].

4. Islam, Environment, and Climate in the Literature

Religions shape and influence believers’ worldviews and contribute to the formation of narratives that provide meaning and purpose, establishing the context of what is sacred and deserving of respect and protection [67]. When it comes to the establishment of such a narrative on climate or sustainability, a simple, unidirectional relationship between religions and climate change cannot be articulated. The interplay between religion and climate change is, rather, embedded in anthropological analyses of how religion interprets climate and theories of climate [65,68].
Koehrsen [64] showed that the literature studying the environment and climate change from an Islamic perspective is theoretical and mainly focuses on Islamic environmental ethics. The Islamic response to the global environmental crisis may be traced at many levels and domains. Some researchers address the framing of the environmental problem [17]; others approach it from the perspective of education and learning [69,70]; whereas some look at the practice of green activism [71,72,73,74] or eco-ethics [16,75,76,77].
This section offers a synthesis of the key themes and concepts emerging from a literature review on the domain of climate change and Islamic worldviews.
The characterization of the literature on faith and climate consists of work that links climate and ethics [45,78,79,80,81,82]; green activism [83,84,85,86,87]; communication and narratives [88,89,90]; and human attitudes [2,91,92].
Gerten and Bergmann [93] included some empirical social scientific contributions about religion and climate change in their edited volume. However, climate change is a global phenomenon with divergent regional or local manifestations, including anthropogenic forces; markets; consumption patterns; global inequality and climate justice; adaptation, mitigation, response, and resilience; and climate politics and civil society [2,64]. Scholars have therefore argued that there is a need to understand the role of religion in climate change dynamics [5,94] in order to address human-induced environmental degradation [83,84,95,96,97,98,99,100,101], since faith shapes worldviews and attitudes [102,103]. Research by Muslim environmentalists identify the modern economic system as the core source of the problem [45,104,105]. Appendix A summarizes key works on the Islamic worldview and climate change by categorizing the findings into six main domains.
The first domain of socio-technological transition focuses on faith-based discourse and collaborations on consumption patterns, with more of a focus on theoretical and normative aspects. The linkage of climate change with morality exhibits that Islamic notions of environmentalism exist. Discussions in this domain reveal a multi-faith approach that evinces the readiness of leaders of varying faiths to act based on ecological perspectives that favor living sustainably as described by scientists. To illustrate, these debates help to identify attitudes and behaviors towards electric cars in a predominantly Muslim-majority country. In terms of the domain of global governance, two main focuses have been singled out. The first is the connection between environmental policy and governance, while the second is the connection between climate justice and local knowledge. The domain of environmental models presents five areas of focus, namely, eco-feminism, eco-theology, moral frameworks, local institutions, and spiritual activism for climate adaptation. These environmental models convey environmental activism or responses to climate change in countries such as Pakistan and Indonesia and provide an overview as to how religious worldviews shape stewardship of the environment and management of its natural resources.
For the domain of climate and morality, three principal focuses have been identified: climate and local values in health professions and bioethics; prayers and intangible assets; and spiritual intelligence to cope with climate change. These discussions address global warming from the perspective of health, explore coping strategies via intangible assets, and reveal the conceptualization and perception of environmental change by locals. The focus for the knowledge creation domain is to examine the application of theory to the cognitive praxis of Muslim environmental activists in non-Muslim-majority countries and promote inclusive and human-centered development for Islamic sustainable development through various models, practices, and drivers. The domain of Islamic finance not only calls for green Islamic finance models that are Shari‘ah-compliant, but stresses sustainable investing as a coping mechanism to cope with the impending crisis.
These findings from the systematic literature review map out the state of the art as analyzed by scholars. Building on these concepts and key domains, the study contributes to the discussion by bringing perspectives from the hands-on experiences of key experts through focus group discussions.

5. Results

To gain a deeper understanding of how the climate and Islamic values are interlinked and reflected in terms of perceptions, practices, and policies on climate change, we organized a focus group discussion as outlined in the methodology section. This section presents the qualitative and quantitative analysis of this discussion. The findings highlight major issues and themes that were synthesized and grouped into three categories, i.e., values, behavior, and action, as outlined below.

5.1. Values as a Determinant of Climate Discourse

The participants highlighted the significance of connecting Islamic values through framing and articulating arguments about climate change. They indicated that Muslim communities could play a significant role in addressing climate change by examining its underlying causes, key factors, and potential outcomes. By incorporating Islamic teachings in the climate debate, policy makers can increase the issue salience and create nudges for the public towards a proactive discourse on sustainability and the pursuit of a good life.
As one of the participants expressed, to truly understand the intersection of Islamic principles with the discussions on climate change, it is crucial to delve beyond surface-level problems and explore the underlying worldview and metaphors at work. In this way, it is possible to gain a holistic understanding of the environmental challenges and influence public discourse. In addition, the participants highlighted how Islamic values can serve as a driver to propel Muslims to participate in shaping the environmental agenda in their countries and to align their actions with positive environmental initiatives. Furthermore, it has been emphasized that Islamic values can hold universal significance for all of humanity and the entire universe, reinforcing the inclusive nature of Islamic values and highlighting their potential contribution to the global commons and environmental sustainability.
The quantitative investigation of the values addressed in the focus group discussion identified 11 direct references. These references revealed some specific values. The figure below demonstrates these values as per their relative weight in the overall discussion on values.
Figure 4 indicates that “moderation” stands out as the most referenced value since participants significantly emphasized the importance of “moderate consumption”, “moderation at a personal level”, and “refraining from waste/wastefulness”. One of the participants stressed the idea of mainstreaming the values of de-growth and responsible consumption by stating that “our role, as humans, is not to consume a lot, but to protect our natural capital”. The references to the sense of human “responsibility” were the second most highlighted aspect under this category. The notion of responsibility has two major dimensions, i.e., accepting human responsibility for causing environmental damage and spillover effects and acting as a witness and a trustee by changing one’s behavior and living responsibly. Throughout the panel discussion, themes such as creating eco-communities based on equal opportunities, fair access to natural resources, and environmental justice were highlighted. Multiple participants underscored the role of “peace and equity in managing the global resources of the planet”, and referred to the notion of “intergenerational equity” as a core moral value.

5.2. Linkages between Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice

The focus group members reflected on the interplay between human knowledge, attitudes, and practice. The participants elaborated on the notion of eco-cosmic intelligence, which implies the awareness that there is a meaning, value, and purpose in all God’s creation. This mindfulness of cosmic order and balance propels humans to respect the natural state (Fitra) and protect and celebrate diversity and beauty in nature (Ihsan). As one participant commented, “If God created everything with a purpose, with a meaning, with the order, we have to care about this”. Therefore, recognizing the intricate balance of nature, an environmental expert on the panel argued that “Muslims are inspired to preserve and protect the environment as a manifestation of their moral and ethical obligations”.
The majority of the participants in the focus group also emphasized the importance of understanding the Quranic value system in adopting de-growth and reorganizing the relationship between production and consumption. This mindset adheres to the concept of decoupling growth and consumption and calls for the promotion of responsible behavior in order to reduce, reuse, recycle, and recover resources. By adopting these practices, participants declared that Muslims could demonstrate their commitment to a green economy, sustainable living, and responsible resource management. A deep appreciation of a moral economy is underpinned by “spiritual intelligence” and practices of a sharing economy to sustain natural capital and ecosystem services.
Participants also addressed the relevance of Islamic practices in addressing climate change and acknowledged that individual behavior plays a crucial role in combating environmental challenges. To illustrate the point, one of the participants stated that “it is the behavior of the people that will make or break our fight against climate change”. Therefore, experts highlighted the imperative for “elevating the awareness and consciousness in the general public, women and children to rethink the linkages between production and consumption”. One expert stated that “there are so diverse practices from Islamic tradition that can inform guiding principles and experiences for both policy makers and the general public”.

5.3. Science–Policy–Action Nexus

The coding process, based on a grounded theory approach, revealed that a significant majority of the points raised during the focus group discussion concerned mechanisms and tools (with 63 coded segments) that address the nexus of climate science, policy, and action to achieve “prosperity without growth” through environmental stewardship, climate change mitigation/adaptation, and sustainable development practices. These elements are clustered under a category we labelled “spheres of action”, which presents significant insights into the future interface of science and policy. Table 1, presented below, lists all the components under this category and summarizes their relative percentages and frequencies.
As the table indicates, the focus group discussion had a clear emphasis on educating to promote sustainable development. As an expert in the focus group commented, teaching the value of environmental stewardship is critical for shaping the mindset of future generations. It has also been underlined that “it is crucial that these environmental values are integrated into the curricula starting from early education”. By building ecological knowledge and fostering a spirit of lifelong learning, experts argued that “citizens can gain a deeper understanding of the ecological footprints and planetary boundaries”. Accordingly, it has been stated that, as part of this educational endeavor, teacher training programs should incorporate climate change and environmental security. Various experts stated that “educational programs must be developed to help children comprehend the consequences of their choices on God’s creation”. Engaging the community and youth in green activism and eco-activities such as hiking, exploring local watersheds, visiting national parks, and creating artwork that explores different faith traditions were identified as potentially fostering a greater appreciation of and responsibility towards the environment. Additionally, it was stated that “interdisciplinary collaboration between science, engineering and business is key to co-create green innovations”.
The findings under this category reveal the added value of contextualizing the concept of collective action in order to enhance the role of Islamic values in climate change mitigation. The emerging themes include “cooperation”, “collaboration networks”, “interfaith collaboration”, “joint environmental action”, and “interdisciplinary efforts”. It is worth emphasizing that, in terms of interfaith collaboration, the Islamic narrative has been already positioning itself in relation to existing initiatives of other faith groups, such as the Catholic approach to climate change solidified by Pope Francis and the publication of Laudato Si (On the Care of the Mother Earth). The Islamic Declaration on Climate Change was part of a global array of faith-based responses towards the climate crisis. However, collaborative action requires more than acknowledgement. According to the experts in the focus group discussion, “cooperation plays a vital role in addressing the challenges of climate remediation”. In terms of creating common venues of action, key actors such as “higher education institutions play a significant role in fostering international collaboration”, as articulated by experts. The imperatives to ensure synergy and collaboration among stakeholders become apparent, particularly in the context of decarbonizing businesses, both public, private, and small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The framework provided by Sustainable Development Goal 17 (SDG17) serves as a foundation for collaboration among stakeholders, offering substantial potential for collective action. Promoting intergenerational dialogue and interdisciplinarity is crucial to co-creating a new evidence-based moral environmental narrative. Establishing collaboration networks and social platforms among universities is key to fostering systemic thinking and action learning.
In order to catalyze these areas of action, participants emphasized the pivotal role of harnessing Islamic finance and environmental diplomacy in support of a transition to a sustainable economy. Specifically, one expert stated that “Islamic finance can mobilize capital to finance nature-based solutions and to mainstream principles of responsible investment”.
An emphasis on Islamic heritage was another key theme in the focus group discussion. The focus group revealed the value of reviving Islamic heritage and integrating it into contemporary practices in order to support the pursuit of sustainable living. Pilot innovative eco-projects, inspired by various cultures and ecology, showcase local models for sustainable innovation like eco-agriculture, as indicated by one participant; “embracing Islamic heritage not only strengthens cultural identity but also provides a rich source of knowledge and practices that can contribute to sustainable development”.
Lastly, a key theme emerges from the focus group discussion, relating to outreach and social marketing. One of the experts suggested that successful case studies can demonstrate the significance of mainstreaming Islamic values in the environmental narrative. Another expert underlined the impact of social media, local conservation models, and storytelling in shaping public opinion and collective action about climate change.

6. Discussion

The qualitative data analysis of the focus group discussion using a climate policy canvas reveals three primary findings:
  • Islamic values as a contributor to climate discourse: The climate–faith nexus is underpinned by notions of intergenerational equity and human responsibility. The analysis of emerging concepts, themes, and models illustrates the role of an Islamic worldview in framing narratives about human responsibility, accountability, climate justice, intergenerational equity, and the intrinsic value of ecosystems. Additionally, the study showed that Muslim communities could play a significant role in addressing climate change by instilling a sense of hope into the design of future pathways based on harmony between humans and nature. In the policy arena, Islamic worldviews in the global climate debate can enlighten a new discourse on sustainability that redefines what constitutes a good life.
  • Linkages between knowledge, attitude, and practice: The holistic Islamic worldview about environmental stewardship and the story of creation shows the interplay between human knowledge, attitude, and practice. The ethical and spiritual attributes of Islamic principles like natural state (Fitra), beauty (Ihsan), and balance (Mizan) nurture the notion of eco-cosmic intelligence, which implies the awareness that there is a meaning, value, and purpose in all God’s creation. This mindfulness of cosmic order inspires humans to respect, protect, and celebrate ecological and cultural diversity.
  • Science–policy–action nexus: The grounded theory approach of this study revealed that experts are keen to transform ideas into institutions in order to create a shared reality for a sustainable human civilization. Devising adequate mechanisms and approaches in order to support the climate science–policy–action nexus for the purpose of achieving value-based environmental stewardship and climate justice is critical for attaining agreement on the global commons to advance the global agenda. However, some inequalities embedded in the climate agreements between the Global North and South limit the possibilities of reaching win–win solutions when transitioning to a low-carbon economy. The divergence of narratives between the Global North and the Global South has created a policy gridlock that hinders collaboration to address global commons in the climate agenda due to the climate politics of the “core” and “periphery” and divergent narratives between the Global South and North with regard to equity and liability. Future research must answer the overarching question of how Islamic and non-Islamic values can pass through these divergent/clashing narratives and construct a framework for undertaking collective community responses in order to produce equitable, inclusive, and diverse outcomes.

7. Conclusions

Based on the synthesis of a literature review and qualitative analysis of focus group discussions, the following conclusions are outlined.
The key narratives identified based on the literature include the intrinsic value of the environment, climate as a driver of human solidarity, the economic externality of climate change, climate advocacy, and historical responsibility. This research reveals that there is a growing global community of Muslim scholars who adhere to a rational and pragmatic narrative of climate change by mapping out alternative pathways for the future, calling for climate policy transformation through the adoption of a moral economy, and re-imagining of the human–environment nexus to achieve climate justice and prosperity. In addition, this study shows that there is an absence of the skeptical climate narrative among Muslim experts who call for the role of climate policies in creating public value through a transition to a green economy. The synthesis of perception from key Muslim experts in the focus group shows that there is a consensus that climate crisis constitutes a severe threat to human security and that urgent policy action is needed. A conceptual framework was developed based on grounded theory, which identifies how perceptions, knowledge, and Islamic values can evolve through attitudes and behavior in order to end up with good practice in climate action, as illustrated in Figure 5.
While numerous initiatives are ongoing, as highlighted in this study, such as the G-20 Interfaith Forum, Parliament of the World’ Religions and Faith for Earth Initiative, and many other local, regional, and international efforts, Islamic and non-Islamic values and community-based approaches have the potential to supplement formal policy making systems. In this regard, the findings of this study provide critical guideposts to global policy actors and national decision makers by incorporating value-based interventions and behavioral approaches into their tool kits of policy design and implementation. The integration of value-based approaches needs to be experimentally designed and tested through “nudging” units. Based on our analysis and focus group discussions, existing nudging approaches and behavioral insights should be more open to the integration of values, as well as to the use of co-designed mechanisms by the communities and policy sectors.
In sum, to gain a deeper insight into climate change action, policy makers should be mindful of the use of faith-based values to chart new pathways of adaptation in the spheres of technological, institutional, and societal sustainability policies. As for academia, this study underlines that future research is needed in the sphere of climate action, as the behavioral impacts of Islam, and the interaction of traditional values with changing socio-economic dynamics, beg further investigation.

Author Contributions

The names of the contributing authors appear in alphabetical order as O.A.-J., W.N.W.H., S.M.S., S.D.S. and E.T. Equal authorship is implied. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was made possible in part by NPRP grant #12C-0804-190009, entitled SDG Education and Global Citizenship in Qatar: Enhancing Qatar’s Nested Power in the Global Arena, from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of the Qatar Foundation).

Institutional Review Board Statement

This focus group discussion has been conducted as part of the workshop series organized by the project on Education for Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship, reviewed by Hamad Bin Khalifa University Institutional Review Board with the protocol number QBRI-IRB-2023-107.

Informed Consent Statement

All subjects gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the focus group discussion. The analysis and presentation of data have been anonymized, without any personal identifiers.

Data Availability Statement

The data are presented in the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Summary of Key Research on Climate Change and the Islamic Worldview.
Table A1. Summary of Key Research on Climate Change and the Islamic Worldview.
Domain/DimensionFocusOverviewResponse to Climate Change Risks
Socio-technological transitionFaith-based discourse and collaboration.Outlines multi-faith- based ecological perspectives.Faith leaders across religions demonstrate their readiness to act as informed by scientists [4,106].
Theoretical and normative.Reviews Muslims’ response to climate change. Stresses normative aspects.Linking climate change with human morality and Islamic environmentalism [61].
Global governanceEnvironmental policy and governance.Addresses Islamic contributions to global governance within OIC.Articulated the OIC policy response to COP 21 in 2015. Explores how Islam has conceptualized environmental protection [107].
Climate justice and local knowledge.Sheds light on how religion interprets climate as a religious event.[5,108]
Environmental modelsEco-feminism.Explores Islamic environmental behavior in Pakistan.Mainstreams gender in climate action and climate policy [109].
Eco-theology.Explores how religion shapes and mediates responses to climate disaster in Pakistan.Adopting a non-binary view to go beyond the pairings of rationality with science and religion with “fatalist” [110].
Moral frameworks.Summarizes how different religious worldviews shape environmental stewardship.Suggests that indigenous religions provide a set of institutions that could facilitate adaptation to climate change [103].
Local institutions.Explores climate responses of faith-based movements in Indonesia.Synthesizes a set of institutional modes including spirituality and celebrations to attain the “socialization” of environmental ideals [111].
Spiritual activism for climate adaptation.Analyzes Sufi activism to heal the Earth in Indonesia.Faith communities adapted to climate change through Oneness of God and harmonious view between humans and ecology [112].
Climate and moralityClimate and local values in health professions and bioethics.Addresses the effects of global warming on health in Africa and the Middle East.Harnessing local values (ubuntu and Islamic ethics) of sharing and empathy to mitigate climate change [48].
Prayers and intangible assets.Views Muslim prayer as an intangible asset to cope with climate risks.Calling for use of mass prayers as intangible assets [113].
Spiritual intelligence to cope with climate change.Explores how Muslim villagers in Tanzania perceive environmental change.Evoking religious causality to explain climate events to cope with uncertainty and social suffering [114,115].
Knowledge creationCognitive praxis.Examines the production of knowledge by applying theory of cognitive praxis.Integration of environmental and religious knowledge is key to form a “critical Muslim community” to link knowledge and practice [116].
Reviews drivers and models for Islamic sustainable development.Framing a holistic approach to address sustainability [2].
Islamic financeGreen Islamic finance models.Calls for value-based approaches to cope with crises.Harnessing Islamic finance to adapt to climate change [117].

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Figure 1. Islam and climate policy model canvas (source: designed by the authors).
Figure 1. Islam and climate policy model canvas (source: designed by the authors).
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Figure 2. The process of the grounded theory research method (source: adapted from [27]).
Figure 2. The process of the grounded theory research method (source: adapted from [27]).
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Figure 3. The data analysis process.
Figure 3. The data analysis process.
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Figure 4. Relative percentages of values addressed in the focus group discussion, in percentages (source: authors’ MAXQDA analysis).
Figure 4. Relative percentages of values addressed in the focus group discussion, in percentages (source: authors’ MAXQDA analysis).
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Figure 5. Conceptual framework for climate change action, developed based on grounded theory.
Figure 5. Conceptual framework for climate change action, developed based on grounded theory.
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Table 1. Spheres of action.
Table 1. Spheres of action.
SegmentsPercentage
Education1930.16
Cooperation812.7
Heritage69.52
Storytelling69.52
Islamic Finance57.94
Setting Examples46.35
Environmental Law46.35
Interdisciplinarity23.17
Academic Conferences23.17
Joint Environmental Action23.17
Environmental Diplomacy23.17
Interfaith Collaboration11.59
Effective use of Media11.59
Collaboration Networks11.59
TOTAL63100
Source: authors’ MAXQDA analysis.
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Al-Jayyousi, O.; Hasan, W.N.W.; Mohamed Saniff, S.; Sever, S.D.; Tok, E. A Critical Discourse Analysis on Climate Change in a Globalized World: The Nexus of Islam and Sustainable Development. Sustainability 2023, 15, 14515. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914515

AMA Style

Al-Jayyousi O, Hasan WNW, Mohamed Saniff S, Sever SD, Tok E. A Critical Discourse Analysis on Climate Change in a Globalized World: The Nexus of Islam and Sustainable Development. Sustainability. 2023; 15(19):14515. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914515

Chicago/Turabian Style

Al-Jayyousi, Odeh, Wan Norhaniza Wan Hasan, Shereeza Mohamed Saniff, Seda Duygu Sever, and Evren Tok. 2023. "A Critical Discourse Analysis on Climate Change in a Globalized World: The Nexus of Islam and Sustainable Development" Sustainability 15, no. 19: 14515. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914515

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