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Article

Personal vs. Collective Nostalgia and Different Temporally Orientated Green Consumption

by
Han Zhang
1,
Chenhan Ruan
2,
Lei Huang
3,*,
Luluo Peng
4 and
Chuangxin Guo
5,6
1
Xinhuadu Business School, Minjiang University, Fuzhou 350108, China
2
School of Economics and Management, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
3
Straits Institute of Minjiang University, Minjiang University, Fuzhou 350108, China
4
Business School of Hunan University, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
5
College of Computer and Control Engineering, Minjiang University, Fuzhou 350108, China
6
College of Electrical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(19), 14624; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914624
Submission received: 29 July 2023 / Revised: 21 September 2023 / Accepted: 28 September 2023 / Published: 9 October 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue What Influences Environmental Behavior?)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In the literature, there are discrepancies about how nostalgia affects green consumption. Both positive and negative relationships between nostalgia and green consumption are found, and most research treats all types of green consumption the same, neglecting the differences. This study tried to put the contradictory findings together by classifying green consumption into future vs. non-future green consumption and taking collective vs. personal nostalgia into account. As far as we know, this study is the first to propose this classification of green consumption, and different patterns are found, which might drive new research. This research tested our hypotheses across four randomized controlled trials with 921 valid respondents in total. Study 1 found a negative effect of personal nostalgia on future-oriented green consumption and revealed a positive relationship between collective nostalgia and non-future green consumption. The results confirmed both positive and negative effects of nostalgia on green consumption found in previous research. Study 2 revealed that the past orientation mediated personal nostalgia’s negative effect on future-oriented green consumption and collective efficacy mediated collective nostalgia’s positive effect on non-future-oriented green consumption. Study 3 tested the moderating effect of product newness on personal nostalgia and future green consumption, and a negative moderating effect was uncovered. Study 4 found a positive moderating effect of product identity on collective nostalgia and non-future-oriented green consumption.

1. Introduction

The world is currently facing many vital challenges that highlight the increasing importance of promoting green consumption. For example, after the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in 2021, a global energy shortage emerged, which led to increased prices for oil, gas and electricity. Moreover, the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 further exacerbated the energy shortage into an energy crisis. The West Texas Intermediate front month crude oil price has surged from USD 16.94 per barrel to a staggering USD 120.67 per barrel over the past 3 years (https://tradingeconomics.com/commodity/crude-oil. Accessed 23 January 2023.). The situation for natural gas in Europe is even more dire, with the Dutch front month natural gas price soared from approximately EUR 10 per megawatt-hour (MWH) in 2020 and reached up to EUR 320 per MWh in 2022 (https://tradingeconomics.com/commodity/eu-natural-gas. Accessed 23 January 2023.).
As a solution to many of these challenges, green consumption is one of the most important topics for social scientists. It refers to a type of consumption that promotes environmental well-being [1]. Examples of typical green consumption behaviors include purchasing recycled paper, second-hand products, and energy-efficient appliances, and conserving on the use of water/electricity. However, consumers may show hesitation to try some green innovation products based on the diffusion of innovation and concern about their utility [2]. Recent studies in the literature discussed ways to improve the adoption of green behaviors [3], such as implementing green reverse logistics technology [4], displaying green innovation practices [2], and incorporating innovation inputs [5]. Additionally, they tried to examine this issue from an individual perspective. Research has shown that individual variables play a vital role in green consumption. Prior studies have found that frugality [6], long-term orientation [7], future orientation [8], and collectivism [9] are factors that increase green consumption. There have also been studies investigating how nostalgia affects green consumption, but the conclusions are contradictory [10,11]. While Wang and Chao [10] discovered that nostalgia decreases green consumption, Khan et al. [11] found that nostalgia actually stimulates green consumption. In an effort to reconcile these conflicting findings, we sought to propose a unified framework encompassing these divergent perspectives.
Nostalgia is defined as a sentimental longing or wistful affection for the past [12]. Previous works in the literature mainly asserted that nostalgia was negatively correlated with green consumption [11]. This is due to the fact that nostalgia-induced past orientations impede the adoption of innovations, and green consumption is usually considered as innovative. For example, consumers who are in a state of nostalgia will be less likely to engage in sharing economies or purchase appliances with innovative energy-saving technology. Wang and Chao [10] found that nostalgia decreased green consumption since nostalgia provoked longing for the old and familiar goods, which tended to be less green or environmentally sustainable. On the other hand, some findings proposed a positive association between nostalgia and green behaviors [13,14]. Wang et al. [13] found that nostalgia gives consumers a sense of collective efficacy, so that products reuse and donation were increased [13]. To be more specific, past collective experience enhances the belief that people are interconnected and they are able to overcome environmental issues. Khan et al. [11] found that nostalgia could stimulate green consumption via social connectiveness as well, an important antecedent of collective efficacy. In an attempt to reconcile these conflicting findings, we propose a unified framework encompassing these divergent perspectives.
To unify the discrepant findings, this research proposes two facets. First, the existing studies fail to distinguish different types of green consumption. Generally, green consumption is a future-oriented behavior, but there are significant variations within this category. Compared with purchasing a power-efficient appliance, purchasing recycled paper is less future-oriented, as the green benefit occurs before purchase. Thus, we propose that there are future-oriented and non-future-oriented types of green consumption. Wang and Chao [10] found negative effects related to future-oriented green consumption because of nostalgia-elicited past orientation. People who feel nostalgia and decrease their consumption of energy-saving appliances are an example. The results could be different when considering non-future-oriented green consumption where past orientation plays few roles. In addition, previous research fails to distinguish different kinds of nostalgia. Nostalgia is defined as a “sentimental longing or wistful affection for the past” [12]. It can be categorized as either collective or personal, according to whether one thinks of oneself in terms of a particular social identity or not [15]. When individuals think of themselves without others, personal nostalgia is triggered, whereas when they associate themselves with a group, collective nostalgia is triggered [15,16]. Compared with personal nostalgia, collective nostalgia increases collective action [17], and since green consumption is beneficial to society as a whole, this mechanism may drive the positive effect of nostalgia on green consumption that Khan et al. [11] found. People who think of a nostalgic moment with their family or close friends and increase their intention to purchase second-hand products are an example of collective nostalgia increasing non-future-oriented green consumption. This research put them into a unified framework by taking collective vs. personal nostalgia and future-oriented vs. non-future-oriented green consumption into account.
This study contributes to the literature in two ways. First, it addresses discrepancies found in the previous literature regarding the impact of nostalgia on green consumption, and seeks to integrate them into a unified framework. Second, this research introduces a new classification for green consumption behaviors based on their level of future orientation, which yields interesting results. Most of the literature tends to treat different green consumption behaviors as equal, with misleading results.
In the following sections, this study reviews the literature on nostalgia and green consumption. Then, hypotheses are built to explain why collective nostalgia increases green consumption, whereas personal nostalgia decreases green consumption. Next, four studies are conducted to examine these hypotheses. In Study 1, we investigate how collective and personal nostalgia affect green consumption. In Study 2, the mechanisms of past orientation and collective efficacy are explored. In Study 3 and Study 4, the moderating effect of product newness on the relationship between personal nostalgia and future-oriented green consumption and the moderating effect of local products on the relationship between collective nostalgia and non-future-oriented green consumption are tested, respectively. Finally, this study is concluded with a general discussion.

2. Literature Review and Hypotheses

2.1. Green Consumption

Green means concern for the physical environment: air, water, and land [18]. In this study, green consumption indicates consumption behaviors that are environmentally friendly. Purchasing products made with recycled materials, second-hand products, and energy-saving appliances, using cars and appliances in an energy-saving way, and conserving on the consumption of water, paper and electricity are typical green consumption behaviors.
Although most consumers are aware of the significance of green consumption, barriers such as price, inconvenience and poor performance in some attributes hinder the purchase of green products [19,20,21,22,23,24]. To address these barriers, there has been extensive research investigating the impacts of non-individual and individual factors on green consumption. In the non-individual stream of literature, studies investigate how product-related factors [25,26,27,28], firm-related factors [29,30,31], social dynamics [32,33,34,35] and national policy [36,37] affect green consumption. Among these studies, we focused on those that addressed how product factors affect green consumption. Depending on the beneficiary of the product, green consumption can be classified into self-benefiting or other-benefiting behavior. The two types of green consumption are triggered differently: abstract (concrete) appeal is more effective for other-benefiting (self-benefiting) green consumption [25]. In addition to the differences in beneficiaries, there are distinctions in green benefit duration. This research proposes that green consumption can be divided into future-oriented and non-future-oriented types. For future-oriented green consumption, the green benefit is experienced over a long-lasting period of usage; purchasing energy-saving appliances is a typical example of future-oriented green consumption. On the other hand, for non-future-oriented green consumption, the green benefit occurs during or before purchase. Purchasing second-hand products or products made from recycled materials are typical non-future oriented green consumption behaviors.
This research is also related to the stream of research on how individual factors influence consumers going green. Researchers have investigated how status motives [38], perceived guilt and pride [39], information elaboration and psychological distance [40], power distance [41], social class [42], collectivism [9] and nostalgia [10,11,13] affect green consumption. Previous studies have focused on how nostalgia affects green consumption and reached different conclusions [10,11,13]. This research makes an effort to consolidate these contradicting findings and discuss them in detail in the next section.
Although studies of green consumption are eye-catching and fruitful, this research contributes by proposing future-oriented vs. non-future-oriented green consumption. The results demonstrated that the two types of green consumption are triggered differently, thus deepening our understandings of green consumption.

2.2. Nostalgia and Green Consumption

Nostalgia is “a sentimental longing or wistful affection for the past [12]”, and there are different types of nostalgia according to the nostalgia content: collective nostalgia vs. personal nostalgia. Evidence shows that nostalgic experiences are mostly positive and self-focused interactions with close others, are always triggered by negative mood and loneliness, and help with building social bonds, self-esteem and positive affect [43]. Collective nostalgia is experienced when one thinks of oneself in terms of a particular social identity or as a member of a particular group [15]. People experience personal nostalgia when they think of a nostalgic event experienced individually [16].
The two types of nostalgia show different effects. People who have experienced collective nostalgia (vs. personal nostalgia) show increased collective self-esteem and a stronger intention to approach and support in-group members [16]. Based on the effect of collective self-esteem, collective nostalgia also increases the preference for in-group products, which leads to domestic country bias [15]. There are also various different patterns when considering disposal behaviors. Personal nostalgia increases the intention to keep and reuse, but collective nostalgia fosters acts of charity and recycling [13]. The differences are primarily rooted in personal nostalgia-elicited self-continuity and collective nostalgia-induced collective efficacy [13].
There are conflicting findings about how nostalgia affects green consumption; this research will integrate the contradictory findings by taking personal vs. collective nostalgia into account. Wang and Chao [10] use the adoption of energy-saving appliances as a measure of green consumption and find that nostalgia decreases green consumption through past orientation. However, Khan et.al. [11] measure the general attitude toward the environment when making purchase decisions and find a positive relationship between nostalgia and green consumption via social connectedness [11]. Therefore, it is necessary to further investigate the relationship between nostalgia and green consumption. This research proposes that the conflicting outcomes stem from overlooking different types of nostalgia (collective vs. personal) and green consumption (future-oriented vs. non-future-oriented).

2.3. Past Orientation Mediates Personal Nostalgia’s Negative Effect on Future-Oriented Green Consumption

Consumers possess different temporal orientations: past, present and future. Evidence suggests that those different temporal orientations are exclusive, meaning that one cannot be both past-oriented and future-oriented at the same time [44]. These temporal orientations create a cognitive response bias that filters and interprets personal experiences, and past orientation make people more likely to engage in past-oriented behaviors and put up barriers to future-oriented behaviors [45]. Research studies find that those who are past-oriented tend to be more conservative and cautious [44], while consumers with a future orientation tend to purchase new styles [46]. According to the temporal orientation of green benefits, this research proposes that there are two categories of green consumption. They are future-oriented green consumption and non-future-oriented green consumption. For future-oriented green consumption, the green benefit will take place over a long duration after purchase, and purchasing energy-efficient appliances is of this type. The green benefits of non-future-oriented green consumption occur during or before purchase. Conserving on the use of water and purchasing recycled products are examples of non-future-oriented green consumption.
There are two main mechanisms that apply when nostalgic people make green consumption decisions: the past orientation mechanism and the collective efficacy mechanism. Different mechanisms are triggered when consumers have personal nostalgic feelings vs. collective nostalgic feelings. Consumers in a personal nostalgic state will activate the past orientation mechanism [10], but consumers in a collective nostalgic state will activate both the past orientation mechanism and collective efficacy mechanism, which will lead to different green consumption patterns [15]. People who feel nostalgic are more likely to engage in past-oriented behaviors and less likely to engage in future-oriented behaviors. For example, consumers who have watched nostalgic ads are more likely to participate in brand resurrection movements [47], their preferences toward classic brands are improved [48], and they prefer goods they are familiar with based on past experience [49]. Consumers who have more nostalgic feelings at a traditional restaurant rate the restaurant more highly and convey an intention to revisit [50]. In line with this reasoning, as an important type of nostalgia, personal nostalgia will decrease future-oriented behavior, and future-oriented green consumption is one such future-oriented behavior. Hence, the hypotheses are as follows:
Hypothesis 1: 
Personal nostalgia decreases future-oriented green consumption.
Hypothesis 2: 
Past orientation mediates personal nostalgia’s negative effect on future-oriented green consumption.

2.4. Moderating Effect of Product Newness

Based on the above reasoning, people who are in a state of personal nostalgia will decrease their intention to engage in future-oriented green consumption because of a nostalgia-induced past orientation. Not only will future-oriented behavior be decreased, but also preferences for new things will be weakened. Research finds that past-oriented consumers tend to prefer traditional things and dislike new styles and that nostalgic consumers tend to buy traditional food products instead of new foods [51]. So, compared with future-oriented traditional green products, consumers with a personal nostalgia-induced past orientation will be less likely to engage in future-oriented consumption of green new products. For example, consumers will be less likely to buy energy-saving LED lights with new designs compared to energy-saving LED lights with traditional designs. Hence, the hypothesis is as follows:
Hypothesis 3: 
Product newness weakens personal nostalgia’s effect on future-oriented green consumption.

2.5. Collective Efficacy Mediates Collective Nostalgia’s Positive Effect on Non-Future-Oriented Green Consumption

Things are different when collective nostalgia is induced. Not only will the past orientation mechanism be activated, but also the collective efficacy mechanism. Collective efficacy is defined as a group’s shared belief in their ability to solve a specific problem [52]. Research finds that collective nostalgia increases collective efficacy by reminding consumers of past collective social experiences, most of which are positive [13,15]. By contrast, personal nostalgia is about personal experiences, so collective efficacy is not activated when people feel personal nostalgia. Green consumption attempts to address the environmental issues faced by all humans, and collective efficacy is an important antecedent of green consumption [53]. Prior research finds that collective efficacy contributes to actions taken to combat climate crises [54] and reduce plastic consumption [55]. For future-oriented green consumption, where the green benefit occurs mostly in the future, a collective nostalgia-induced past orientation plays a negative role, which makes the main effect unclear. However, for non-future-oriented green consumption, where the green benefit occurs at or before purchase, a collective nostalgia-induced past orientation does not play a negative role, and collectively induced collective efficacy still has a positive effect on green consumption. Hence, the hypotheses are as follows:
Hypothesis 4: 
Collective nostalgia increases non-future-oriented green consumption.
Hypothesis 5: 
Collective efficacy mediates collective nostalgia’s positive effect on non-future-oriented green consumption.

2.6. Moderating Effect of Product Identity: Local vs. Non-Local

Collective nostalgia concerns events or objects related to a particular social identity or group and is experienced when one thinks of oneself in terms of that social identity or as a member of that particular group [15]. Researchers find that collective nostalgia increases support for in-group members [16] and preferences for domestic products, which are thought to be in-group products [15]. Local products are more likely to be thought of as ingroup and gain ingroup preferences compared with non-local products and gain additional preference when consumers feel collective nostalgia. Therefore, we hypothesize the following:
Hypothesis 6: 
Local products strengthen collective nostalgia’s effect on non-future-oriented green consumption.

3. Methods and Results

We used four studies to test our hypotheses. Study 1 was a 3 (nostalgia type: personal vs. collective vs. control) × 2 (green consumption type: future-oriented vs. non-future-oriented) mixed-subjects design using a nationwide sample. We tested the main effects of personal nostalgia and collective nostalgia. After confirming the main effects, we investigate the mechanism in Study 2. Finally, we examined the boundary conditions for personal nostalgia and collective nostalgia in Study 3 and Study 4, respectively.

3.1. Study 1: Main Effects of Personal and Collective Nostalgia

Study 1 tested, as the main effects, whether personal nostalgia would decrease future- oriented green consumption and collective nostalgia would increase non-future-oriented green consumption by manipulating nostalgia.

3.1.1. Participants

Study 1 was a 3 (nostalgia type: personal vs. collective vs. control) × 2 (green consumption type: future-oriented vs. non-future-oriented) mixed-subjects design. Nostalgia type was a between factor and green consumption type was a within factor. Study 1 recruited subjects using Credamo (https://www.credamo.com. Accessed 20 August 2023.), a well-known survey platform in China, which had a sample poll of 3 million respondents from all over China. A questionnaire from Study 1 was randomly assigned by Credamo to their sample poll, and 403 subjects responded to the questionnaire, resulting in 367 valid responses with an effective response rate of 91.3%. Statistical information is shown in Table 1; 43.1% of the sample were male, and most respondents were between the ages of 21 and 30 years. The majority of respondents had monthly income of between CNY 5001 and CNY 10,000, and 61.6% of the sample came from urban areas.

3.1.2. Materials and Procedures

We used a priming procedure similar to that used by Sedikides and Wildschut [17] to manipulate nostalgia, a process that is widely used and proven effective [10,13]. First, subjects were randomly assigned to one of either a personal nostalgia, collective nostalgia or control group. In the nostalgia groups (both personal and collective), participants were introduced to the concept of nostalgia. After the introduction, participants in the personal nostalgia group were asked to think about a nostalgic event they had personally experienced themselves and write a minimum of 50 words (in Chinese) about the experience and how they felt. The collective nostalgia and control groups were similar to the personal nostalgia group except for what respondents were asked to recall. In the collective nostalgia group, participants were asked to think of a nostalgic event that they had personally experienced with others. In the control group, participants were asked to think of an ordinary event that took place in the last week. Manipulation check scales consisted of two items: “Right now, I am feeling quite nostalgic”, and “Right now, I am having nostalgic feelings", (1 = not at all, 7 = very much;) [17].
Next, all participants were introduced to two shopping scenarios. Scenario 1 was about future-oriented green consumption and said: “Suppose that you need to buy a set of batteries and there is a set of rechargeable batteries for you. This kind of rechargeable battery has a volume of 2775 milliampere-hour, twice as large as the ordinary battery, and a 1000 times of recharge life. The price of this set (including the charger) is 89 RMB, which costs more when purchasing compared to the ordinary counterparts, but it saves in a life time span. The detail information of this set of batteries is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this set of batteries, please rate from 1 (strongly don’t want) to 7 (strongly want)”. Scenario 2 was about non-future-oriented green consumption and measured general purchase intentions for secondhand products. A three-item 7-point scale revised from [56] was used (I will purchase secondhand furniture. I will purchase secondhand household appliances. I will purchase secondhand electronic products.).
In addition, positive affect [57] and demographics including age, gender, education level, income, and native place type (urban vs. rural) were measured as controls. Detailed information about Study 1 is provided in Appendix A.

3.1.3. Results

Manipulation Check

A series of tests were used for the manipulation check, and the ANOVA showed a significant difference in nostalgic feelings among the personal nostalgia group, collective nostalgia group and control group (Mpersonal nostalgia = 6.18, Mcollective nostalgia = 6.17, Mcontrol = 4.08; F(2364) = 129.10, p < 0.001). t-test results indicated that subjects in both the personal and collective nostalgia groups felt more nostalgia than those in the control group (Mpersonal nostalgia = 6.18 vs. Mcontrol = 4.08, t = 12.59, p < 0.001; Mcollective nostalgia = 6.17 vs. Mcontrol = 4.08, t = 12.78, p < 0.001), which proved a successful manipulation.

Main Effect of Personal Nostalgia on Future-Oriented Green Consumption

A bootstrapping procedure with 5000 resamples was implemented to test the main effect of personal nostalgia on future-oriented green consumption. Study 1 used subjects’ rechargeable battery purchase intentions as a measure of future-oriented green consumption, and non-future-oriented purchase intentions were regressed on personal nostalgia (personal nostalgia group vs. collective nostalgia group and control group) and demographic controls including age, gender, education level, income and place of origin. The results indicated a significant negative effect of personal nostalgia on future-oriented green consumption (bpersonal nostalgia = −0.08, t = −2.874, p = 0.004), which proved the main effect of personal nostalgia.

Main Effect of Collective Nostalgia on Non-Future-Oriented Green Consumption

A procedure similar to that for personal nostalgia was used to test the main effect of collective nostalgia. Study 1 used general purchase intentions for secondhand products as a measure of non-future-oriented green consumption, and non-future-oriented green consumption was regressed on collective nostalgia (collective nostalgia group vs. personal nostalgia group and control group), age, gender, education level, income and place of origin. A significant positive effect of collective nostalgia was found (bcollective nostalgia = 0.15, t = 3.51, p < 0.001), which proved the main effect of collective nostalgia on non-future-oriented green consumption.

3.1.4. Discussion

Study 1 used a random sample from a nationwide sample pool with 3 million potential subjects to prove the main effect of personal nostalgia on future-oriented green consumption and the main effect of collective nostalgia on non-future-oriented green consumption. Bootstrapping regression with 5000 resamples was used, and the results supported our predictions that personal nostalgia would decrease future-oriented green consumption and collective nostalgia would increase non-future-oriented green consumption. Study 1 tested the main effects, but the mechanisms remined untouched. In the following Study 2, the mechanisms were tested and other measures of green consumption were used for generality.

3.2. Study 2: Mediating Effects of Past Orientation and Collective Efficacy

Study 2 tested our predictions that personal nostalgia would decrease future-oriented green consumption via past orientation, but that collective nostalgia would increase non-future-oriented green consumption through social efficacy. We conducted this study by priming nostalgia. The process is described in the following paragraphs.

3.2.1. Participants

Study 2 was a 3 (nostalgia type: personal vs. collective vs. control) × 2 (green consumption type: future-oriented vs. non-future-oriented) mixed-subjects design. Nostalgia type was a between factor, and green consumption type was a within factor. A total of 187 undergraduate students were recruited in this experiment in exchange for class credit. They were randomly assigned to personal nostalgia, collective nostalgia or control groups. We excluded participants who did not pass a filter test or failed to write as requested, and 154 valid submissions remained (Mage = 19.71, SD = 1.86; 68% female).

3.2.2. Materials and Procedures

We followed a procedure similar to that in Study 1 to prime nostalgia. First, participants were randomly assigned to the personal nostalgia group, collective nostalgia group or control group. In the nostalgia groups (both personal and collective), participants were introduced to the concept of nostalgia. After the introduction, participants in the personal nostalgia group were asked to think about a nostalgic event they had personally experienced themselves and write a minimum of 50 words (in Chinese) about the experience and how they felt. The collective nostalgia and control groups were similar to the personal nostalgia group except for what the assigned participants were asked to think of. In the collective nostalgia group, participants were asked to think of a nostalgic event they had personally experienced with others. In the control group, participants were asked to think of an ordinary event that took place in the last week. Manipulation check scales consisted of two items: “Right now, I am feeling quite nostalgic” and “Right now, I am having nostalgic feelings” (1 = not at all, 7 = very much;). We excluded participants who did not write as requested (for example, subjects in the personal nostalgia group who wrote about others).
Next, all participants were introduced to two shopping scenarios. Scenario 1 was about future-oriented green consumption and was described as follows: “Suppose that you need to buy a notebook and here is a recycled paper made notebook. This kind of notebook is made of recycled paper, which saved trees. It is durable but not as durable as regular notebook, and it is cheaper. The detail information on this notebook is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this notebook”. Scenario 2 was about non-future-oriented green consumption and was described as follows: “Suppose that you need to buy a refrigerator for your house and here is an energy-saving one, which is more efficient and expensive. You pay 10% extra money at the purchase and save 10% energy in the appliance usage lifetime. The detail information of this refrigerator is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this refrigerator”. Purchase intention was measured by a one-item 7-point scale (very unlikely–very likely to purchase this notebook/refrigerator).
After responding to the scenario questions, participants completed several scales including a filter. We measured collective efficacy with a three-item 7-point scale [55]. They were “I am optimistic that humans can solve the problem we faced. I think that humans have the ability to protect the environment. I think that humans can effectively protect the environment”. Participants were asked to report their agreement with these statements (strongly disagree to strongly agree). We measured past orientation with a four-item 7-point scale [45]. Participants were asked to rate to what extent they agreed/disagreed with the statements. The statements said “Sometimes I wish I could go back to relive or change my past experience(s). I prefer the old, familiar, and known ways of doing things to new and changing ways. My behavior seems to be more influenced by past experiences than by future goals. Most of my thoughts are about things that have already happened”.
In addition, we measured positive affect [57], as controls and demographics were also measured last. Detailed information about Study 2 is provided in Appendix A.

3.2.3. Results

Manipulation Check

The results of ANOVA showed that subjects reported different levels of nostalgia (Mpersonal nostalgia = 4.45, Mcollective nostalgia = 4.47, Mcontrol = 3.74; F(2151) = 3.99, p = 0.021), and ad hoc comparisons showed that there were no differences between the personal and collective nostalgia groups (t = −0.06, p = 0.953). There were significant differences between the personal nostalgia and control groups (t = 2.55, p = 0.012) and between the collective nostalgia and control groups (t = 2.41, p = 0.018).

Mediating Effect of Past Orientation

We treated demographics and positive affect as controls and ran ANCOVA to test the main effect of personal nostalgia. The data showed that compared with the collective condition and control condition, personal nostalgia decreased future-oriented green consumption significantly (F = 5.95, p = 0.016), which supported H1. Following the main effect of personal nostalgia, we ran a series of linear regressions to test the mediating effect of past orientation. First, we regressed personal nostalgia on future-oriented green consumption and obtained results similar to those of the previous ANCOVA (b = −0.68, t = −2.58, p = 0.011). Second, we regressed personal nostalgia on past orientation, and the results showed that personal nostalgia increased past orientation significantly (b = 0.74, t = 3.23, p = 0.001). Lastly, we regressed personal nostalgia and past orientation on future-oriented green consumption. We found that past orientation and personal nostalgia decreased future-oriented green consumption significantly (bpast orientation = −0.54, t = −6.57, p < 0.000; bpersonal nostalgia = −0.28, t = −1.16, p = 0.246; see Figure 1). Putting all of these together, we found the full mediating effect of past orientation.

Mediating Effect of Collective Efficacy

Following a procedure similar to that for personal nostalgia, we tested the main effect of collective nostalgia and the mediating effect of collective efficacy. The results showed that collective nostalgia increased future-oriented green consumption (F = 5.41, p = 0.021), and this effect was fully mediated by collective efficacy (coefficients of step 1: bcollective nostalgia = 0.37, t = 2.23, p = 0.027; coefficients of step 2: bcollective nostalgia = 0.97, t = 4.27, p < 0.001; coefficients of step 3: bcollective efficacy= 0.41, t = 8.55, p < 0.001, bcollective nostalgia = −0.03, t = −0.23, p = 0.814; see Figure 2).

3.2.4. Discussion

This study provided evidence of personal nostalgia’s negative effect on non-future-oriented green consumption and collective nostalgia’s positive effect on future-oriented green consumption. Compared with the collective nostalgia group and the control group, subjects in the personal nostalgia group were less likely to purchase non-future-oriented green products, and this effect was mediated by past orientation. Compared with the personal nostalgia group and control group, subjects in the collective nostalgia group were more likely to purchase non-future-oriented green products, and this effect was mediated by collective efficacy. Study 2 tested the main effect and the mechanisms, and the boundary conditions were tested in the following Study 3 and Study 4.

3.3. Study 3: Moderating Effect of Product Newness

Study 3 examined the moderating effect of product newness (new vs. traditional). We predicted that a new green product (vs. traditional green product) would weaken personal nostalgia’s negative effect on future-oriented green consumption. Compared with Study 1, we used refrigerators as green products and instructed participants to recall a personal ordinary past experience instead of an ordinary past experience, whether personal or collective.

3.3.1. Participants

Study 3 was a 2 (personal nostalgia vs. past personal ordinary) × 2 (product newness: new vs. traditional) between-subject design. Undergraduates from a university participated in this study in exchange for class credit. A total of 196 valid questionnaires were collected (Mage = 21.62 SD = 1.71; 58% female).

3.3.2. Materials and Procedures

The process for Study 3 was similar to that for Study 1. First, participants were randomly assigned to the personal nostalgia group and the past personal ordinary group. In the personal nostalgia group, participants were introduced to the concept of nostalgia. After the elaboration, participants in the personal nostalgia group were asked to think about a nostalgic event that they had personally experienced themselves and write a minimum of 50 words (in Chinese) about the experience and how they felt. In the past personal ordinary group, participants were asked to think of an ordinary event that took place in the last week that they experienced themselves and write a minimum of 50 words about the experience and how they felt. The manipulation check consisted of two items: “Right now, I am feeling quite nostalgic” and “Right now, I am having nostalgic feelings” (1 = not at all, 7 = very much;) [17].
Next, all participants were randomly introduced to two shopping scenarios. The instructions were the same, as follows: “Suppose that you need to buy a desk light and here is one for you. This light use LED as light source, which saves 50% energy, but the price is double compared to a traditional light. The detail information of this light is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this LED light”. Purchase intention was measured by a one-item 7-point scale (very unlikely/very likely to purchase the LED light). The only difference was the shape of the light; one was a traditional look, and the other looked more innovative. After presenting each scenario, we conducted a manipulation check for product newness by asking participants how novel the described product was [58].
After they had responded to the scenario questions, a filtering question was posed, and demographics were measured. Additional details about Study 3 can be found in Appendix A.

3.3.3. Results

Manipulation Check

The results of ANOVA showed that subjects reported a higher level of nostalgia in the personal nostalgia group (Mpersonal nostalgia = 4.48, Mcontrol = 3.85; F(1194) = 5.85, p = 0.017) and a higher level of product novelty (Mnew= 4.67, Mtraditional = 4.08; F(1194) = 6.72, p = 0.010) in the new product group.

Moderating Effect of Product Newness

Before we tested the moderating effect of product newness, we tested the main effect of personal nostalgia using ANOVA and proved the main effect of personal nostalgia (Mpersonal nostalgia = 3.32, Mcontrol = 4.14; F(1194) = 7.17, p = 0.008). Then, we ran MANOVA to test the moderating effect of product newness, and the results revealed a negative interaction effect (F(1192) = 6.034, p = 0.015; see Figure 3). Specifically, subjects in the personal nostalgia group were less likely to buy new green products (Mpersonal nostalgia = 2.97, Mcontrol = 4.62, t(87) = 3.86, p < 0.000). These findings supported the negative moderating effect of product newness.

3.3.4. Discussion

Study 3 verified the moderating effect of product newness on subjects. We found that in the personal nostalgia group, participants were less likely to purchase future-oriented green products especially when the green product was new. In addition, Study 3 used a more specific control group and expanded the product category to LED lights.

3.4. Study 4: Moderating Effect of Product Identity (Local vs. Non-Local)

Study 4 examined the moderating effect of product identity (local vs. non-local) on the relationship between collective nostalgia and non-future-oriented green consumption. We predicted that local products (vs. non-local products) would strengthen collective nostalgia’s positive effect on non-future-oriented green consumption.

3.4.1. Participants

Study 4 was a 2 (collective nostalgia vs. past collective ordinary) × 2 (product identity: local vs. non-local) between-subjects design. Undergraduates from a university participated in this study in exchange for class credit. We obtained 204 valid answers (Mage = 21.33, SD = 1.95; 59% female) in this experiment.

3.4.2. Materials and Procedures

The procedure was similar to that in Study 1, Study 2 and Study 3. Participants are randomly assigned to the collective nostalgia group and the past collective ordinary group. In the collective nostalgia group, participants were introduced to the concept of nostalgia. After the elaboration, participants were asked to think about a nostalgic event that they had personally experienced with other Chinese and write a minimum of 50 words about the experience and how they felt. In the past collective ordinary group, participants were asked to think of an ordinary event that they had personally experienced with other Chinese in the last week and write a minimum of 50 words about the experience and how they felt.
Then, the subjects were randomly assigned to a local product group or non-local product group; the conditions for the two groups were almost the same except for the place of origin of the product. We chose recycled plastic bags as non-future-oriented green products that had no foreign/domestic preference. In the local product group, subjects were queried as follows: “Suppose that you need to buy plastic bag for rubbish and here is one plastic bag made in China. This plastic bag is made by recycled material which is more environment friendly, less durable and cheaper. The detail information for this bag is below. To what extent would you like to purchase the recycled material made plastic bag”. In the non-local product group, subjects were queried as follows: “Suppose that you need to buy plastic bag for rubbish and here is one plastic bag made in foreign country (Malaysia). This plastic bag is made of recycled material that is more environment friendly, less durable and cheaper. The detail information for this bag is below. To what extent would you like to purchase the recycled material made plastic bag”. Purchase intention was measured on a 7-point scale.
A filter question was asked, and demographics were measured. Detailed information about Study 4 is provided in Appendix A.

3.4.3. Results

Manipulation Check

The results of ANOVA showed that subjects reported higher levels of nostalgia in the personal nostalgia group (Mcollective nostalgia = 4.54, Mcontrol = 4.00; F(1202) = 4.362, p = 0.038), which proved a successful manipulation.

Moderating Effect of Product Identity (Loval vs. Non-local)

Before we tested the moderating effect of product identity, we tested the main effect of collective nostalgia using ANOVA and proved the main effect of collective nostalgia (Mcollective nostalgia = 4.31, Mcontrol = 3.67; F(1202) = 7.00, p = 0.009). Then, we ran MANOVA to test the moderating effect of product newness, and the results revealed a positive interaction effect (F(1200) = 5.69, p = 0.018; see Figure 4). Specifically, subjects in the collective nostalgia group were more likely to buy local non-future-oriented green products (Mcollective nostalgia = 4.68, Mcontrol = 3.48, t(99) = −3.42, p = 0.001). These findings supported the positive moderating effect of product identity.

3.4.4. Discussion

Study 4 examined the moderating effect of product identity (local vs. non-local) on collective nostalgia and non-future-oriented green consumption. A new product category (plastic bag) was used to broaden the generality. The results supported that local products strengthened the positive effect of collective nostalgia on non-future-oriented green consumption.

4. General Discussion

The present study examined how different kinds of nostalgia (personal vs. collective) affect different types of green consumption (future-oriented vs. non-future-oriented). This research found that personal nostalgia decreased future-oriented green consumption, whereas collective nostalgia increased non-future-oriented green consumption. Moreover, this study identified the underlying mechanisms and showed that personal nostalgia increased the past orientation, prompting people to resist future-oriented green consumption. However, collective nostalgia increased collective efficacy, which prompted people to pursue non-future-oriented green consumption. Furthermore, this paper moved forward to discuss the moderating factors and revealed a negative moderating effect of product newness and a positive moderating effect of local products. Overall, the paper expands the corpus of research on nostalgia and green consumption by integrating the contradictory results and putting forward future vs. non-future oriented green consumption, and offers insights for green companies to tailor their marketing strategies and employ nostalgia advertising more efficiently.

4.1. Integrating the Contradictory Results

This study integrated the contradictory literature on how nostalgia affects green consumption. Prior works in the literature obtained different findings on how nostalgia affects green consumption. Wang and Chao [10] found a negative effect of nostalgia on green appliance purchase intentions through past orientation because people tend to resist innovative things when cherishing the old past. However, Khan et al. [11] found a positive effect of nostalgia on general green consumption attitudes via social connectedness, an important antecedent of collective efficacy. This research filled the discrepancies by integrating different nostalgia types, personal vs. collective, and different green consumption types, future-oriented vs. non-future-oriented, into an integrated framework. Four studies showed that personal nostalgia decreased future-oriented green consumption through past orientation, but that collective nostalgia increased non-future-oriented green consumption through social efficacy. Our findings integrated the divergent findings on how nostalgia affects green consumption.

4.2. Two Types of Green Consumption

This research is the first to propose that there might be two kinds of green consumption according to the extent of future orientation, and each has different effects. Prior research has divided green consumption based on beneficiary, and there are self-benefit green consumption and other-benefit green consumption [25]. These two types of green consumption are triggered differently, where an abstract appeal is more effective for other-benefit green consumption, while a concrete appeal is more effective for self-benefit green consumption [25].
In this study, we classified green consumption into future-oriented green consumption and non-future-oriented green consumption. Future-oriented green consumption incurs the green benefit in the long-term future, such as by purchasing energy-saving appliances. On the other hand, non-future-oriented green consumption brings the green benefit before/at the time of purchase, such as when buying products made of recycled materials. We found that the future-oriented green consumption vs. non-future-oriented green consumption are triggered differently. Four studies showed that personal nostalgia decreased future oriented green consumption by past orientation, but collective nostalgia increased non-future oriented green consumption through collective efficacy which proved there were different mechanisms.

4.3. Managerial Implications

This study also has some managerial implications for companies. Nostalgia advertisements are widely used, and more attention should be cast because this research have found there might be adverse effect. When companies are promoting future-oriented green consumption, nostalgia appeal, especially personal nostalgia should be avoided, because personal nostalgia would play a negative role. As for non-future-oriented green consumption, such as of secondhand products and products made with recycled materials, collective nostalgia appeal would be more effective.

4.4. Limitations and Future Research

There are some limitations of this study. First, this was an experimental study based on self-reported measures, which limits the external validity. Specifically, green consumption was measured by imagined scenarios, and only some product categories were used (i.e., battery, secondhand products, electronic appliances, and recycled paper), which may limit the generalization of our findings. Future studies could adopt real-world studies and use some objective data to measure green consumption in real life.
Second, this study recruited participants from a specific university and an online platform in China; the participants were younger than the Chinese population as a whole, and our samples were all collected in China, which limits the generalization to other populations. Further studies are needed to generalize the findings of this research to other cultures or populations.
Third, how collective nostalgia affects non-future-oriented green consumption was investigated, but how collective nostalgia affects future-oriented green consumption remained untouched. There are competing mechanisms in how collective nostalgia impacts future-oriented green consumption: nostalgia-elicited past orientation decreases future-oriented green consumption, and collective efficacy increases future-oriented green consumption. Further studies could find boundary conditions under which one mechanism exceeds the other to deepen our understandings.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.Z. and C.R.; methodology, H.Z. and C.R.; software, H.Z.; validation, H.Z.; formal analysis, H.Z.; investigation, C.R.; resources, L.H.; data curation, H.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, H.Z. and C.R.; writing—review and editing, C.R., L.H. and L.P.; visualization, H.Z.; supervision, H.Z.; project administration, H.Z.; funding acquisition, C.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant numbers 72002036 and 71972067. The APC was funded by Chuangxin Guo.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Appendix A.1. Nostalgia (Study 1, 2, 3 and 4) [16]

Instructions: Please rate from 1 (not very true of my current feelings) to 7 (very true of my current feelings) according to what you feel right now.
At this moment, I am feeling:
Right now, I am having nostalgic feelings.
I feel nostalgic at the moment.

Appendix A.2. Non-Future-Oriented Green Consumption (Study 1) [56]

Instructions: Please rate the statements from 1 (not very true) to 7 (very true) according to what you will do when you are making a purchase decision.
I will purchase secondhand furniture.
I will purchase secondhand household appliances.
I will purchase secondhand electronic products.

Appendix A.3. Future-Oriented Green Consumption (Study 1)

Instructions: Suppose that you need to buy a set of batteries and there is a set of rechargeable batteries for you. This kind of rechargeable battery has a capacity of 2775 milliampere-hour, twice as much as the ordinary battery, and a 1000-cycle recharge life. The price of this set (including the charger) is CNY 89, which is more expensive compared to ordinary counterparts, but it represents a savings in recharge life. The detailed information on this set of batteries is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this set of batteries? Please rate from 1 (strongly do not want) to 7 (strongly want).
Sustainability 15 14624 i001

Appendix A.4. Momentary Positive Affect (Study 1, 2, 3 and 4) [57]

Instructions: At this moment I am feeling. Please rate from 1 (left word is very true of my current feelings) to 7 (right word is very true of my current feelings) according to what you feel right now:
Good/bad
Positive/negative
Unpleasant/pleasant
Likeable/unlikeable

Appendix A.5. Past Orientation (Study 2) [45]

Instructions: Please rate from 1 (not very true of my current feelings) to 7 (very true of my current feelings) according to what you feel right now.
At this moment, I am feeling:
Sometimes I wish I could go back to relive or change my past experience(s).
I prefer the old, familiar, and known ways of doing things to new and changing ways.
My behavior seems to be more influenced by past experiences than by future goals.
Most of my thoughts are about things that have already happened.

Appendix A.6. Collective Efficacy (Study 2) [55]

Instructions: At this moment, how do you agree with the below sentences. Please rate from 1 (not very true of my current feelings) to 7 (very true of my current feelings).
I am optimistic that humans can solve the problem we face.
I think that humans have the ability to protect the environment.
I think that humans can effectively protect the environment.

Appendix A.7. Non-Future-Oriented Green Consumption (Study 2)

Instructions: Suppose that you need to buy a notebook and here is a notebook made with recycled paper. This kind of notebook saved trees. It is durable but not as durable as a regular paper-made notebook, and it is cheaper. The detailed information on this notebook is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this notebook?
Size: 21 cm × 14.3 mm (A5)
Pages: 120
Price: CNY 14.9
Sustainability 15 14624 i002
Instructions: To what extent do you want to purchase this notebook. Please rate from 1 (strongly do not want) to 7 (strongly want).

Appendix A.8. Future-Oriented Green Consumption (Study 2)

Instructions: Suppose that you need to buy a refrigerator for your house and here is an energy-saving one, which is more efficient and expensive. You pay 10% extra at the time of purchase and save 10% in energy costs over the appliance’s service life time. The detailed information on this refrigerator is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this refrigerator?
Energy efficient level: level 1
Size: 80 cm × 70 cm ×190 cm
Volume: 601 L in total, 389 L for refrigerator, 102 L for freezer, and 110 L for changeable
Price: CNY 6499
Sustainability 15 14624 i003
Instructions: To what extent do you want to purchase this refrigerator? Please rate from 1 (strongly do not want) to 7 (strongly want).

Appendix A.9. Future-Oriented Traditional Green Consumption (Study 3)

Instructions: Suppose that you need to buy a desk light and here is one for you. This light uses an LED as its light source, which saves 50% in energy, but the price is double compared to a traditional light. The detailed information on this light is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this LED light?
Light source: LED
Power: 10 W
Weight: 960 g
Size: 15.5 cm × 15.5 cm × 41.5 cm
Price: CNY 149
Luminous Flux: 450 Lumens and non-adjustable
Sustainability 15 14624 i004
Instructions: To what extent do you want to purchase this LED light? Please rate from 1 (strongly do not want) to 7 (strongly want).

Appendix A.10. Future-Oriented New Green Consumption (Study 3)

Instructions: Suppose that you need to buy a desk light and here is one for you. This light uses an LED as the light source, which saves 50% in energy, but the price is double compared to a traditional light. The detailed information on this light is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this desk light?
Light source: LED
Power: 10 W
Weight: 960 g
Size: 15.5 cm × 15.5cm × 41.5 cm
Price: 149 RMB
Luminous Flux: 450 Lumens and non-adjustable
Sustainability 15 14624 i005
Instructions: To what extent do you want to purchase this LED light?

Appendix A.11. Product Newness (Study 3) [58]

Instructions: How novel is this product? Please rate from 1 (not very novel) to 7 (very novel).

Appendix A.12. Non-Future-Oriented Local Green Consumption (Study 4)

Instructions: Suppose that you need to buy plastic bags for rubbish and here is one plastic bag made in China. This plastic bag is made with recycled material, which is more environmentally friendly, less durable and cheaper. The detailed information for this bag is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this plastic bag made from recycled material?
Material: recycled HDPE
Quantity: 60 × 3
Price: 9.9
Made in China
Instructions: To what extent do you want to purchase these plastic bags. Please rate from 1 (strongly do not want) to 7 (strongly want).

Appendix A.13. Non-Future-Oriented Non-Local Green Consumption (Study 4)

Instructions: Suppose that you need to buy plastic bags for rubbish and here is one plastic bag made in a foreign country. This plastic bag is made with recycled material that is more environmentally friendly, less durable and cheaper. The detailed information for this bag is below. To what extent would you like to purchase this plastic bag made with recycled material?
Material: recycled HDPE
Quantity: 60 × 3
Price: 9.9
Made in Malaysia
Sustainability 15 14624 i006
Instructions: To what extent do you want to purchase these plastic bags? Please rate from 1 (strongly do not want) to 7 (strongly want).

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Figure 1. Mediating effect of past orientation on future-oriented green consumption. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Figure 1. Mediating effect of past orientation on future-oriented green consumption. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
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Figure 2. Mediating effect of collective efficacy on non-future-oriented green consumption. * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.
Figure 2. Mediating effect of collective efficacy on non-future-oriented green consumption. * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.
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Figure 3. Moderating effect of product newness.
Figure 3. Moderating effect of product newness.
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Figure 4. Moderating effect of product identity: local vs. non-local.
Figure 4. Moderating effect of product identity: local vs. non-local.
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Table 1. Demographic Statistics.
Table 1. Demographic Statistics.
ItemsClassificationFrequencyPercentage (%)
GenderFemale20956.9%
Male15843.1%
AgeUnder 2082.2%
21–3018550.4%
31–4012634.3%
41 or older4813.1%
Rural/urbanRural14038.1%
Urban22761.9%
EducationSenior high school and equivalent or below174.6%
Junior college164.4%
Bachelor’s degree27675.2%
Master’s degree or above5815.8%
IncomeLess than 30003710.1%
3001–50005113.9%
5001–10,00017347.1%
10,001–20,0008824.0%
20,001 or more184.9%
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Zhang, H.; Ruan, C.; Huang, L.; Peng, L.; Guo, C. Personal vs. Collective Nostalgia and Different Temporally Orientated Green Consumption. Sustainability 2023, 15, 14624. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914624

AMA Style

Zhang H, Ruan C, Huang L, Peng L, Guo C. Personal vs. Collective Nostalgia and Different Temporally Orientated Green Consumption. Sustainability. 2023; 15(19):14624. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914624

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Han, Chenhan Ruan, Lei Huang, Luluo Peng, and Chuangxin Guo. 2023. "Personal vs. Collective Nostalgia and Different Temporally Orientated Green Consumption" Sustainability 15, no. 19: 14624. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914624

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