Comparative Study on Dyed Fabrics of Tea and Tea Stem Based on Kansei Engineering
1
School of Art & Design, Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication, Beijing 102600, China
2
Beijing Key Laboratory of Printing and Packaging Materials & Technology, Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication, Beijing 102600, China
3
Laboratory of Materials Planning, Faculty of Engineering, Design, Chiba University, Chiba 263-8522, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(2), 1134; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021134
Submission received: 16 November 2022
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Revised: 18 December 2022
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Accepted: 27 December 2022
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Published: 6 January 2023
Abstract
:(1) Objective: This paper conducts a comparative study on the perceptual value of fabrics dyed with tea leaves and tea stems and explores the changes and differences in the Kansei image of the dyed fabrics to provide practical guidance for the product design dyed of tea leaves and tea stems based on the experimental results. (2) Methods: firstly, an effective dyeing method was selected through literature research to dye the samples. Secondly, Kansei words were collected and screened out, and the SD scale was established for a perceptual experiment. Thirdly, a factor analysis was performed on the quantified perceptual evaluation data to compare the changes in the fabric perceptual value before and after dyeing. A T-test and cluster analysis were used to study the difference between them. Finally, according to the fabric perceptual experience results, the product design was put into practice. (3) Conclusion: the perceptual value of all the fabrics dyed with Oolong tea leaves and tea stems were improved. Except for silk chiffon and Tencel, there was no significant difference between tea stems dyeing and tea leaves dyeing in other fabrics, which shows that tea stems dyeing has great perceptual value and reuse value.
1. Introduction
As an ancient plant dyeing technique, tea dyeing has high cultural, economic and aesthetic values, and is deeply loved by people for its elegant color and cultural connotation. However, because traditional tea dyeing uses tea leaves as the raw material, with the high production cost and the strict process requirements, there is no manufacturing enterprise with tea dyeing as the technical core in the market at present.
Previous studies have found that the tea stems, often treated as the waste of the tea industry, can also be used to dye fabrics [1], and the price of the tea stems is lower than one percent of the tea leaves, which can greatly reduce the economic cost of tea dyeing [2]. The research of Cheng Tonghuai et al. [3] shows that animal fiber fabrics dyeing with the tea stems extract not only has a good coloring performance on the fabric, but also has higher flame retardancy and better antibacterial properties, because the tea stems are rich in tea polyphenols. Studies by Amarasinghe B and Debnath B [4,5,6] et al. show that tea stems have good absorbability to lead and copper ions in dye waste water and can act as a natural vacuum cleaner.
The above studies prove that tea stems as raw materials for the dye not only have a good dyeing effect but also high potential on economic and environmental values. However, most of the previous studies focused on the exploration and research of the physical characteristics of tea stems dyeing, but no scholars have conducted in-depth and detailed research on the cultural value, aesthetic value and other perceptual values of tea stems dyeing. Elvin karana et al. [7] show that materials research should not be confined to the physical properties, while the emotional experience of the materials is an important link to ensure the commercialization of materials. Therefore, this paper aims to study the perceptual value of tea leaves dyeing and tea stems dyeing comparatively using the research method of perceptual engineering.
2. Methods
This research is divided into four steps, and Figure 1 shows the flow chart for this study. First, we selected different fabrics with animal fiber, plant fiber and man-made fiber and created samples of fabric dyed with Oolong tea leaves and tea stems under the same experimental conditions; then, using the SD method (Semantic Differential) [8], the participants answered questionnaires on all the dyed samples; the quantized data were brought into SPSS 19.0 software for a factor analysis, T-test and cluster analysis. The above experimental results were analyzed to explore the changes and differences in the user’s perceptual experience of fabrics before and after tea leaves dyeing and tea stems dyeing. Based on the research above, design guidance suggestions were given for the tea leaves dyeing and tea stems dyeing products.
2.1. Making Samples
Based on the literature research, we selected the sample making method according to the material features.
2.1.1. Making Materials
We selected fabrics with artificial fiber, plant fibers and animal fibers by purposive sampling. The selected artificial fiber fabrics include Tencel, polyester and polyester–cotton; the plant fiber fabrics include flax, ramie and cotton; and the animal fiber fabrics include silk habotai, silk crinkle and silk chiffon as the sample fabrics. The dye materials were Oolong tea leaves and Oolong tea stems (produced in Anxi, Fujian), distilled water, pure soybean milk, aluminum potassium sulfate dodecahydrate and neutral soap.
2.1.2. The Instrument
The instruments used in the dyeing process were the DK-8AXX water bath, XW-ZDR oscillating dyeing prototype, 2000 mL and 1000 mL beakers, glass stirring rods, JA1003 electronic balance, DHG-9240 electric drying oven, double chrome-plated frame standard sieve 100 mesh, etc.
2.1.3. Production Methods
The sample preparation conditions refer to the high-temperature dyeing method obtained by Li Yang, Ma Xiaoqiang [7,9] and others from their research on tea stems dyeing. To dye the fabric with Oolong tea stems, the extraction temperature is 86.6 °C, the ratio of material to liquid is 1.00:34.15 and the extraction time is 57.2 min. The fabric dyed by the tea stems under the condition of aluminum potassium sulfate as the medium has the best visual effect, abrasion resistance, soap resistance and antibacterial property. Our sample production has adopted this process and other conditions.
2.1.4. Production Process
The production process can be summarized as follows: mordanting → extracting dye solution → refining dye solution → oscillating dyeing → adding dye medium for color fixation → washing → soaping → drying → ironing flat [9]. All fabric samples are made under the same conditions and process.
The concrete steps and conditions:
Numbered lists can be added as follows: First, put the fabric into pure soybean milk for mordanting; then, weigh 28 g of tea stems and 500 mL of clear water, put the clear water into a beaker and put the beaker into a water bath. After the water temperature reaches 90 °C, put the tea stem into the beaker and extract the dye solution. Heat it for 60 min at a constant temperature (extracting dye solution) and then use tools to sieve the tea stems to obtain a concentrated dye solution (refining dye solution).
Weigh 2 g of fabric, add it into the dye solution at a ratio of 1:34.15, put the beaker soaked with cloth into the oscillating dye prototype and dye it for 57.2 min at 86.6 °C (oscillating dyeing).
Finally, take potassium aluminum sulfate dodecahydrate as the medium, add 20 g/L to the dye solution for mordant dyeing and fixation and dye at 60 °C for 30 min (adding the dye medium for color fixation). After washing the dyed cloth with clean water (washing), wash it again with neutral soap (soaping) and finally put it into the dryer for drying (drying). After taking it out, iron the sample flat for the experiment (ironing flat).
Tea leaves dyeing and tea stems dyeing are carried out in the same proportion and process.
2.1.5. Samples
Eighteen dyed fabric test samples and undyed fabric samples were scanned with an HP M435NW scanner, and the images are shown in Figure 2.
Control group: undyed Tencel, polyester, polyester–cotton, linen, ramie, cotton, habotai, silk, chiffon.
Experimental group: Tencel, polyester, polyester–cotton, linen, ramie, cotton, silk habotai, silk crinkle and silk chiffon dyed by Oolong tea leaves and tea stems.
2.2. Material Perceptual Experience Test
We used the SD method [10] to perform a perceptual evaluation of the samples.
2.2.1. Subjects and Experiment Site
The subjects were 40 college students (20 male and 20 female, 19–25 years old). During the experiment, the subjects were allowed to observe the color of the sample and touch the sample. All the subjects participated in a preliminary experiment before the formal experiment. Color blind and color weak participants were excluded.
The natural light box with an illumination of 350–500 lx and color temperature of 3500–4000 K was used in the experimental site to simulate the environment in which people observe cloth under natural light.
2.2.2. Choosing Perceptual Evaluation Vocabulary
About 300 terms describing fabrics were selected from the Xinhua Dictionary. After removing similar terms and terms that are used less frequently, the remaining 110 terms were used. A questionnaire survey was conducted on the appropriateness of these terms among 115 college students, and the words that appeared more than 10 times were selected. Words appearing more than 10 times are shown in Figure 3. Their antonyms were investigated in the Modern Chinese Classification Dictionary, and 16 (8 pairs) words for perceptual evaluation were finally determined.
2.2.3. Experiment Method
The above words were used to create the SD scale, and the evaluation scale was 5 grades. The SD scale is shown in Figure 3. The subject could observe and touch the experimental sample. Only one sample was allowed to be observed and touched at a time, and the experimental scale was filled in. Figure 4 shows the scene where the experiment is being conducted.
We calculated the average value for each evaluation of the various samples. The experimental results were analyzed with factor analysis using SPSS software (the factor analysis was conducted using a principal factor method (Bartlett’s test) and the data structure was variable (8) × matrix of sample (18)).
3. Results and Analysis
Based on the above results, we analyzed the emotional value of different material before and after dyeing and compared the perceptual differences between the dyeing of tea and tea stems.
3.1. Factor Analysis
The factor analysis showed that the KOM was 0.702. Table 1 shows the load factor value obtained through factor analysis; factor 1 consisted of six evaluation scales, i.e., bright–dark, soft–stiff, thin–thick, smooth–rough, elegant–vulgar and expensive–cheap, its eigenvalue reached 4.32 and its contribution rate reached 53.994%. The words contained in factor 1 were all used to describe the comfort and value of the fabrics, so they were summarized as comfort and value factors.
Factor 2 was composed of classical–modern and natural–artificial scales, its eigenvalue reached 2.319, its contribution rate reached 28.988% and its cumulative contribution rate was 82.982%. It can be considered that factor 2 represented the age and nature.
3.1.1. Perceptual Evaluation Results of Synthetic Fabric
Figure 5 is the scatterplot drawn according to the perceptual test results of the undyed samples, tea-dyed samples and tea-stem-dyed samples of the man-made fiber fabrics (polyester, polyester–cotton and Tencel).
Undyed polyester is in quadrant 4 in the figure; it gives senses that are dark, stiff, thick, rough, vulgar, cheap, natural and classical. The polyester dyed by tea leaves and tea stems is in quadrant 3; it gives senses that are bright, soft, light, smooth, elegant, natural, classical and costly. Polyester fabrics dyed by tea leaves and tea stems were improved in comfort and value, and the naturalness and sense of the age had not changed significantly.
Undyed Tencel is in quadrant 2; it gives senses that are dark, stiff, thick, rough, vulgar, cheap, modern and artificial. Tencel dyed by tea leaves and tea stems is in quadrant 3. Tencel fabric dyed by tea leaves and tea stems was improved in comfort and value, and the changes in naturalness and sense of age were obtained.
Undyed polyester–cotton is in quadrant 2; it gives senses that are dark, stiff, thick, rough, vulgar, cheap, modern and artificial. Tea-leaves-dyed fabric is in quadrant 3; it gives feelings of brightness, softness, lightness, smoothness, elegance, naturalness, classicality and high cost. Tea-stems-dyed fabric is in quadrant 1; it gives feelings of brightness, softness, lightness, smoothness, elegance, high cost, artificiality and modernity. The polyester–cotton fabric dyed with tea leaves was improved in comfort and value, while the sense of age and naturalness changed. The polyester–cotton fabric dyed with tea stems was improved only in comfort and value, without a change in the naturalness or sense of age.
3.1.2. Perceptual Evaluation Results of Animal Fiber Fabric
Figure 6 is the scatterplot drawn according to the perceptual experiment results of the undyed samples, tea-leaves-dyed samples and tea-stems-dyed samples of animal fiber fabrics (silk chiffon, silk crinkle and silk habotai).
The undyed silk habotai and silk crinkle are in quadrant 4, which makes people feel dark, stiff, thick, rough, vulgar, cheap, natural and classical. The silk habotai and silk crinkle fabric dyed by tea leaves and tea stems are all in quadrant 1, giving people the feeling of brightness, softness, lightness, delicacy, elegance, high cost, modernity and artificiality. Silk habotai dyed by tea leaves and tea stems were improved in comfort and value, and their naturalness and sense of the age were also changed significantly.
Undyed silk chiffon is in quadrant 4, which gives senses that are dark, stiff, thick, rough, vulgar, cheap, natural and classical. Tea-leaves-dyed and tea-stems-dyed chiffon is in quadrant 3; it gives feelings of brightness, softness, lightness, delicacy, elegance, naturalness, classical and costliness. The tea-leaves- and tea-stems-dyed silk chiffon fabric was improved in comfort and value, without a significant change in the naturalness and sense of age.
3.1.3. Perceptual Evaluation Results of Plant Fiber Fabric
Figure 7 is the scatterplot drawn according to the perceptual experiment results of the undyed samples, tea-leaves-dyed samples and tea-stems-dyed samples of the plant fiber fabrics (cotton, linen and ramie).
The undyed linen and ramie are in quadrant 3, giving the feeling of being dark, stiff, thick, rough, vulgar, cheap, artificial and modern.
Undyed cotton is in quadrant 4; it gives senses that are dark, stiff, thick, crude, vulgar, cheap, natural and classical. Tea- and tea-stem-dyed cotton is in quadrant 3; it gives feelings of glossiness, softness, lightness, delicacy, elegance, naturalness, classicality and high cost. The tea-leaves- and tea-stems-dyed cotton fabric was improved in comfort and value, but the naturalness and sense of age had no significant change. The undyed cotton is in quadrant 4, which makes people feel dark, stiff, thick, rough, vulgar, cheap, natural and classical. The cotton dyed by tea leaves and tea stems is in quadrant 3, which makes people feel bright, soft, light, delicate, elegant, costly, natural and classical. Cotton fabrics dyed by tea leaves and tea stems were improved in comfort and value, but there were no significant changes in the nature and sense of age.
3.2. Factor Analysis
3.2.1. T-Test
A T-test was used to compare the perceptual differences between the tea-leaves- and tea-stems-dyed fabrics.
The numerical value of every factor was brought into SPSS, and each fabric was analyzed with an independent sample T-test. Table 2 shows perceptual differences between the tea-leaves-dyed and tea-stems-dyed products. The Tencel fabrics had significant differences in natural and chronological factors, and the chiffon fabrics had significant differences in comfort and value. Except for the Tencel and chiffon, there were no perceptual differences between the tea-leaves-dyed and tea-stems-dyed products.
3.2.2. Cluster Analysis
Cluster analysis was used to study the difference of the features of various fabrics. Based on the groups obtained by the cluster analysis, the scatterplot was drawn to observe the distribution rules (Figure 8).
According to the results of six iterations of cluster analysis, the fabrics were divided into four groups according to the feature. Group 1 included silk habotai (tea stems dyed), silk habotai (tea leaves dyed), silk crinkle (tea stems dyed) and silk crinkle (tea leaves dyed), which were located in quadrant 1 of the scatterplot and had comfort, a high value, were artificial and had modern features; Group 2 included linen (tea stems dyed), linen (tea leaves dyed), ramie (tea stems dyed) and ramie (tea leaves dyed), which were all located in quadrant 2 and had the features of low comfort, low value and artificial modernity; Group 3 consisted of Tencel (tea leaves dyed) and silk chiffon (tea stems dyed), which were located in quadrant 3 and had features of comfort, high value and being natural and classical; Group 4 consisted of cotton (tea stems dyed), cotton (tea leaves dyed), polyester (tea leaves dyed), polyester (tea stems dyed), Tencel (tea stems dyed), polyester–cotton (tea leaves dyed), silk chiffon (tea leaves dyed) and polyester–cotton (tea stems dyed), which were all distributed in quadrants 1 and 2 and had features of comfort, high value and being slightly natural and slightly classical.
The results of the cluster analysis showed that the fabrics except silk chiffon and Tencel belonged to the same feature group. This showed that only the silk chiffon and Tencel fabrics dyed with tea and tea stems had characteristic differences.
4. Discussion
According to the perceptual experiment results, the comfort and value of the fabrics such as Tencel, polyester, polyester–cotton, cotton, silk crinkle, silk habotai and silk chiffon dyed by Oolong tea leaves and tea stems were significantly improved. Tencel and silk habotai dyed with Oolong tea leaves and tea stems changed feelings of naturalness and age; ramie and linen dyed with Oolong tea leaves and tea stems had no change in feelings of comfort, value, naturalness or sense of age.
Through a T-test and cluster analysis, it was concluded that there was no difference in the perception of cotton, linen, ramie, silk habotai, silk crinkle, polyester and polyester–cotton after being dyed with Oolong tea leaves and tea stems. There was a difference in the perception of Tencel and chiffon fabrics dyed with tea leaves and tea stems.
Man-made fiber fabric brought people feelings of comfort and high value after being dyed by Oolong tea leaves and tea stems. Most of the man-made fiber fabrics also reflected the natural and classic feeling. Polyester, polyester–cotton, Tencel, etc., gave people a feeling of inferior quality and low price when they were not dyed, while the above fabrics dyed by tea leaves and tea stems gave people a sense of comfort and high value. This shows that the man-made fiber fabrics selected in this experiment had good compatibility with Oolong tea dyeing and tea stems dyeing. Considering the characteristics of man-made fiber fabrics [11], their products are suitable for clothing, home textiles, product packaging and other fields.
Plants of linen and ramie fiber fabric dyed with Oolong tea leaves and tea stems bring a sense of uncomfortableness, valuelessness, artificialness and modernity. Products of these fibers are more suitable for artistic creation decoration and other fields. Cotton brings a comfortable, highly valuable, natural and classical feeling. Products of these fibers are more suitable for clothing, home textiles, product packaging and relevant fields.
Animal fiber fabric dyed with Oolong tea leaves and tea stems brings comfortable feelings and a sense of high value. Dyed silk chiffon shows a natural and classical feeling, while silk habotai and silk crinkle create a modern and artificial feeling. Products of dyed animal fiber fabrics are more suitable for different styles of clothing design.
5. Design Practice
Based on the above conclusions, this study attempts to design a clothing product.
5.1. Product Positioning
The product target positioning is comfortable, high value, natural and classical scarves. In order to select the materials most suitable for this positioning, the factor score of each sample is calculated by the factor score equation according to the above factor analysis results. The higher the degree of fit of each factor, the higher the score; otherwise, the lower the score.
Using the factor score calculation formula in Equation (1), the factor score is obtained and shown in Table 3. Chiffon dyed by Oolong tea stem received the highest factor score of comfort, value, naturalness and age. Therefore, we used Oolong-tea-stem-dyed chiffon fabric.
In this experiment we used regression estimation to calculate the factor scores.
The regression model of the factors on the p variables is assumed to be:
Fi = βi1x1 + βi2x2 + … + βipxp, i = 1, 2, … m
In this equation Fi is the factor score, β denotes the corresponding weights of the factors, p is the number of variables, i and m are the number of common factors.
5.2. Product Design
The product design is shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10, including the Oolong-tea-stems-dyed silk scarves and their corresponding packaging. The main part of the product is a silk scarf. Based on the above experimental results, we chose silk chiffon materials for the design. The silk chiffon material dyed with Oolong tea stems was gilded, and it emitted a light tea aroma after being dried, which had traditional oriental aesthetic characteristics. The size of the silk scarf was 53 cm × 53 cm, which is convenient to carry and can be used in many occasions [12,13].
6. Conclusions
The subjects of this experiment were young people aged 19–25, and the experimental results are only applicable to this age group. In the future, more age groups will be tested and analyzed to obtain a more extensive population’s perceptual evaluation data on tea-leaves-dyed and tea-stems-dyed fabrics.
Through the observation of the samples, the fresh tea-dyed and tea-stem-dyed fabrics had a strong tea flavor, which will disappear and fade after a period of time. In this experiment, the samples were used after being left for a period of time until there was no smell, and we only carried out the perceptual experiment of vision and touch. In the future, we can specifically study the smell of tea leaves dyeing and tea stems dyeing to explore the perceptual cognition brought to users from the olfactory dimension.
This experiment used Oolong tea leaves and tea stems as raw materials for the dyeing experiment. In the future, the dyeing performance and perceptual value of all kinds of teas and tea stems can be studied.
Tea stems have been directly buried or burned as waste for a long time, and they are rarely used as a resource. The results of this study not only prove that tea stems can replace tea leaves as tea dye in terms of perceptual value, but it also provides an effective way to greatly reduce the economic cost of tea dyeing products. At the same time, this study also has long-term social significance such as green environmental protection in the treatment and reuse of tea waste.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, L.Y.; Methodology, X.D.; Software, X.Y.; Resources, Y.M.; Data curation, L.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This paper was funded by [Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication] grant number [Eb202108], [22150222026], [27170222007].
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Data will be made available upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
We world like to thank Yun Long, Zhi Qiao Li, Yi Min Wang, Run Qing Zhu from Product Materials Laboratory of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Figure 1.
Research flow chart.
Figure 2.
Rendering of dyed fabric.
Figure 3.
Frequency table of perceptual evaluation words and SD scale.
Figure 4.
Images taken during the experiment.
Figure 5.
Scatterplot of man-made fiber fabric.
Figure 6.
Scatterplot of animal fiber fabric.
Figure 7.
Scatterplot of plant fiber fabric.
Figure 8.
Cluster analysis graph and the position of each category on the scatterplot.
Figure 9.
Chiffon scarf.
Figure 10.
Packaging design (tea dyeing).
Table 1.
Factor analysis table.
| Item | Factor 1 | Factor 2 |
|---|---|---|
| Bright–Dark | 0.792 | |
| Soft–Stiff | 0.935 | |
| Light–Thick | 0.906 | |
| Smooth–Rough | 0.916 | |
| Elegant–Vulgar | 0.693 | |
| Costly–Cheap | 0.792 | |
| Classical–Modern | 0.895 | |
| Natural–Artificial | 0.923 | |
| Eigenvalue | 4.320 | 2.319 |
| Contribution rate | 53.994 | 28.988 |
| Cumulative contribution rate | 53.994 | 82.982 |
Table 2.
Table of perceptual difference between tea-stems-dyed and tea-leaves-dyed fabrics.
| Cloth/Sense | Tencel | Polyester | Polyester–Cotton | Silk Habotai | Silk Crinkle | Silk Chiffon | Cotton | Linen | Ramie |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Comfort, value | *** | ||||||||
| Naturalness, age | *** |
*** p < 0.05.
Table 3.
Factor score table.
| Type | The Name of the Fabric | The Factor Score |
|---|---|---|
| Synthetic fiber fabric | Tencel (tea leaves dyeing) | 1.13 |
| entry 2 | Tencel (tea stems dyeing) | 0.9 |
| Polyester (tea leaves dyeing) | 0.4 | |
| Polyester (tea stems dyeing) | 0.4 | |
| Polyester–cotton (tea leaves dyeing) | 0.33 | |
| Polyester–cotton (tea stems dyeing) | 0.27 | |
| Animal fiber fabric | Silk Chiffon (tea leaves dyeing) | 0.4 |
| Silk Chiffon (tea stems dyeing) | 1.42 | |
| Silk Habotai (tea leaves dyeing) | −0.14 | |
| Silk Habotai (tea stems dyeing) | −0.43 | |
| Silk Crinkle (tea leaves dyeing) | −0.51 | |
| Silk Crinkle (tea stems dyeing) | −0.46 | |
| Plant fiber fabric | Cotton (tea leaves dyeing) | 0.33 |
| Cotton (tea stems dyeing) | 0.22 | |
| Linen (tea leaves dyeing) | −0.94 | |
| Linen (tea stems dyeing) | −1.19 | |
| Ramie (tea leaves dyeing) | −0.76 | |
| Ramie (tea stems dyeing) | −1.04 |
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MDPI and ACS Style
Yang, L.; Dai, X.; Meng, Y.; Zhou, L.; Yue, X. Comparative Study on Dyed Fabrics of Tea and Tea Stem Based on Kansei Engineering. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1134. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021134
AMA Style
Yang L, Dai X, Meng Y, Zhou L, Yue X. Comparative Study on Dyed Fabrics of Tea and Tea Stem Based on Kansei Engineering. Sustainability. 2023; 15(2):1134. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021134
Chicago/Turabian StyleYang, Li, Xudong Dai, Yuke Meng, Lin Zhou, and Xinyu Yue. 2023. "Comparative Study on Dyed Fabrics of Tea and Tea Stem Based on Kansei Engineering" Sustainability 15, no. 2: 1134. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021134
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