Next Article in Journal
Meteorological Effects of Green Infrastructure on a Developing Medium Latin American City: A Numerical Modeling Assessment
Previous Article in Journal
Assessing Morpho-Physiological and Biochemical Markers of Soybean for Drought Tolerance Potential
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 15
Issue 2
10.3390/su15021428
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Enhancing Sugarcane Growth and Improving Soil Quality by Using a Network-Structured Fertilizer Synergist

by
Yonglong Zhao
1,2,
Jingjing Cao
1,2,
Zhiqin Wang
1,2,
Lu Liu
1,2,
Meixin Yan
3,
Naiqin Zhong
1,2,4,* and
Pan Zhao
1,2,4,*
1
State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
2
Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Microbial Technology of Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
3
Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanning 530007, China
4
The Enterprise Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Potato Fertilizer and Pesticide, Hulunbuir 021000, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(2), 1428; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021428
Submission received: 12 December 2022 / Revised: 2 January 2023 / Accepted: 7 January 2023 / Published: 11 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Agriculture)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
High usage and low efficiency of fertilizers not only restrict sugarcane production but also destroy the soil environment in China. To solve this problem, a network-structured nanocomposite as a fertilizer synergist (FS) was prepared based on attapulgite (ATP) and polyglutamic acid (PGA). Field demonstrations were conducted from 2020 to 2021. Leaching tests and characterization were used to evaluate the ability of the network structure to control nutrient loss. The effects of FS on sugarcane growth and field soil quality were also investigated. The results showed FS could effectively reduce nitrogen loss by 20.30% and decrease fertilizer usage by at least 20%. Compared to fertilizer with the same nutrition, fertilizer with FS could enhance sugarcane yield and brix by 20.79% and 0.58 percentage points, respectively. Additionally, FS improved the soil physicochemical properties, including reducing the soil bulk density and increasing the contents of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and organic matter. FS also altered the diversity of the bacteria and improved the bacterial richness. Our study shows this FS has a good ability to control nutrient loss, advance sugarcane agronomic traits, and improve soil quality. This work offers an option for the sustainable development of sugarcane through the novel FS.

1. Introduction

The fertilizer efficiency improvement products that are most currently employed are the fertilizer compound, urease, or/and nitrification inhibitors and slow-release/controlled-release fertilizer (SR/CRF) [1,2]. As a urease inhibitor, thiophosphric triamide (NBPT) can reduce NH3 volatilization by 15–78% [3,4], and hydroquinone (HQ) inhibits urea hydrolysis and affects the ongoing transformation of urea hydrolysate. Nitrification inhibitors can restrain the transformation of NH4+ into NO2− and NO3− and then reduce the loss of NO3− by leaching [5]. SR/CRF are manufactured by adding a coating to the surface of the fertilizer, and three types of products are there. In the first type, minerals mainly consisting of sulphur, silicate, gypsum, and phosphoric acid and polymers (such as starch, fibrin, and polyethylene) are coated on the surface of fertilizers; the second type involves processing additional nutrient compounds (including urea, humic acid, potassium sulphate, and diatomite) on the fertilizer surface; and the third type is known as a compound low-grade solubility SR/CRF with finite water solubility represented by products, such as urea-formaldehyde fertilizer, N,N″-(isobutylidene) diurea and fused calcium-magnesium phosphate [6]. Although the application of CRFs increases the content of NH4+-N and NO3−-N in sugarcane soil and the nutrient release rate is consistent with the growth cycle of sugarcane, these phenomena are easily affected by the soil type [7,8]. Compared with urea, CR N was found to have twice the use efficiency in saline soil, and sugarcane production was increase by 10 t/ha, whereas the use of CR N in clay soil only increased the sugarcane yield by 4.8 t/ha [9]. There are also environmental security risks associated with SR/CRF application, and it is difficult to implement in practice [10,11]. In view of many problems associated with the safe and effective use of SR/CRF in practice, the development of environmentally friendly and convenient synergistic fertilizer technology is urgently required to enable efficient and safe production.
China is the third largest sugarcane-producing country globally after Brazil and India [12]. As the major crop in Guangxi, the sugarcane growing area was over 800,000 hectares (ha). Sugarcane production in this area has accounted for more than 80% of the total quantum in China [13,14]. Sugarcane has a long growth cycle, a huge biomass, and it requires abundant nutrients. During production in China, 400–800 kg/ha nitrogen (N), 150–300 kg/ha phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), and 250–500 kg/ha potassium oxide (K2O) are often added to the soil [15,16]; these amounts are much higher than those employed in other sugarcane-producing countries; for example, the amount of N fertilizer used in China is three times higher than that employed in Brazil [17]. In addition, most of the sugarcane fields in Guangxi are in mountainous and hilly areas, which means copious amounts of fertilizer are lost in runoff [18,19,20,21]. Thus, the amounts of fertilizer application are increasingly annually that result in sugarcane field soil in China being polluted by the overuse of fertilizers. This not only increases the cost of sugarcane production, but it also destroys the soil microflora and causes environmental problems.
In this study, a novel nanonetwork-structured fertilizer synergist (FS) agent was developed using attapulgite (ATP) and polyglutamic acid (PGA) complexes, and the effect on sugarcane was evaluated. To our knowledge, this is the first time an FS by ATP and PGA were constructed and applied to sugarcane cultivation. In this respect, both ATP and PGA have good adsorption effects; they can adsorb nutrient particles on the surface and inside pores through hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces, thus reducing the migration rate of nutrients in the soil. The apparent morphological characteristics of the FS were observed. The objectives of this study were to: (1) evaluate the controlling loss of fertilizer by our nanonetwork-structured FS; and (2) assess the effect on sugarcane growth and soil quality. We expected this study could expand the application of nanonetwork material to sugarcane agriculture with the aim of enhancing sugarcane growth and improving the soil quality.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Preparation of FS

The preparation of FS was according to a previously published method with modification [22,23]. The FS comprised ATP and PGA (formula L-Glu-(L-Glu)N-L-Glu) that were purchased from Anhui Mingguang Feizhou New Materials Co., Ltd. (Mingguang City, China) and Beijing Zhong Ran Xu Sheng Technology Development Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China), respectively. Compared to our previously study [23], PGA replaced the polyacrylamide (PAM) and sodium humate (SH) in this novel FS. ATP and PGA were then mixed at a mass ratio of 9:1.

2.2. Leaching Test of FS

A leaching test was performed as previously described with minor modifications [23,24]. In this test, the (NH4)2SO4 (NS) was provided by China Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd. (Shijiazhuang, China), and FS and NS were mixed together in different weight ratios (WFS/WNS × 100% = 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) to prepare the fertilizer synergistic-(NH4)2SO4 (FS-NS) samples. The resulting samples were designated as FS-NS. There were five different ladders of the FS-NS: (1) FS-NS (0%), (2) FS-NS (5%), (3) FS-NS (10%), (4) FS-NS (15%), and (5) FS-NS (20%), respectively. Sieved sand (150-mesh) was washed three times with distilled deionized water and dried, and 30 g of dry sand was then first placed in a 50 mL centrifuge tube with a hole (5 mm diameter) at the bottom wrapped with four layers of gauze. Subsequently, The FS-NS samples containing equal amounts of NS (1 g) were added to the centrifuge tube. The upper layer was then covered with 20 g of dry sand. Finally, 50 mL of distilled deionized water was sprayed on the top of the centrifuge tube. The leachate fractions of the five different FS-NS samples were collected respectively, and the NH4+ concentration was evaluated based on the method of Nessler’s reagent spectrophotometry [25].

2.3. Characterization of FS and FS-NS

To obtain FS-NS, FS and NS were mixed together at a mass ratio of 9:1, and the resulting morphology was observed using a scanning electron microscopy (SEM, HITACHI, S-4800, Tokyo, Japan). The infrared absorption spectrum was analyzed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, US Thermo Fisher (Waltham, MA, USA), Nicolet iN 10 MX). The X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern was obtained using an X-ray polycrystalline diffractometer (D/max-2550PC, Rigaku, Tokyo, Japan), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was performed using an XPS spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Oxford, UK). Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) specific surface areas were measured by physisorption of N2 using an automatic surface area and a pore analyzer (BELSORP-max, MicrotracBEL, Osaka, Japan).

2.4. Field Tests

Field evaluation trials were conducted to analyze the FS effects on sugarcane yield, associated quality traits, the physical and chemical properties of soil, and the microbial diversity of rhizosphere soil. Field tests were conducted in seven different locations that belong to the sugarcane base with high yield and high sugar content in Guangxi, and tests were conducted in two of these locations over two years (Table 1). In the field tests, the treatments with different amounts of FS were designated as F-control, F-a, F-b, F-c, and F-d, respectively. The details of the treatments are shown in Table 1. The plant height, stem diameter, single stem weight, sugar brix, and yield were measured at the harvest stage.
To conduct a detailed analysis of the effects of applying the FS, a plot test was established in March 2021 at the Long’an Base of the Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. The physicochemical properties of the plot soil were as follows: bulk density of 1.12 g/cm3, total N of 4.5 g/kg, total phosphorus (P) of 6.1 g/kg, total potassium (K) of 7.4 g/kg, hydrolysable N of 127.42 mg/kg, available P of 272.09 mg/kg, available K of 77.42 mg/kg, and organic matter of 23.18 g/kg. In this test, four different treatments with the same compound fertilizer (CF, N-P2O5-K2O: 15-15-15) were employed: 100% CF (3000 kg/ha, control), (a) 100% CF + 10% FS, (b) 100% CF + 20% FS, and (c) 80% CF + 20% FS. The amounts of FS were 10% and 20% of the actual amount of fertilizer. Fifty percent of fertilizer and FS were applied as a base fertilizer in March 2021, and another 50% was applied in May 2021. Three replicates were designed for each treatment, and the field plots comprised 12 subplots with identical areas (6 × 8 m2). Five rows were planted in each subplot at a density of 100 plants in 12 m2 and row spacing of 1.2 m. Soil samples from the sugarcane root zone and rhizosphere were collected at the harvest stage (according to the “S” shape collection method) and stored at −80 °C. The root-zone soil was used to analyze the soil physiochemical properties, and the rhizosphere soil was used to conduct a microbial analysis. The seedling emergence rate was measured at the seedling stage; plant height, stem diameter, single stem weight, sugar brix, chlorophyll meter value (SPAD), and yield were measured at the harvest stage. The other physicochemical properties of sugarcane, including total accumulated amounts of N, P, and K in sugarcane stems at different growth stages, were measured. The enzyme activities of the sugarcane, including sucrose synthase (SS) and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS), were also monitored.

2.5. Data Statistical Analysis

The statistically significant differences were determined by student’s t-test and indicated by asterisks (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).

3. Results

3.1. FS Ability to Control Leaching Loss

Leaching loss in soil is a key factor involved in the severe reduction of the N utilization efficiency. In this experiment, (NH4)2SO4 was used as the NH4+ source, and the leaching test was designed to explore the effect of FS on the leaching loss of NH4+ (Figure 1A). The results showed FS reduced NH4+ permeation loss; with an increase in the amount of FS, there was a gradual decrease in the NH4+ content of the leachate. With the addition of 20% FS, there was a significant decrease in the NH4+ content of the leachate. Compared with the FS-NS (0%) treatment, there was a 20.30% decrease in the leaching loss of NH4+ with the FS-NS (20%) (Figure 1B).

3.2. Network-Structured of FS and Interaction in the FS-NS System

The microstructures of the FS and FS-NS systems were characterized by SEM. As shown in Figure 2, the ATP fiber crystals tended to occur in bundles with abundant pores between the crystals (Figure 2A), and this was beneficial for improving the nanoscale effect and the high adsorption effect of ATP. The PGA particles occurred in the form of diamonds or rectangles (Figure 2B). After mixing the two substances, ATP adhered to the surface and pores of PGA, and a cluster morphology was formed (Figure 2C), mainly under the reaction of van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds. The addition of (NH4)2SO4 into the FS system enabled the (NH4)2SO4 particles to anchor to the surface of the ATP-PGA polymer or enter the pores, and this agglomeration structure was superior to that provided by ATP or PGA alone (Figure 2D).
The differences between the crystal structures of FS and FS-NS were studied by XRD. The peak of ATP was characteristic with an -OH stretching vibration of 3556 cm−1, and the peaks of PGA were typical in relation to the N-H stretching vibration of 3420 cm−1 and the C=O stretching vibration of 1660 cm−1. The peaks of ATP-PGA (-OH = 3554 cm−1, N-H = 3415 cm−1, C=O = 1650 cm−1) could be offset, and the intensity of the peaks decreased. These results suggest hydrogen bonds were formed between ATP (-OH) and PGA (N-H and C=O). In ATP-PGA-NS, the N-H tensile vibration at 3459 cm−1 and the N-H bending vibration at 1691 cm−1 were offset, and the peak strength decreased. In addition, in the ATP-PGA-NS system, the peak strength with an ATP-PGA tensile vibration strength of N-H (3554 cm−1) was significantly reduced. These results indicate the existence of hydrogen bonds between ATP-PGA (-OH) and NS (N-H) (Figure 3A).
To further investigate the interactions occurring within the FS-NS system, the FTIR spectra were analyzed. In the FS and FS-NS systems, the characteristic PGA peaks at 1310 cm−1 and 1606 cm−1 were weakened; this indicated ATP and NS were successfully attached to the surface of PGA, and the PGA response to infrared radiation was thus reduced (Figure 3B). The XPS spectra showed the characteristic diffraction peaks of PGA and ATP were included in the FS and FS-NS systems, which showed no material had been lost during FS preparation (Figure 3C). The Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) results showed decreases in the pore diameter and pore volume of FS of 0.005 nm and 0.078 cm3/g, respectively, following the addition of NS. Compared with ATP and FS, the specific surface areas decreased by 18.21 m2/g and 19.03 m2/g, respectively. These results indicate NS was successfully adsorbed onto the ATP and PGA surfaces and pores (Table 2).

3.3. Effects of FS on Agronomic of Sugarcane in Field Test

3.3.1. Effects of FS in Different Regions in Field

The effects of using FS with different types of fertilizers were analyzed in different regions over a two-year period (Table 1). Compared to the fertilization methods without FS used, the sugarcane yield and the sugar brix were increased by 3.4–21.4% and 0.1–0.3 percentage points, respectively, following the addition of FS. In addition, the sugarcane yield and quality remained unchanged under the addition of FS when the amount of fertilizer applied was reduced to different levels. The FS also had a significant promoting effect on improving the yield of ratoon cane (Figure 4 and Figure A1).

3.3.2. Agronomic Traits in Plot Test

The detailed analysis of the FS effects on sugarcane was conducted in the plot experiment. The application of FS in sugarcane production was assessed via field tests conducted in Long’an County, Nanning City, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China, and FS was seen to have a good promotional effect on sugarcane growth. The rate of sugarcane emergence was counted 30 days after sowing, and FS significantly improved the rate by 11% compared with the control (Figure 5A). This superior result was considered to be mainly related to the improved soil water content, which was enhanced via the presence of large numbers of hydrophilic groups on the surface of PGA and the absorption of water from the air by some of the side chain groups. The yield and quality of sugarcane were investigated at the mature stage, and the amount of FS added was found to be positively correlated with plant height, stem diameter, and single stem weight (Figure 5B,D): the sugarcane yield and brix increased by 20.79% and 0.58%, respectively, when the FS comprised 20% (b) of the fertilizer (Figure 5E,F). It is also of note that there was no significant difference in the yield and quality observed when the amount of fertilizer to which FS was added was reduced by 20% compared with the control.

3.3.3. Effects of FS on Physicochemical Properties of Sugarcane

In the plot experiment, we investigated the chlorophyll content of sugarcane leaves and the activities of SS and SPS in +1 leaves at different growth stages. During the entire sugarcane growth stage, the addition of 20% FS significantly increased the chlorophyll content (SPAD) in the sugarcane leaves by 9.87% (seeding stage), 3.82% (tiller stage), 4.06% (jointing stage), and 14.92% (maturity stage) compared with the control. The addition of 20% FS after the amount of conventional fertilizer had been reduced by 20% and slightly improved the chlorophyll content (Figure 6A). The SS and SPS activities in the +1 leaves of each treatment did not differ significantly from those of the control, but they were slightly higher than those of the traditional fertilization treatment (Figure 6B,C), and this may be one of the reasons for the nonsignificant sugar brix increase.
To evaluate the effect of the FS on nutrient accumulation in sugarcane, the total accumulated amounts of N, P, and K in sugarcane stems at the tillering, elongation, and maturity stages were measured. On the basis of consistent total fertilization, an increase in the amount of FS applied increased the nutrient content of sugarcane, and the N, P, and K contents within the plant were positively correlated with the addition of FS. Furthermore, the addition of 20% FS to an amount of fertilizer that had been reduced by 20% compared to traditionally applied amounts also promoted the accumulation of N in the sugarcane stems, but the amounts of P and K were similar to those of the control (Figure 6D–F).

3.3.4. FS Affects the Physicochemical Properties of Soil

To evaluate the ability of the FS on soil improvement, we investigated the basic soil physical and chemical properties of the sugarcane field following harvest. The soil bulk density at a depth of 15–20 cm in each FS treatment was lower than that of the control. However, the organic matter content increased (Figure 7A,B), and the difference between treatment (b) and the control reached a significant level. This effect could have been due to the increased soil water content, soil microbial diversity, and the promotion of microbial metabolic activities in the FS treatment. Compared with the control, the contents of hydrolysable N and available P and K in the soils of the (a) and (b) treatments were significantly increased, but there were no significant differences between treatment (c) and the control. These results showed the FS enhanced the soil nutrient supply capacity (Figure 7C–E). In addition, to more accurately evaluate the effect of FS addition on soil improvement, we investigated the total N, P, and K contents of the sugarcane fields. The total nutrient content of (b) was significantly higher than that of the control, but the total N content of (c) decreased slightly, although the difference was not significant (Figure 7F–H). This may be because the FS adsorbs nutrient particles, which contributes to reducing the migration efficiency of nutrient particles in soil and preventing nutrient loss.

3.3.5. The Effect of FS on Bacterial Diversity in Rhizosphere Soil

The above results showed a combination of 100% CF + 20% FS provided the best effect on sugarcane yield and soil improvement. We therefore analyzed the bacterial alpha, diversity in sugarcane rhizosphere soil after adding FS using 100% CF + 20% FS, and compared the results with the control. The observed operational taxonomic units (OTUs) and the Chao1 were significantly higher after the addition of 100% CF + 20% FS compared to the control (Figure 8A,B). The Shannon index increased slightly compared with that of the control (Figure 8C), and the Simpson index was consistent with that of the control (Figure 8D). The 3 relative abundance of bacterial at phylum and 28 relative abundance at genus showed the significant differences between the control and 100% CF + 20% FS (Figure A2 and Figure A3). The Chao1 index can reflect the species richness of community; the Shannon index and the Simpson index reflect the species diversity of the community. This result indicates the FS significantly increased richness of bacteria in rhizosphere soil, but it had a negligible effect on the bacteria community diversity.

4. Discussion

This study aimed to investigate the effect of nanonetwork-structured FS on control nutrient loss, sugarcane growth, and soil quality. In this study, we first developed a new FS composed of ATP and PGA. A network-structured and certain adsorption effect were formed in this FS. The excellent properties of ATP include its cation substitution, water retention, adsorption, strong plasticity and adhesion improvement abilities, its ability to increase the specific surface area, and its expansion capacity. In addition, it undergoes limited shrinkage after drying, and it does not readily crack [26,27,28,29]. ATP rods tended to form several bunches with abundant small pores (Figure 2A). Thus, a small amount of PGA could be loaded into these small pores (Figure 2C). PGA contains a large number of hydrophilic carboxyl and peptide bonds, which can be chelated, crosslinked, derived, adsorbed, and ion exchanged. PGA also has good water absorption and adsorption abilities and is biodegradable and biocompatible [30,31]. The PGA transformed the ATP bunches into a micro/nano network through bridging and netting effects driven by H bonds and van der Waals forces (Figure 3). The network-structured FS was formed (Figure 2C). The addition of NS into the FS system enabled the NS particles to anchor to the surface of the FS or enter the pores (Figure 2D). The few obvious chemical changes in FS-NS illustrate adsorption is not the main mechanism of FS. The action of hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces (Figure 2 and Figure 3) may be the cause for control loss of nutrients (Figure 2 and Figure 3, Table 2). The study for characterization of FS showed FS has good ability to reduce the nutrient loss. With the amount of FS increasing, there was a significant decrease in the NH4+ content of the leachate (Figure 1). A large number of studies have shown both ATP and PGA can improve the nutrient utilization efficiency and increase crop yield [32,33,34]. However, the effect of mixing ATP and PGA on sugarcane planting and soil improvement has not been reported. We prepared a novel FS comprised ATP and PGA to apply on sugarcane. Compared to our former FS [23], polyacrylamide (PAM) and sodium humate (SH) were replaced by PGA to form the novel network-structured FS. The novel FS has the same effect of preventing nutrient loss, but the cost is lower. Our results showed the application of FS on sugarcane effectively reduced nutrient loss from the soil and improved the fertilizer use efficiency, thereby ultimately reducing production costs.
We observed the emergence rate, plant height, stem diameter, single stem weight, and yield of sugarcane increased significantly after adding 20% FS to conventional fertilizer. The agronomics of sugarcane in different regions were all improved (Figure 4 and Figure A1). In the plot test, the agronomic traits and physicochemical properties of sugarcane were all advanced, especially the yield and brix (Figure 5). The addition of FS promoted the accumulation of N, P, and K in sugarcane, enhanced the activity of sucrose synthesis-related enzymes in leaves, and increased the sugar matrix. The SS and SPS activities were higher than the control (Figure 6). This may be one of the reasons for the sugar brix increase. It also contributed to providing a stable yield and sugarcane quality after the amount of conventional fertilizer to which it was applied was reduced by 20%. In our study, we assessed the potential economic benefits based on fertilizer input, FS input, and yield output in Long’an County. The market price of fertilizer was RMB¥ 4.2 kg−1, the price of FS was RMB¥ 3 kg−1. The output was calculated by sugarcane yield with the price. The average price in marker at the time of harvest was RMB¥ 450 t−1. Table 3 provides an evaluation of the economic benefits where the total amount input follows the order b > a > control > c, and the net income is seen to be similar to that of the total output. The optimum net income is found with 100% CF + 20% FS (treatment b), the net income of 80% CF + 20% FS (treatment c) is almost equal to that of the control and has the lowest total input. In consideration of sustainable and environmentally friendly methods, we suggest the best selection would be 80% CF + 20% FS (treatment c). Our results also show 20% FS provides the best economic benefit (Table 3).
The physicochemical properties and microbial abundance of soil are important indicators of soil quality. Our results showed the addition of FS reduced the soil bulk density and increased the available N, P, K, and organic matter contents of the soil (Figure 7). The physicochemical properties of the sugarcane field soil were advanced by this FS. We speculated the ability of FS to control nutrient loss prolongs the existence time of nutrients in soil. It is known that ATP or PGA and its complexes can improve soil microbial biomass and microbial abundance [35,36,37,38]. However, few reports have investigated the effects of ATP combined with PGA on soil microbial abundance. In this study, the application of this FS can alter the diversity of the bacteria (Figure 8) and improved the bacterial richness (Figure A2 and Figure A3). Bacterial communities always play important roles in soil, such as nutrient cycling, various compounds degradation, plant growth promotion, and disease control [39,40]. Higher microbial diversity can be a symptom of good soil quality. In our results, there is a positive correlation between the bacterial diversity and soil physicochemical properties. This showed soil microbial communities were strongly correlated to soil physicochemical. However, further studies are required to confirm whether the changes in the relative abundances seen in the current study were directly caused by the adsorption effect and the bonding capacity of the FS network structure or whether they were related to the physicochemical properties of soil that were altered by the addition of FS.
It is of note there are some difficulties associated with improving the fertilizer efficiency in sugarcane production. For instance, there was no significant difference in yield between the use of nanochelating fertilizer and urea [41]. In sugarcane fields, urea treated with NBPT could reduce NH3 emissions, which are beneficial to crop growth in the next season, but it did not significantly increase the yield [42]. Urea replaced by biological fertilizer may have caused a slight decrease in the yield [43]. The application of ZA fertilizer increased the yield, but the soil pH and the economic benefits were reduced [44]. In this study, our results showed the application of novel network-structured FS could increase the sugarcane yield and benefited the soil. This novel network-structured FS is a reasonable agent for use in sugarcane planting and soil improvement.

5. Conclusions

In this study, a novel network-structured FS composed of ATP and PGA was constructed and applied to sugarcane cultivation for the first time to enhance sugarcane growth and improve soil quality. Our results of this study show FS has a good ability to control nutrient loss, advance the agronomic traits of sugarcane, and improve soil quality. FS had a positive impact on the yield and quality of sugarcane. The addition of 20% FS in fertilizers was the best for the yield and quality of sugarcane and improved the ecological environment of soil. The effects were found to be similar in different regions, and it is thus considered that FS is effective for promoting the ecologically friendly and sustainable development of the sugarcane industry. This study proved a novel FS that is environmentally friendly, convenient, and effective for sugarcane cultivation. In addition, the study provides an efficient FS that is a safe, convenient, and stable alternative agent to increase the fertilizer efficiency. Based on the effect of the novel FS on the bacterial diversity, we will focus on effects of the network-structured nanocomposite on the relationship between soil physicochemical properties and microbial communities in a further study.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.Z. and P.Z.; methodology, N.Z. and P.Z.; software, Y.Z.; validation, M.Y., N.Z. and P.Z.; formal analysis, Y.Z., J.C. and Z.W; investigation, J.C., Z.W., L.L., Y.Z. and P.Z.; resources, N.Z. and P.Z.; data curation, Y.Z., J.C. and Z.W.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.Z.; writing—review and editing, N.Z. and P.Z.; visualization, Y.Z. and L.L.; supervision, N.Z. and P.Z.; project administration, P.Z. and M.Y.; funding acquisition, N.Z. and P.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Science and Technology Service Network Initiative of Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant number KFJ-STS-QYZD-199; the Linze Attapulgite Open Project, grant number LZKFKT-2002; the Key Area Research and Development Program of Guangdong Province in China, grant number 2020B0202010005; the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant number XDA28030202, and the Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Science, grant number XDA24020104.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We thank Cai, D. (Donghua University, Shanghai) for help with characterization of FS and FS-NS assay.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Sustainability 15 01428 g0a1 550
Figure A1. Effects of FS on plant height, stem diameter, and single stem weight of sugarcane in different demonstration areas. (A–C) Heng County in 2020; (D–F): Heng County in 2021; (G–I) Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County in 2020; (J–L) Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County in 2021; (M–O) Dahua Yao Autonomous in 2021; (P–R) Wuming district in 2021; (S–U) Da’an town in 2021. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Figure A1. Effects of FS on plant height, stem diameter, and single stem weight of sugarcane in different demonstration areas. (A–C) Heng County in 2020; (D–F): Heng County in 2021; (G–I) Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County in 2020; (J–L) Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County in 2021; (M–O) Dahua Yao Autonomous in 2021; (P–R) Wuming district in 2021; (S–U) Da’an town in 2021. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Sustainability 15 01428 g0a1
Sustainability 15 01428 g0a2 550
Figure A2. Significant analysis of bacterial relative abundance at the phylum level between different treatments. Control: 100% CF; b: 100% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05).
Figure A2. Significant analysis of bacterial relative abundance at the phylum level between different treatments. Control: 100% CF; b: 100% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05).
Sustainability 15 01428 g0a2
Sustainability 15 01428 g0a3 550
Figure A3. Significant analysis of bacterial relative abundance at the gene level between different treatments. Control: 100% CF; b: 100% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05).
Figure A3. Significant analysis of bacterial relative abundance at the gene level between different treatments. Control: 100% CF; b: 100% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05).
Sustainability 15 01428 g0a3

References

  1. Timilsena, Y.P.; Adhikari, R.; Casey, P.; Muster, T.; Gill, H.; Adhikari, B. Enhanced efficiency fertilisers: A review of formulation and nutrient release patterns. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2015, 95, 1131–1142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Dimkpa, C.O.; Fugice, J.; Singh, U.; Lewis, T.D. Development of fertilizers for enhanced nitrogen use efficiency—Trends and perspectives. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 731, 139113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Cantarella, H.; Ocheuze Trivelin, P.C.; Michelucci Contin, T.L.; Ferreira Dias, F.L.; Rossetto, R.; Marcelino, R.; Coimbra, R.B.; Quaggio, J.A. Ammonia volatilisation from urease inhibitor-treated urea applied to sugarcane trash blankets. Sci. Agric. 2008, 65, 397–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Scivittaro, W.B.; Nunes Goncalves, D.R.; Campos do Vale, M.L.; Ricordi, V.G. Nitrogen losses by ammonia volatilization and lowland rice response to NBPT urease inhibitor-treated urea. Cienc. Rural. 2010, 40, 1283–1289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  5. Koelln, O.T.; Junqueira Franco, H.C.; Ferreira, D.A.; Vargas, V.P.; de Quassi Castro, S.A.; Cantarella, H.; Caldana, C.; Ocheuze Trivelin, P.C. Root extracts of Bracchiaria humidicola and Saccharum spontaneum to increase N use by sugarcane. Sci. Agric. 2016, 73, 34–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Yan, X.; Jin, J.-Y.; Ping, H.E.; Liang, M.-Z. Recent Advances on the Technologies to Increase Fertilizer Use Efficiency. Agric. Sci. China 2008, 7, 469–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Yang, X.; Geng, J.; Li, C.; Zhang, M.; Tian, X. Cumulative release characteristics of controlled-release nitrogen and potassium fertilizers and their effects on soil fertility, and cotton growth. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 39030. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  8. Li, T.; Zhang, W.; Yin, J.; Chadwick, D.; Norse, D.; Lu, Y.; Liu, X.; Chen, X.; Zhang, F.; Powlson, D.; et al. Enhanced-efficiency fertilizers are not a panacea for resolving the nitrogen problem. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2018, 24, e511–e521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Di Bella, L.P.; Stacey, S.P.; Benson, A.; Royle, A.; Holzberger, G. An assessment of controlled release fertiliser in the Herbert cane-growing region [of Australia]. Int. Sugar J. 2013, 115, 868–872. [Google Scholar]
  10. Mustafa, A.; Athar, F.; Khan, I.; Chattha, M.U.; Nawaz, M.; Shah, A.N.; Mahmood, A.; Batool, M.; Aslam, M.T.; Jaremko, M.; et al. Improving crop productivity and nitrogen use efficiency using sulfur and zinc-coated urea: A review. Front. Plant Sci. 2022, 13, 942384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Naz, M.Y.; Sulaiman, S.A. Slow release coating remedy for nitrogen loss from conventional urea: A review. J. Control. Release 2016, 225, 109–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Wegener, M.; Ou, Y.G.; Yang, D.T.; Liu, Q.T.; Zheng, D.K. Mechanising sugarcane harvesting in China: A review. Int. Sugar J. 2014, 116, 272–277. [Google Scholar]
  13. Luo, J.; Pan, Y.B.; Xu, L.; Grisham, M.P.; Zhang, H.; Que, Y. Rational regional distribution of sugarcane cultivars in China. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 15721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  14. Xie, J.; Yang, J.; Luo, Q.; Chunqiang, Y.; Pan, Q. Survey of sugarcane pests in Xianggui sugarcane area and countermeasures of pest control. J. Plant Dis. Pests 2020, 11, 13–16, 21. [Google Scholar]
  15. Jin, J. Changes in the efficiency of fertiliser use in China. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2012, 92, 1006–1009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Guo, Y.; Wang, J. Spatiotemporal Changes of Chemical Fertilizer Application and Its Environmental Risks in China from 2000 to 2019. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Li, Y.-R.; Yang, L.-T. Sugarcane Agriculture and Sugar Industry in China. Sugar Tech. 2014, 17, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Xu, L.F.; Wang, K.L.; Zhu, H.H.; Hou, Y.; Zhang, W. Effects of different land use types on soil nutrients in karst region of Northwest Guangxi. Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao 2008, 19, 1013–1018. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  19. Zhang, L.; Yang, X.; Gao, D.; Wang, L.; Li, J.; Wei, Z.; Shi, Y. Effects of poly-gamma-glutamic acid (gamma-PGA) on plant growth and its distribution in a controlled plant-soil system. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 1–3. [Google Scholar]
  20. Yao, Y.; Dai, Q.; Gao, R.; Gan, Y.; Yi, X. Effects of rainfall intensity on runoff and nutrient loss of gently sloping farmland in a karst area of SW China. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0246505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Song, X.; Gao, Y.; Green, S.M.; Dungait, J.A.J.; Peng, T.; Quine, T.A.; Xiong, B.; Wen, X.; He, N. Nitrogen loss from karst area in China in recent 50 years: An in-situ simulated rainfall experiment’s assessment. Ecol. Evol. 2017, 7, 10131–10142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Cai, D.; Wu, Z.; Jiang, J.; Wu, Y.; Feng, H.; Brown, I.G.; Chu, P.K.; Yu, Z. Controlling nitrogen migration through micro-nano networks. Sci. Rep. 2014, 4, 3665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  23. Zhou, L.; Zhao, P.; Chi, Y.; Wang, D.; Wang, P.; Liu, N.; Cai, D.; Wu, Z.; Zhong, N. Controlling the Hydrolysis and Loss of Nitrogen Fertilizer (Urea) by using a Nanocomposite Favors Plant Growth. ChemSusChem 2017, 10, 2068–2079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Bauw, D.H.; Wilde, P.; Rood, G.A.; Aalbers, T.G.J.C. A standard leaching test, including solid phase extraction, for the determination of PAH leachability from waste materials. Chemosphere 1991, 22, 713–722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Xu, Z.; Guo, L.; Wang, D.; Bi, Z.; Fu, Z. Sampling and analysis of airborne ammonia in workplaces of China. J. Occup. Health 2020, 62, e12100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Luo, J.; Wang, Y.-Q.; Guo, L.-P.; Wang, Z.-H.; Li, S.-N.; Peng, T.; Li, Q.; Yao, Y.-Y.; Qi, Z.-M.; Nie, J.-T. Soil ecological effect of attapulgite and its application prospect in ecological planting of Chinese materia medica. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi = Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi = China J. Chin. Mater. Med. 2020, 45, 2031–2035. [Google Scholar]
  27. Ogunleye, A.; Bhat, A.; Irorere, V.U.; Hill, D.; Williams, C.; Radecka, I. Poly-gamma-glutamic acid: Production, properties and applications. Microbiol.-Sgm. 2015, 161, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  28. Zhang, Z.; Gui, W.; Wei, J.; Cui, Y.; Li, P.; Jia, Z.; Kong, P. Functionalized attapulgite for the adsorption of methylene blue: Synthesis, characterization, and adsorption mechanism. ACS Omega 2021, 6, 19586–19595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Guan, Y.; Song, C.; Gan, Y.; Li, F.-M. Increased maize yield using slow-release attapulgite-coated fertilizers. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2014, 34, 657–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Shih, I.L.; Van, Y.T. The production of poly-(γ-glutamic acid) from microorganisms and its various applications. Bioresour. Technol. 2001, 79, 207–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Guo, J.; Shi, W.; Li, J.; Zhai, Z. Effects of poly-gamma-glutamic acid and poly-gamma-glutamic acid super absorbent polymer on the sandy loam soil hydro-physical properties. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0245365. [Google Scholar]
  32. Cheng, W.D.; Wang, Y.Y.; Lin, H.M.; Liu, X.Z.; Yang, J.J. Response of applying palygorskite and fertilization on growth rules of Radix Hedysari. Zhong Yao Cai 2010, 33, 657–661. [Google Scholar]
  33. Ji, G.; Xu, L.; Lyu, Q.; Liu, Y.; Gong, X.; Li, X.; Yan, Z. Poly-gamma-glutamic acid production by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation using corn straw and its fertilizer synergistic effect evaluation. Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng. 2021, 44, 2181–2191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Zhang, X.; Wang, K.L.; Fu, Z.Y.; Chen, H.S.; Zhang, W.; Shi, Z.H. Hydrological characteristics of calcareous soil with contrasting architecture on dolomite slope of Northwest Guangxi. Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao 2017, 28, 2186–2196. [Google Scholar]
  35. Bajaj, I.; Singhal, R. Poly (glutamic acid)-An emerging biopolymer of commercial interest. Bioresour. Technol. 2011, 102, 5551–5561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Ma, H.; Li, P.; Liu, X.; Li, C.; Zhang, S.; Wang, X.; Tao, X. Poly-gamma-glutamic acid enhanced the drought resistance of maize by improving photosynthesis and affecting the rhizosphere microbial community. BMC Plant Biol. 2022, 22, 1–5. [Google Scholar]
  37. Qin, X.; Liu, Y.; Wang, L.; Li, B.; Wang, H.; Xu, Y. Remediation of heavy metal-polluted alkaline vegetable soil using mercapto-grafted palygorskite: Effects of field-scale application and soil environmental quality. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 60526–60536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Rafiq, M.K.; Joseph, S.D.; Li, F.; Bai, Y.; Shang, Z.; Rawal, A.; Hook, J.M.; Munroe, P.R.; Donne, S.; Taherymoosavi, S.; et al. Pyrolysis of attapulgite clay blended with yak dung enhances pasture growth and soil health: Characterization and initial field trials. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 607, 184–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Mercado-Blanco, J.; Abrantes, I.; Barra Caracciolo, A.; Bevivino, A.; Ciancio, A.; Grenni, P.; Hrynkiewicz, K.; Kredics, L.; Proença, D.N. Belowground microbiota and the health of tree crops. Front. Microbiol. 2018, 9, 1006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Saleem, M.; Hu, J.; Jousset, A.J.A.R.O.E. Evolution, Systematics More than the sum of its parts: Microbiome biodiversity as a driver of plant growth and soil health. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2019, 50, 145–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Alimohammadi, M.; Panahpour, E.; Naseri, A. Assessing the effects of urea and nano-nitrogen chelate fertilizers on sugarcane yield and dynamic of nitrate in soil. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2020, 66, 352–359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Moreira, L.A.; Otto, R.; Cantarella, H.; Junior, J.L.; Azevedo, R.A.; de Mira, A.B. Urea-Versus ammonium nitrate-based fertilizers for green sugarcane cultivation. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2021, 21, 1329–1338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. De Mendonca, H.V.; Martins, C.E.; Duarte da Rocha, W.S.; Vieira Borges, C.A.; Henry Balbaud Ometto, J.; Otenio, M.H. Biofertilizer replace urea as a source of nitrogen for sugarcane production. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2018, 229, 216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Tarmizi, W.; Utami, S.N.H.; Hanudin, E. Influences of urea and Za fertilizers to soil chemical properties, N uptake and sugarcane growth in Ultisols Seputih Mataram, Lampung. Ilmu Pertan. Agric. Sci. 2018, 3, 29–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sustainability 15 01428 g001 550
Figure 1. Leaching loss control of FS. (A) Schematic diagram of the leaching system. (B) NH4+ contents in the leachate of (1) FS-NS (0%), (2) FS-NS (5%), (3) FS-NS (10%), (4) FS-NS (15%), and (5) FS-NS (20%). FS: fertilizer synergistic; FS-NS: fertilizer synergistic—(NH4)2SO4. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05).
Figure 1. Leaching loss control of FS. (A) Schematic diagram of the leaching system. (B) NH4+ contents in the leachate of (1) FS-NS (0%), (2) FS-NS (5%), (3) FS-NS (10%), (4) FS-NS (15%), and (5) FS-NS (20%). FS: fertilizer synergistic; FS-NS: fertilizer synergistic—(NH4)2SO4. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05).
Sustainability 15 01428 g001
Sustainability 15 01428 g002 550
Figure 2. SEM images of (A) ATP, (B) PGA, (C) ATP-PGA, and (D) FS-NS. SEM: scanning electron microscopy. ATP: attapulgite; PGA: polyglutamic acid.
Figure 2. SEM images of (A) ATP, (B) PGA, (C) ATP-PGA, and (D) FS-NS. SEM: scanning electron microscopy. ATP: attapulgite; PGA: polyglutamic acid.
Sustainability 15 01428 g002
Sustainability 15 01428 g003 550
Figure 3. (A) XRD, (B) FTIR, and (C) XPS spectra of FS-NS. XRD: X-ray diffraction; FTIR: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; XPS: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.
Figure 3. (A) XRD, (B) FTIR, and (C) XPS spectra of FS-NS. XRD: X-ray diffraction; FTIR: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; XPS: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.
Sustainability 15 01428 g003
Sustainability 15 01428 g004 550
Figure 4. Statistical results in different regions. (A,B) Heng County in 2020; (C,D) Heng County in 2021; (E,F) Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County in 2020; (G,H) Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County in 2021; (I,J) Dahua Yao Autonomous County in 2021; (K,L) Wuming district in 2021; (M,N) Da’an town in 2021. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Figure 4. Statistical results in different regions. (A,B) Heng County in 2020; (C,D) Heng County in 2021; (E,F) Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County in 2020; (G,H) Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County in 2021; (I,J) Dahua Yao Autonomous County in 2021; (K,L) Wuming district in 2021; (M,N) Da’an town in 2021. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Sustainability 15 01428 g004
Sustainability 15 01428 g005 550
Figure 5. Effects of FS on sugarcane agronomic traits: (A) rate of emergence; (B) plant height; (C) stem diameter; (D) single stem weight; (E) yield; (F) brix. Control: 100% CF; a: 100% CF + 10% FS; b: 100% CF + 20% FS; c: 80% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Figure 5. Effects of FS on sugarcane agronomic traits: (A) rate of emergence; (B) plant height; (C) stem diameter; (D) single stem weight; (E) yield; (F) brix. Control: 100% CF; a: 100% CF + 10% FS; b: 100% CF + 20% FS; c: 80% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Sustainability 15 01428 g005
Sustainability 15 01428 g006 550
Figure 6. Effects of FS on physicochemical properties of sugarcane. (A) chlorophyll meter value (SPAD); (B) sucrose synthase (SS) activity; (C) sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) activity; (D) total nitrogen (N) in stems; (E) total phosphorus (P); (F) total potassium (K) in stems of sugarcane. Control: 100% CF; a: 100% CF + 10% FS; b:100% CF + 20% FS; c: 80% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Figure 6. Effects of FS on physicochemical properties of sugarcane. (A) chlorophyll meter value (SPAD); (B) sucrose synthase (SS) activity; (C) sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS) activity; (D) total nitrogen (N) in stems; (E) total phosphorus (P); (F) total potassium (K) in stems of sugarcane. Control: 100% CF; a: 100% CF + 10% FS; b:100% CF + 20% FS; c: 80% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Sustainability 15 01428 g006
Sustainability 15 01428 g007 550
Figure 7. Effects of FS on soil properties: (A) bulk density; (B) organic matter content; (C) hydrolytic N; (D) available P; (E) rapid K; (F) total N; (G) total P; (H) total K. Control: 100% CF; a: 100% CF + 10% FS; b:100% CF + 20% FS; c: 80% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Figure 7. Effects of FS on soil properties: (A) bulk density; (B) organic matter content; (C) hydrolytic N; (D) available P; (E) rapid K; (F) total N; (G) total P; (H) total K. Control: 100% CF; a: 100% CF + 10% FS; b:100% CF + 20% FS; c: 80% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01).
Sustainability 15 01428 g007
Sustainability 15 01428 g008 550
Figure 8. Alpha diversity indexes of rhizosphere soil: (A) observed OTUs; (B) Chao1 indexness; (C) Shannon index; (D) Simpson index. Control: 100% CF; b:100% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05).
Figure 8. Alpha diversity indexes of rhizosphere soil: (A) observed OTUs; (B) Chao1 indexness; (C) Shannon index; (D) Simpson index. Control: 100% CF; b:100% CF + 20% FS. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences, as determined by Student’s t-test (* p < 0.05).
Sustainability 15 01428 g008
Table
Table 1. Design Scheme of Field Tests.
Table 1. Design Scheme of Field Tests.
SiteF-controlF-aF-bF-cF-dF-Fertilizer
Heng County (2020)100% fertilizer
(3000 kg/ha CF + 375 kg/ha U)		100% fertilizer +
150 kg/ha FS		100% fertilizer +
300 kg/ha FS		80% fertilizer +
150 kg/ha FS		80% fertilizer +
300 kg/ha FS		N-P2O5-K2O: 16-7-11
Heng County
(2021)		100% fertilizer
(2625 kg/ha CF + 375 kg/ha U)		100% fertilizer +
300 kg/ha FS		80% fertilizer +
300 kg/ha FS		 N-P2O5-K2O: 12-7-10
Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County
(2020)		100% fertilizer
(3750 kg/ha CF)		100% fertilizer +
150 kg/ha FS		100% fertilizer +
300 kg/ha FS		100% fertilizer +
600 kg/ha FS		 N-P2O5-K2O: 12-8-8
Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County
(2021)		100% fertilizer
(3000 kg/ha OF)		92% fertilizer +
150 kg/ha FS		84% fertilizer +
300 kg/ha FS		68% fertilizer +
600 kg/ha FS		 content of organic matter ≥ 34%
Dahua Yao Autonomous County
(2021)		100% fertilizer
(1125 kg/ha MF + 1125 kg/ha OF)		100% fertilizer +
450 kg/ha FS		 effective nutrient content of MF ≥ 32%, content of organic matter ≥ 45%
Wuming district
(2021)		100% fertilizer
(2400 kg/ha CF)		100% fertilizer +
300 kg/ha FS		 N-P2O5-K2O: 16-7-11
Da’an town(2021)100% fertilizer
(1500 kg/ha CF)		100% fertilizer +
300 kg/ha FS		 N-P2O5-K2O: 12-7-10
Nitrogen (N); Phosphorus (P); Potassium (K).
Table
Table 2. Microstructure properties of FS-NS.
Table 2. Microstructure properties of FS-NS.
Pore Diameter (nm)Pore Volume (cm3/g)Surface Area (m2/g)
ATP3.8190.29273.80
ATP-PGA3.8230.30374.62
ATP-PGA-NS3.8180.22555.59
Table
Table 3. Economic benefit evaluation of plot test in Long’an County.
Table 3. Economic benefit evaluation of plot test in Long’an County.
GroupSchemeFertilizer InputFS InputTotal InputTotal Output Net Income
(RMB¥/ha)(RMB¥/ha)(RMB¥/ha)(RMB¥/ha)(RMB¥/ha)
Control100% CF12,600012,60035,844.2923,244.29
a100% CF + 10% FS12,60090013,50041,229.5627,729.56
b100% CF + 20% FS12,600180014,40043,295.9128,895.91
c80% CF + 20% FS10,080144011,52035,619.2824,099.28
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zhao, Y.; Cao, J.; Wang, Z.; Liu, L.; Yan, M.; Zhong, N.; Zhao, P. Enhancing Sugarcane Growth and Improving Soil Quality by Using a Network-Structured Fertilizer Synergist. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1428. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021428

AMA Style

Zhao Y, Cao J, Wang Z, Liu L, Yan M, Zhong N, Zhao P. Enhancing Sugarcane Growth and Improving Soil Quality by Using a Network-Structured Fertilizer Synergist. Sustainability. 2023; 15(2):1428. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021428

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhao, Yonglong, Jingjing Cao, Zhiqin Wang, Lu Liu, Meixin Yan, Naiqin Zhong, and Pan Zhao. 2023. "Enhancing Sugarcane Growth and Improving Soil Quality by Using a Network-Structured Fertilizer Synergist" Sustainability 15, no. 2: 1428. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021428

APA Style

Zhao, Y., Cao, J., Wang, Z., Liu, L., Yan, M., Zhong, N., & Zhao, P. (2023). Enhancing Sugarcane Growth and Improving Soil Quality by Using a Network-Structured Fertilizer Synergist. Sustainability, 15(2), 1428. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021428

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop