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Article

Using a Low-Temperature Pyrolysis Device for Polymeric Waste to Implement a Distributed Energy System

by
Ying-Che Hung
1,2,
Chien-Hua Ho
1,
Liang-Yü Chen
3,4,*,
Shih-Chieh Ma
5,
Te-I Liu
6 and
Yi-Chen Shen
7
1
Leang Yu International Co., Ltd., Hukou 30343, Taiwan
2
Department of Mechatronic Engineering, Huafan University, New Taipei 22301, Taiwan
3
Yuanli Global Co., Ltd., New Taipei 24259, Taiwan
4
Department of Biotechnology, Mingchuan University, Taoyuan 33348, Taiwan
5
Sibon Technologies Corp., Taipei 10597, Taiwan
6
Guo Kuang Electrical Engineers Office, Zhunan 35056, Taiwan
7
Department of Physics, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City 30013, Taiwan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(2), 1580; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021580
Submission received: 11 December 2022 / Revised: 2 January 2023 / Accepted: 12 January 2023 / Published: 13 January 2023
Browse Figures
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Abstract

:
Due to global changes, the international community is paying attention to the application of innovative energy technologies to meet the sustainable development of ecology and the environment. As a result, the concept of “waste-to-energy” has been developed. This study proposes a modular device for low-temperature pyrolysis (less than 300 °C) of polymers as a verifiable framework for a decentralized energy supply. Experiments with various plastics as waste feedstocks for conversion into fuel products were carefully analyzed. Mixed plastics (petrochemical polymers) and natural materials (organic polymers) were further subjected to energy conversion efficiency evaluation. The feasibility of continuous implementation was verified, converting 4000 kg of waste plastics with chemical potential into 3188 L of waste polymer oil (WPO), and generating 6031 kWh of electricity. Integrated electromechanical control realizes a low-temperature microwave pyrolysis process with low pollution emissions. The new technology harvests energy from troublesome garbage, reduces waste disposal volume by 55~88%, and produces cleaner, low-toxicity residual, easy-to-store fuel that can be used in general internal combustion engines. Standardized modular equipment provides an effective solution for resilient energy systems, and its easy scalability can reduce the load on the basic grid and improve the stability and dispatchability of energy supply. This research will realize on-site waste treatment, reduce transportation energy consumption, meet regional energy demands, and apply it to coastal, remote villages, offshore platforms, and emergency scenarios.

1. Introduction

The environment and Earth’s ecology are being threatened by various kinds of pollution and waste. The huge increase in global metropolitan population has created an increase in the demand, supply, and use of goods, which stimulates economic development and resource consumption but also creates complex environmental and social problems in relation to waste management of crowded cities [1]. However, the lack of effective means to deal with solid waste will result in the construction of more landfills and incinerators [2]. Troublesome pollution and waste continue to damage the environment, affecting human health and quality of life.
Synthetic and natural polymers are found in every material used in our daily lives. Ancient societies used natural polymers to develop human civilizations [3], such as clothing and ropes woven from fibers, wood as building materials and tools, and animal fats and scrap woods for fuel. Plastic waste cracks and shatters under the impact of sunlight and waves, and the particles scattered everywhere with ocean currents are difficult to handle. Every year, plastic waste kills tens of thousands of seabirds and marine mammals [4]. Marine debris enters the ecosystem in various forms and returns to humans through the food chain, affecting human health [5]. The accumulation of toxins adsorbed to plastics can lead to new diseases in the human body and can even have catastrophic effects on future generations [6]. The harm of polymeric wastes to the ocean and the Earth’s ecology has attracted global attention.
Under the circular economy initiative, which does everything possible to ensure the efficient use of valuable raw materials and energy, waste management has moved towards improved reuse and recycling [7]. Plastics are artificial polymers of petrochemical raw materials that go through a traditional linear life cycle: minerals are mined, extracted, refined, polymerized, processed into products, and then used and discarded to form waste. Converting sorted waste plastics into renewable products and resources is an economical method of disposal [8,9]. Recycled plastic bottles can be converted into polyester fiber materials for clothing [10]. Waste plastic recycling involves the processing of plastic fragments into useful products, such as new furniture [11], or as recycled materials for non-food uses [12].
Reducing commodity waste through policy promotion is conducive to environmental protection, saving resources and creating a new economic cycle. However, the economic activities brought about by technological innovation are accompanied by the disposal of various new wastes, such as plastics [13]. The innovative concept of this study on the life cycle of the petrochemical industry is shown in Figure 1. This research focuses on the verification of organic polymer recycling technology and the feasibility evaluation of alternative energy supply, so that the reduction, safety, and recycling of the waste in the district is in line with sustainable development.
Large-scale waste treatment plants have the advantages of various procedures, large processing capacities, and professional facilities to reduce secondary pollution. They use physical, chemical, or biological treatment methods to rapidly decompose waste to meet the requirements of reduction, stability, safety, and resource utilization. However, the high construction costs, the need for a large amount of waste supply to maintain efficient operations, increased industrial safety risks, and protests from local people all make the installation conditions of centralized waste plants extremely strict [14]. After construction, the plant will receive all kinds of mixed waste, and collecting and sorting wastes will consume a lot of manpower, time, and carbon emissions from transportation.
To avoid high pollution, the thermal decomposition (thermolysis) processes of pyrolysis, hydrogenation, and gasification provide a tractable transformation of waste polymer substances [15]. Pyrolysis is an endothermic process driven by external heat; conventional pyrolysis favors the formation of bio-oil, but the energy transfer mechanism of microwaves can change the composition and characteristics of the output [16,17]. Generally, the pyrolysis method needs to be carried out in an environment above 300 °C. The operating temperature of mature pyrolysis system can even be as high as 500 °C to 1200 °C, which offers better commercial benefits [18,19]. The high temperature pyrolysis (HTP) technology efficiently converts organic feedstock into high-calorie syngas (CO, H2, CO2, CH4), which can be used in industrial processes [20] or as an energy source [21]. The HTP also has been utilized to process large quantities of municipal waste to replace landfill and incineration in Malaysia [22] and Brazil [23].
Waste plastics of thermoplastics and thermosets are also suitable for pyrolysis treatments [24], including microwave pyrolysis [25,26]. Unfortunately, the HTP operation will produce many heterogeneous reactions for mixing waste plastics and composite materials and will also produce toxic substances that are difficult to handle [27,28]. Various operating parameters of microwave pyrolysis will have a critical impact on the conversion of a complex matrix of biomass materials into useful products and yields [29]. Pyrolysis of organic polymers at lower temperatures can result in conversion combinations of better target products [30]. Thus, a microwave pyrolysis unit heats faster, is cleaner, easier to operate, easily miniaturized for modular applications, allows reactors to operate at lower temperatures, and achieves higher energy conversion efficiency [31].
Waste polymers can be converted into fuel products for power generation, but poor-quality fuels can reduce power efficiency and create pollution hazards [32]. Solid renewable fuel (SRF) is an alternative waste treatment method designed to meet energy needs [33]. However, the conversion process is very energy-intensive, and it is difficult to control the quality of the finished product [34]; thus, its economic and environmental benefits are far inferior to the use of energy fuels [35]. SRF can only be used for combustion heating and increasing steam pressure as the power of the gas turbine in a cogeneration [36]. This multi-stage power generation method reduces the energy conversion efficiency, which can easily cause major industrial safety accidents [37], resulting in secondary air pollution [38,39].
Current grids are centered around large-scale power plants (nuclear and thermal) to provide baseload power to reduce the operating cost of the energy system. However, large-scale fixed systems cannot recover from emergencies involving an uncertain shock (such as natural disasters, improper operations, and terrorist attacks). Therefore, an essential condition of modern energy system is to enhance the stability of the power supply to make sure that it is tolerant and resilient [40]. The COVID-19 pandemic has caused economic activity to stagnate, making it difficult to obtain materials and digest waste [41]. Geopolitical conflicts have directly caused the energy shortage, such as the Russo-Ukrainian war in Europe [42]. Shocks are not necessarily temporary or manageable, and the supply-chain disruptions affect production and people’s livelihoods. The diversity and storage of alternative energy sources, and developing countermeasures in advance, can be closely monitored to reduce risks, which has become an urgent issue.
The development of renewable energy facilities and highly efficient energy storage materials can be used as distributed energy when disasters cause power outages [43]. Compared with centralized power plants, decentralized energy systems are more flexible and less prone to large-scale power outages due to minor accidents [44,45]. Distributed energy systems are independent of each other and have high controllability. Converting waste polymers into the refined fuels, which is convenient for storage and transportation, is one of the ways to harness resilient energy.
This study proposes a framework for small, mobile waste-to-energy plants in a district. Mobile equipment is easily transported by truck or boat and can be brought on board for the immediate disposal of waste salvaged from the sea. The modular design is easily retrofitted to handle the bulky, low-density, lightweight flotsam found all over the coast, especially plastic bottles, and waste woods. The equipment can also go deep into rural areas to process waste on-site, reducing the carbon emissions caused by the long-distance transportation of waste to centralized factories for processing [46]. Our equipment should be able to convert waste containing large amounts of organic polymers into combustible fuels, which in turn release heat or generate energy through a generator. This should also achieve multiple goals such as waste reduction, diminishing environmental impact, and solving power shortages and energy needs.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Technology Pipeline Structure for Waste-to-Resource

The experimental system shown in Figure 2a is divided into three main modules: the front-end crushing and drying, the middle-end pyrolysis-oily host, and the back-end fuel generator set. Modular and standard interface design facilitates different combinations to meet requirements for specific purposes.
The front-end equipment includes a filter, crusher, dryer, and one-way check valve. Front-end equipment has different system combinations according to different material sources. With solid waste as the input, the filter has the functions of vibration and magnetic suction and screens out non-organic substances such as glass, iron nails, or batteries that are not suitable for pyrolysis. The materials passing through the screen then enter the crusher, which turns the large particles into fragments to increase their surface area. The crude material enters the dryer to remove moisture. If the material is fed with liquid waste, the screening and crushing procedures can be omitted, and directly enter the drying stage. The dried material is sent to the mid-end equipment through the one-way check valve. Except for front-end equipment, both middle-end and back-end equipment are mobile.
The middle-end equipment is a modular kernel device of low-temperature pyrolysis (LTPD), which unifies the time and quantitative standards on waste treatment. The main function of the host is to convert organic waste, especially plastics, into waste polymers oil (WPO) with diesel quality by low-temperature microwave pyrolysis. Each unit of equipment can be standardized and mass-produced, reducing production and maintenance costs. As shown in Figure 2b,c, the apparent size of the 4.5-ton LTPD host is a standard 20-foot container, which is convenient for mobile placement.
The back-end equipment is the storage equipment or the fuel unit. The storage device can be a temporary storage tank, an oil tank, or an oil barrel, which is used to store the WPO produced by the LTPD host for future use. The back-end equipment can also be a fuel unit, such as an internal combustion engine, diesel engine, diesel-powered equipment, or a generator to generate electricity directly.

2.2. Operation Procedures of LTPD Host for Pyrolysis

The LTPD host comprises a microwave reactor, catalytic towers, an oil–water separation module, and condensation module. The whole purpose of pyrolysis is to “break the chain” of long-chain polymers in the pyrolysis reaction of organic substances and then re-copolymerize them into recycled fuel oil of short-chain copolymers. The operation procedure of the LTPD host is to conduct pyrolysis in an anaerobic reaction environment through a low-temperature and low-pressure device with three-stage catalysis.
The crude products (oil and gas) of pyrolysis enter the catalytic tower with the PC1 catalyst, and the long-chain structure of polymers (plastic) is decomposed or degraded into short-chain polymers. After the oil–water separation process by the PC2 catalyst, the incomplete chain-broken molecules, and impurities such as wax can be recovered to the reactor for repeated pyrolysis. The PC3 catalyst can convert impurities such as sulfur, chlorine, and heavy metals from oil and gas into slag. The volatile refined liquid is cooled by the back-end equipment as the final product, the WPO.
The microwave reactor is low pressure, and it automatically sucks in the broken waste for pyrolysis into a mixed slurry of solid, liquid, sludge, and gas. The main output is WPO, which is close to diesel quality, with small amounts of gas and carbon residues. The combustible gas is recovered to the dryer as preheating energy, and the solid residue and carbon black are discharged through the slag discharge device and temporarily stored.

2.3. Refining Module of Product Pyrolysis and Chemical Analysis

By sorting of waste plastics, the common synthetic polymers used as feed materials in the experiments are polyethylene terephthalate (PET), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS). After the waste polymer is pyrolyzed in an anaerobic manner, four components of liquid WPO, flammable gas (volatile organic compounds, VOCs), solid residue, and water vapor are finally produced. The temperature and pressure in the pyrolysis reaction have a great influence on the product composition, reaction rate, and yield. Different from large-scale fixed incinerators or thermal cracking furnaces, microwave pyrolysis devices can achieve low pollution emissions by adjusting the control parameters to balance the yield. The optimum operating temperature of the reactor is 250~280 °C, and the pressure is −0.20~−0.15 kPa for waste plastics.
The composition and quality of the input waste also affects the efficiency of the chemical reaction. Without the oxygen radicals, microwave heating causes molecular decomposition, macromolecular chain scission, and copolymerization into small molecules, resulting in olefinic unsaturated compounds such as condensable liquids, gases, and coke. Due to the modification of benzene rings and different functional groups on waste plastics, the strength of the material composition varies greatly, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic polymers are not easily degraded to form heavy oil or wax with high viscosity. Natural organic polymers have more highly polar heteroatoms (oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur), pyrolysis products are relatively hydrophilic and acidic, and solid carbides also have high soil compatibility, making them suitable for soil amendments.
The oil–water buffer tank, the gas buffer tank, and the oil–solid separation tank form a loop, which can effectively separate the three phases of oil, gas, and water after the pyrolysis. The flammable gas is used as supplementary fuel and is no longer recycled. The liquid fuel is purified by the catalytic tower and stored and sampled for chemical composition analysis. The composition of WPO produced by the pyrolysis of different plastics was analyzed by SGS (Societe Generale de Surveillance S.A., Taipei, Taiwan) with gas chromatography. Details are provided in Table 1 and Figure 3.

2.4. System Verifications for Mixed Polymers and Tandem Power Generation

Since the characteristics of the input materials will significantly affect the operation and output applications of the system, mixed polymer feedstock usage was used to validate and evaluate the feasibility of the system. In a batch experiment, 3.5 kg of waste mixed polymers (WmP) for agricultural and food packaging provided by the Hukou Agricultural Association was used as feedstock. Because mixed waste is often contaminated with other non-target substances, identifying, sorting, and removing materials that reduce performance is a primary procedure. The major output of pyrolysis conversion by the LTPD is obtained and sampled for chemical analysis, as presented in Table 2.
The integrated experiment of tandem power generation was verified for the technological feasibility in the mode of continuous feeding and continuous operation as a power supply system. Using a 4000 kg of WmP at a feed rate of 285 kg per hour can output power continuously for 14 h. As shown in Figure 4, including the post-processing time, the system took a total of 17 h to complete all procedures. For optimal operating conditions of the pyrolysis unit, 9 kW of electric power must be supplied during the initial period of operation (0–3 h) and then maintained at 2 kW. Next, the output was analyzed, and the liquid WPO was used to generate electricity by an industrial generator. The Volvo TAD1641GE model generator has a maximum fuel consumption of 198 L per hour, and a maximum power generation of 473 kW per hour. The dual generators operate alternately in parallel to achieve the reliability of uninterrupted power supply. The whole procedure is entrusted to a third-party impartial agency (SGS, Taiwan) to carry out the systematic verification of the pyrolysis operation.

3. Results

3.1. Conversion of Different Polymeric Materials by Low-Temperature Pyrolysis

In a batch experiment, different plastics (non-biodegradable) were introduced to the LTPD to transform into shorter-chain polymers or simple molecules. The production efficiency and fuel oil composition analysis of common plastics by pyrolysis at low temperature below 280 °C are shown in Table 1 and Figure 3. The fuel oil conversion yields of other plastics (HDPE, LDPE, PP, PS) are above 74%. The fuel oil yield of PET and PVC plastics is low, and the solid residue is higher, which indicates that the benzoic acid groups of PET and the chlorine atoms of PVC have high resistance to pyrolysis conversion and can form or stabilize the structure of macromolecules. Results in a semi-batch HTP reactor indicated that higher temperature or shorter reactive time increased the yield of pyrolysis and gaseous products [47].
The plastics are petroleum-based polymers that are simple in composition and cannot be decomposed naturally. The WPOs from these synthetic polymers are mainly composed of C5~C9 (light naphtha) and C10~C22 (diesel fuel). The ratio of the two is about 70% to 90%, and the rest of the oil is heavy oil. The WPOs with high naphtha composition from PP and PS can be used as high-octane gasoline additive. The composition of the output produced will vary depending on the chemical properties of crashed feedstock. The crude WPO, with a wide range of hydrocarbons, can be classified into light fraction (gasoline-like), middle fraction (diesel-like), and heavy fraction (heavy diesel-like) by a fractionation process. The resulting WPO should have high-quality compatibility and applicability with commercial fossil fuels.

3.2. Converting Waste Mixture into Renewable Energy

In order to meet specific waste disposal needs, the waste mixture from the Hukou Agricultural Association was used as the input polymers for verification experiments of pyrolysis conversion. Because agricultural production operations have seasonal and non-continuous cycles of activity, waste generation is characterized by short-term high volumes, perishability (urgency), and long distances for removal to a centralized waste treatment plant. The execution time was 135 min from feed input, preheating to the start of pyrolysis, and the experimental process was completely recorded. The maximum temperature of the whole process is only 182.1 °C, which may be due to part of the material composition causing other endothermic reactions to occur and suppressing the overall reaction temperature.
The regenerated WPO produced from the mixture was sent to SGS for inspection and compared with the commercial diesel product, as shown in Table 2. The regenerated WPO in this experiment complies with the commercial diesel standard and can be used as a fuel for an internal combustion engine. The energy density of WPO is about the same as fuel bioethanol [48] and less than half of that of petroleum-based diesel, which indicates that cellulose-derived polyols may have excellent antifreeze properties.
Different mixed wastes were used as input raw materials, including mixed-waste plastics (WmP) that cannot be decomposed naturally, mixed agricultural wastes (WmA) of biodegradable materials, and solid fuel rods (RDF-5, SRF) as a comparison. The products after the low-temperature pyrolysis conversion of three common waste mixtures are shown in Table 3. The highest fuel output of WPO is WmP, followed by WmA, and the lowest is RDF. The waste reduction (volume) benefit after conversion is the highest in WmA, followed by WmP, and the lowest is SRF. This comparison highlights the applicability and economic benefits of differences in mixture composition for low-temperature pyrolysis. The classification and recycling of solid waste is important to the development of waste-conversion technology, as it allows one to avoid non-conservative thermodynamic losses.

3.3. Implementation of Waste-to-Electricity Ongoing Operation

Based on the diesel verification of the above-mentioned WPO, 4000 kg of waste plastics was placed in the equipment for continuous operation to further carry out a large-throughput conversion and power generation experiment. As shown in Figure 4, the initial liquid WPO output was delayed by about two hours from feeding the materials, and the cumulative input was higher than the output at the same time. Furthermore, the solid material input is quantified by kilograms, while the main output liquid WPO is quantified by liters. The output of the LTPD system is composition with a WPO of 3812 L (79.7% yield) and by-products of 17.3% combustible gas and 3% solid residue (carbon black). The mass loss of about 20 kg should be an estimated uncertainty due to the non-combustible vapor (water) and small amounts of volatile substances.
The automatic monitoring panel adopts stepped feeding (at 2–7, 9–14 h in Figure 4) to ensure the normal operations for the reactor performance and products removal in LTPD. The power supply also has a start-up delay and there must be a small fuel reserve that is not depleted throughout the operation of the generator set. The total energy consumption of the integrated system of pyrolysis tandem power generation is about 55 kWh after 17 h of ongoing operation. The total output electricity is 6025 kWh by an industrial-grade generator with 3188 L of the WPO, which is 1.89 kWh per liter of the WPO.

4. Discussion

4.1. Effects of Input Materials on WPO Output

The microwave method can accelerate the process of plastic embrittlement and cracking into small fragments, and the fluctuation of a production temperature not exceeding 300 °C is slight. The operational condition would not transit the section with high and low temperatures to produce dioxin pollutants. The low temperature also does not produce nitrogen oxides, and the damage to the environment is low.
Multiple catalytical units can eliminate impurities such as chlorine, wax, and sulfur, but increase processing time and consume more energy. Therefore, sorting waste plastics of HDPE, PP, PS, and PE as raw materials will have a better fuel yield and higher calorific value. In addition, high-quality plastics have higher energy and are low in chlorine, sulfur, waxes, and metals, thereby reducing poisoning catalytic equipment and disposal costs, thereby increasing commercial efficiency.
The quality of the WPO from WmP feedstock is within the standard values of the commercially available high-grade diesel specifications for cetane number, density, viscosity, and distillation range. The cetane number is an indicator of diesel flammability; the higher the value, the easier it is to burn and the less residue. The calorific value of converted WPO is 52% of that of diesel, but only 14.28% of diesel’s low sulfur content and lower polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), which means more complete and cleaner combustion. The flash point of WPO is more than 10 °C higher than that of diesel, which means it is more stable, less flammable, and relatively safer. If more refined waste classification is conducted, and the source of waste plastics can be reformulated, WPO will have a higher calorific value, thereby improving the energy creation and reducing environmental hazards. The direct application of the waste-to-energy technology encourages people to engage in waste recycling, making a substantial contribution to a circular economy.

4.2. Mitigation of Environmental Hazards by Waste Reduction

As shown in Table 3, each unit of WmP can be converted into nearly 80% of WPO with a volume reduction of 55%. Using a natural polymer had the advantages of low levels of wax, sulfur, and heavy metals for easy processing, but due to mixed soil and excess moisture, only about 40% of WPO can be produced per unit and 88% of the volume is reduced. The agricultural waste is derived from organic materials, and the cracked solid residue (carbon black) can be recycled to make fertilizers with high compatibility with soil. Compressed SRF with complex composition is pyrolyzed below 280 °C, more colloidal substances remain, and the volume is only reduced by 30%. Compressed SRF manufacturing reduces the volume of complex waste, but still contains many contaminants. SRF is used to generate thermal energy for high-temperature incineration. Compressed SRF is difficult to use and is likely to be another troublesome waste in the future.
The results in Figure 3 show that the gap between input feedstock and output product is dominated by emissions of gaseous substances. High-temperature pyrolysis can improve the conversion efficiency of waste mixed polymers, but it can easily emit VOCs that are toxic pollutants and difficult to remove from the air by facilities, which are not economical or environmentally friendly. The low-temperature pyrolysis reaction can avoid the transformation of polymers into gaseous substances or combustible gases, so that most of the intermediate products exist in a liquid or solid state, which is convenient for operation and collection.
Moreover, our equipment adopts fully enclosed and clean operation, and there are no chimney emissions. Although humans are naturally attracted to convenience and comfort, creating garbage is something that should be avoided. It is necessary to convert waste polymers to produce WPO that simplifies material properties as an alternative energy source and extracts the intrinsic value of waste materials to mitigate dependence on fossil fuels, providing a green solution to meet the needs of economic development.

4.3. Energy Performance of Different Waste Treatment Plants

In Table 4, the operational performance of different incineration power plant systems is compared. The main function of the early centralized incineration plants is to process a large amount of domestic waste, and the heat energy was converted partially into electricity for immediate use through power generation facilities. The world’s first waste-to-energy plant is Wheelabrator in Saugus, USA, which can generate 501 kWh per ton of solid waste incineration. The combined heat and power (CHP) plant in Suginami, Japan is a municipal waste incineration plant, but has the highest average power generation efficiency. In addition to technological innovations, due to Japan’s dense urbanization, sorting and recycling technologies have also been implemented to reduce the amount of daily waste disposal.
Large-scale incineration plants are more efficient for waste treatment; however, public safety requirements, environmental impact, and site acquisition must meet the demands of local residents [49]. With the introduction of new equipment and new technologies, the Swedish Sysav incineration plant located in Northern Europe has a high energy conversion efficiency and mainly supplies heat to nearby residents. Subtropical Taiwan has a huge demand for industrial electricity, not thermal supply. The Hsinchu incinerator treats a large amount of domestic waste with a moisture and complex composition. The electricity produced is only enough to supply nearby households.
Ultimately, CHP is only used to increase the efficiency of other energy sources, not as an intrinsic energy supplier [50]. Due to planning and design considerations, recycling efficiency, and improvement in processing technology, the newer plant in Taitung has a higher power efficiency than the Hsinchu plant established earlier. The cogeneration plant is located in a rural area with a relatively small quantity of waste disposal, which has good power generation performance with agricultural materials. However, there is no strong electricity demand or sufficient combustible waste near the cogeneration plant.
The calorific value of waste plastic is higher than that of mixed waste, and each ton of waste plastic can generate 1508 kWh of electricity with our system. The multiple operations of the host equipment in parallel can simultaneously expand the amount of waste treatment and power generation to meet the needs of specific scenarios. Modular design can be used for emergency configuration to meet social needs, smaller processing capacity, and lower setup cost, which increase economic incentives for adoption.
The terrain of Taiwan is dominated by hills and river valleys, and only 26% is made up of plains. Apart from the convenience of waste disposal and power generation, large, centralized processing plants are not suitable for most fields. The gap between urban and rural areas is huge, and it is not suitable for the development of a centralized power-grid system [56]. This study proposes the implementation of a decentralized power plant to solve the problem of uneven regional energy supply.

4.4. Auxiliary Supply of Distributed Energy to Green Power Grids

At present, green energy facilities all require large facility bases and connections to the large power-grid system. Solar photovoltaics requires large, flat facilities. Wind power can only work in areas with strong winds, but it also has disadvantages, such as visual pollution, low-frequency noise, and interference with bird flight. Hydroelectric power plants can provide completely clean electricity, but the cost of building dams is extremely high, affects ecology, and is more limited by the rainfall and priority of water resource management. Our system inputs the short-cycle biocarbon and waste organic polymers, and outputs available energy forms to mitigate the dependence on long-cycle fossil fuels. This study provides a new model aimed at stabilizing energy supply at any time and in any location, which can solve the intermittent supply problem of the existing green energy grid.
When the proportion of green energy installation capacity increases, its intermittent power generation characteristics (solar and wind power generation) will inevitably cause instability and scheduling difficulties for the operation of the existing alternating current grid [57]. To stabilize the backup load, the distributed power generation can control the output of stable and continuous power at the production end. The cost of constructing fixed power plants is high and the construction site requirements are stricter, which is not conducive to improving the resilience of the power-grid system. If supplemented with artificial intelligence, small fuel generators (firepower) can fill the gaps in renewable energy supply at night or when there is no wind. Distributed power generation and integrated energy storage equipment can alleviate the problem of voltage fluctuations affecting the power supply of regional power grids [58].

4.5. Scenario Analysis of Energy System Applications in Extreme Climates

The mobile module provides the energy needs of a specific site. Transport emissions are a major contributor to greenhouse gases, accounting for the second largest annual greenhouse gas (including non-CO2) emissions [31]. The equipment in this study is mobile, which is different from the concept of fixed location in the current power plant, so we can achieve the notion of “where the garbage is, the equipment will be dragged there”, which not only reduces the cost of garbage transportation and the carbon footprint but also helps to solve the problem of partiality; that is, waste disposal in rural areas or places with inconvenient transportation.
WPO conversion reduces the volume of waste, which has additional benefits for waste disposal. WPO can easily be stored at room temperature, and 100 tons of WPO requires 476 in a standard drum. Reserve WPO may solve the problem of energy shortage and supply in remote areas. Reversing the technical thinking of pursuing high-energy-density fuels, the clean energy innovation has been proposed to replace the low-quality fuel oils and wood burning with high pollution and low energy efficiency [59].
Taking Shizi Township, located in a remote mountainous area in southern Taiwan, as an example, there are 1162 households with a population of about 5000 in the district, and the economy is mainly based on agriculture. Disasters such as storms or earthquakes result in damaged bridges, traffic jams, and supply-chain disruptions, creating an isolated area in modern geography for food and energy security. The daily electricity consumption of Shizi Township is 13,595 kWh. If the township reserves 100 tons of WPO on weekdays, it can support the electricity consumption of the whole township for 14 days, and there is enough time to wait for foreign aid to restore the power.
Due to different sources of materials, as well as the nature of work or the power of back-end equipment, the LTPD can be integrated with front-end and back-end types of equipment. If the material input is complex, the energy demand is small or non-constant, multiple hosts can be operated in series, and the high-quality WPO can be stored after multiple pyrolysis. If the material input is simple, the demand is constant, and the LTPD hosts can be operated in parallel to increase the WPO yields and energy output. Our study demonstrates an innovation framework of waste to energy for modern energy demands in clear, affordable, reliable design.

5. Conclusions

Synthetic polymers provide many of the conveniences of modern life but also create problems with hard-to-decompose waste. The wide applicability, availability, and cleanliness of new energy will be an important challenge for technological innovation. This study converts troublesome waste plastics and natural organic materials into WPO as a renewable fuel for easy storage or immediate use. WPO is easy to transport and can generate electricity at any time and in any location to provide grid adaptation and strengthen its resilience. Our research shows that innovation in low-temperature pyrolysis technology does not have to come at the cost of high pollution to meet the demand for affordable and clean energy.
The LTPD does not pursue high conversion yield operations with high energy density products; our results show that every kilogram of waste can be compressed into 0.41~0.79 kg of WPO, reducing the waste volume by 55~88%. Each liter of WPO can generate 1.89 kWh of electricity. Low transmission and distribution losses make it ideal for supplying electricity to residents in rural, pastoral, mountainous, or small cities, or for specific purposes. In an emergency, a reserve of 500 drums of WPO could supply the energy needs of modern life for two weeks in an isolated village of 5000 people. The LTPD host adopts a small modular design with high mobility, which can help solve the problem of waste disposal in remote areas or places with inconvenient traffic. Mobile power equipment (fuel generator) can be quickly allocated to meet demand and can greatly reduce power-dispatching operations and environmental protection pressures. Our research uses waste polymers as renewable energy materials to implement a decentralized energy system with the greatest potential for societal, economic, and environmental benefits.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, Y.-C.H. and L.-Y.C.; software, validation, formal analysis, and investigation, Y.-C.H., L.-Y.C., C.-H.H., S.-C.M., and T.-I.L.; data curation, S.-C.M. and T.-I.L.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.-C.H., L.-Y.C., and C.-H.H.; writing—review and editing, Y.-C.H. and L.-Y.C.; visualization, Y.-C.S.; supervision, project administration, Y.-C.H.; funding acquisition, C.-H.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data available within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Hukou Township Farmers’ Association, Hsinchu, Taiwan for providing the venue and materials to help with the verification. The authors also thank Chih-Chuan Wang in Guo Kuang Electrical Engineers Office, and Mao-Sheng Chi in ISO-PM-IT Consulting Corp., for their helpful advice on data exploring and result evaluation.

Conflicts of Interest

Each author declares that there is no conflict of interest in the purpose, experiments, and results of this study.

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Figure 1. A circular framework and technological pathways to improve the linear life cycle of petrochemicals.
Figure 1. A circular framework and technological pathways to improve the linear life cycle of petrochemicals.
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Figure 2. System architecture diagram for realizing waste-to-energy (a), modular design (b), easy to move (c).
Figure 2. System architecture diagram for realizing waste-to-energy (a), modular design (b), easy to move (c).
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Figure 3. Composition analysis of fuel oils produced by LTPD from different plastic inputs.
Figure 3. Composition analysis of fuel oils produced by LTPD from different plastic inputs.
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Figure 4. The cumulative input–output is produced from the continuous operation of low-temperature pyrolysis apparatus for 17 h.
Figure 4. The cumulative input–output is produced from the continuous operation of low-temperature pyrolysis apparatus for 17 h.
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Table
Table 1. Conversion yields of WPO produced by LTPD from different plastic inputs.
Table 1. Conversion yields of WPO produced by LTPD from different plastic inputs.
Plastic Abbr.PETHDPEPVCLDPEPPPS
Plastic ProductsPlastic bottlesMilk bottlesPlastic wrapPlastic bagsWoven bagsStyrofoam
Oil yield (%)377438868177
Solid residue (%)24518324
WPOSustainability 15 01580 i001Sustainability 15 01580 i002Sustainability 15 01580 i003Sustainability 15 01580 i004Sustainability 15 01580 i005Sustainability 15 01580 i006
Table
Table 2. Quality assessment of oil products from the input materials of waste polymers, that is based on the test methods issued by the American Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM) and standards for the premium diesel of CPC Corporation, Taiwan.
Table 2. Quality assessment of oil products from the input materials of waste polymers, that is based on the test methods issued by the American Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM) and standards for the premium diesel of CPC Corporation, Taiwan.
Test ItemsUnitTest MethodsTest ValuePremium Diesel
SulfurppmASTM D54537.2<50
Cetane numbernoneASTM D97653>48
Density 15 °Cg/mlASTM D40520.83690.828
PAH% wtASTM D65913.92<11
Flash point°CASTM D9363.0>52
Kinematic viscosity/40 °Cmm2/sASTM D4452.882.0~4.5
Distillation 95%°CASTM D86371.4<360
Gross heat of combustionMJ/kgASTM D24019.3544.9
Table
Table 3. The output results of three waste mixtures of 10 tons by pyrolysis below 280 °C.
Table 3. The output results of three waste mixtures of 10 tons by pyrolysis below 280 °C.
Input MixtureMain IngredientsUnbroken Volume (m3)WPO (Tons)Solid Residue/Carbon Black (Tons)
WmPMainly in packaging bags187.90.3
90% PP, PS, LDEP, and PVC
WmAMainly branches and leaves, rice straw, fruit drop, branch354.12.4
SRFRDF-5131.57.7
Domestic, industrial, agricultural, and forestry solid wastes
Table
Table 4. Comparison of waste treatment power plants.
Table 4. Comparison of waste treatment power plants.
Power PlantYear and Type, Operation EquipmentProcessing Capacity (Tons/Day)N1 Energy Generation (kWh/Day)N1 Energy Productivity (kWh/Tons)
Wheelabrator, Saugus, USA1975, centralized, cogeneration1500752,548501
Sysav, Sweden2008, centralized, cogeneration1726739,714429
Suginami, Japan2017, metropolitan, cogeneration464308,096664
Hsinchu, Taiwan2000, metropolitan, cogeneration900360,000400
Taitung, Taiwan2022, centralized, cogeneration300157,000523
Integrated energy module, this studySmall, mobile oilification-power equipment4N2 6031N2 1508
Data sources are the disclosure information in website of the waste treatment plants [51,52,53,54,55]. N1 The energy output of the incinerator is measured based on electricity, excluding heat. N2 Calculate and measure the potential energy of WPO as the equivalent of electricity.
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Hung, Y.-C.; Ho, C.-H.; Chen, L.-Y.; Ma, S.-C.; Liu, T.-I.; Shen, Y.-C. Using a Low-Temperature Pyrolysis Device for Polymeric Waste to Implement a Distributed Energy System. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1580. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021580

AMA Style

Hung Y-C, Ho C-H, Chen L-Y, Ma S-C, Liu T-I, Shen Y-C. Using a Low-Temperature Pyrolysis Device for Polymeric Waste to Implement a Distributed Energy System. Sustainability. 2023; 15(2):1580. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021580

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hung, Ying-Che, Chien-Hua Ho, Liang-Yü Chen, Shih-Chieh Ma, Te-I Liu, and Yi-Chen Shen. 2023. "Using a Low-Temperature Pyrolysis Device for Polymeric Waste to Implement a Distributed Energy System" Sustainability 15, no. 2: 1580. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021580

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