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Article

The Effect of Intergenerational Parenting Mode on Children’s Outdoor Activities: A Case Study of Downtown Shanghai Communities

by
Pai Tang
,
Dan Yang
and
Nannan Dong
*
College of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(20), 14658; https://doi.org/10.3390/su152014658
Submission received: 23 July 2023 / Revised: 24 August 2023 / Accepted: 28 September 2023 / Published: 10 October 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Social Ecology and Sustainability)
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Abstract

:
The miniaturization of Chinese urban families has led to an increasing trend of “intergenerational parenting” among urban families. However, the influence of different types of caregivers on children’s outdoor activities remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the impact of various accompanying modes used by different caregivers on the outdoor activities of preschool children. The research employed mixed methods, including questionnaires and interviews, and focused on the intergenerational relationship in communities in Shanghai, China. The findings of this research reveal that caregivers from different generations adopt distinct accompanying modes when engaging in children’s outdoor activities. Grandparents tend to prioritize protection, while parents prefer to spend more time playing with their children. These preferences can be attributed to the division of labor within families and the social and physical environment of the communities in urban central areas. By shedding light on the intergenerational dynamics and caregiving approaches, this study provides a unique Chinese perspective on understanding the factors influencing children’s outdoor activities and experiences.

1. Introduction

Adults play a crucial role in supporting or limiting children’s play activities [1,2]. They take on the roles of teachers and social referents throughout an individual’s childhood and adolescence, and are central in leading, organizing, and participating in children’s outdoor play experiences. Adults, especially parents, can positively promote children’s participation in specific activities by acting as play supporters, enrolling children in sports, driving them to events, or using their own behavior to encourage physical activity [3]. However, parental controls can also significantly restrict children’s play experiences, for example, due to fear of traffic dangers [4], social apprehension [5], or physical hazards [6]. Therefore, when overseeing children’s outdoor play, adults influence children’s play behavior in essentially two ways: firstly, by assuming the role of playmates and engaging frequently with the children, they can enhance children’s play experience. Secondly, adults can restrict children’s play behavior by prioritizing their safety. Notably, these two approaches can be combined and employed interchangeably on the playground. However, the multifaceted nature of adult supervision, encompassing both these roles, has yet to be thoroughly examined in previous research.
Previous research has examined phenomena related to parenting styles and parental supervision modes in Western society [3,7,8]. These phenomena, which greatly influence children’s use of outdoor environments and their childhood outdoor play experiences, are widely discussed, including over-parenting [9,10], over-supervision [10,11], and intensive mothering [12,13,14]. To be more precise, the prevailing trends of over-supervision and maternal oversight have substantially restricted children’s independent mobility and reduce their interactions with the surrounding environment on a global scale. Research on these phenomena also concludes that parenting styles are largely influenced by the dominant cultural background of a society. However, faced with the overwhelming parenting trends, each parent can make their own choice about whether to follow or counter their culture [2]. Apart from over-parenting, the phenomenon of intensive mothering also stems from the cultural tradition that associates mothers with the roles of nurturing and caregiving, not only in Western society, but also worldwide. The ideology of intensive mothering encompasses a set of beliefs about appropriate caregiving for children and corresponding maternal behavior [12,15]. This emphasis on maternal guidance and support is deeply ingrained in the prevailing ideology of Confucianism, which underscores the importance of filial piety, harmonious family relationships, and the transmission of ethical values across generations [14]. Significantly, even in contemporary times, this ideology continues to serve as a foundational cornerstone of social values within Chinese society.
Furthermore, the phenomenon of grandparents parenting is widely discussed in both Western and Chinese societies. In the early years of the twentieth century in the USA, extended family members, particularly grandparents, held authoritative positions within the family structure and made substantial contributions to crucial family functions, including shared child-rearing. However, more recent research in the USA and Western Europe shows that the majority of grandparents adopt a non-interference style in intergenerational relationships and do not assume a central role in caring for or rearing grandchildren [16,17,18]. In contrast, in China, traditional cultural values underscore the importance of harmonious extended families, resulting in a well-established tradition where grandparents play an active role in childcare responsibilities [18,19,20,21]. In recent times, collaborative caregiving by both parents and grandparents has accentuated the role of grandparents in assisting working parents with childcare. According to the Shanghai Municipal Population and Family Planning Commission, a striking 90 percent of the city’s young children receive care from at least one grandparent, and of these, half exclusively rely on their grandparents for care. This trend is particularly pronounced within urban families.
Previous research conducted in Western societies has highlighted that because different groups of caregivers have distinct perceptions of outdoor environments and expectations of children’s outdoor behaviors, they tend to adopt diverse approaches to supervising children’s outdoor play [9,22,23,24]. These distinct modes of supervision can either encourage or curtail specific play activities among children. For instance, research indicates substantial differences in the supervisory methods employed by mothers and fathers, with maternal supervision being more attuned to risk awareness, potentially leading to reduced levels of physical activity among children [6]. However, in the context of China, where there are emphases on maternal guidance and grandparents frequently participate in the daily care of grandchildren, the predominant modes of supervision adopted by various groups of adults and their impact on children’s activities remain an unexplored area of study.
Therefore, building upon the prevalent trend of the domestic division of labor in urban families, this study focuses on a case study conducted in a representative local community. This community, established in the 1980s and currently undergoing an urban renewal project, is situated in the inner city of Shanghai. The principal aim of this research is to assess the impact of varied supervision methods, implemented by diverse caregivers, on the outdoor activities of preschool-aged children (1–6 years old) within communal outdoor spaces. In the pursuit of this goal, the study segregates caregivers into parental and grandparental generations and, based on the emphasis on protection or interaction, identifies four distinct accompanying modes. Additionally, this research also investigates the reasons behind adults’ choices of different supervision modes.
The research results will help fill the knowledge gap regarding intergenerational interactions in Chinese families, on the one hand. On the other hand, by gaining more insight into the mechanisms of supervision modes on children’s outdoor activities, it will be possible to promote more positive intergenerational interactions and build more sustainable all-age-friendly communities in Chinese cities.

2. Methods

2.1. Definition of Generational Accompany Mode for Children’s Outdoor Activity

Adults who accompany children’s outdoor play are distinguished based on both generational differences and family relations. From the perspective of generational differences, caregivers in the parental generation include fathers, mothers, babysitters, teachers, and relatives or neighbors of a similar age to the children’s parents. In the grandparental generation, there are grandfathers, grandmothers, and relatives or neighbors of a similar age to the children’s grandparents. From the perspective of family relations, caregivers can be categorized as adults within the family or adults outside the family. Based on the phenomenon of co-parenting within Chinese families, this research pays more attention to the accompany modes of parents and grandparents when caring for children in outdoor environments.
In addition, previous studies from the perspective of environmental behavior have concluded that the roles adults assume when accompanying children in outdoor play can be divided into two basic types: partners and guardians [2,3]. When acting as play partners, adults participate in children’s play and interact intensely with them to promote various types of play. When acting as guardians, adults do not frequently communicate with children, but limit their extraordinary activities to prevent harm. It can be observed that the role of play partners emphasizes interaction, while guardians focus more on protection. Therefore, based on the different emphases of adults’ accompanying behavior during children’s outdoor play, four basic modes can be identified: PSIS, PSIW, PWIS, and PWIW. The division and description of each mode are shown in Figure 1.
Given the complexity and diversity inherent in children’s outdoor activities, there arises a need for a succinct and practical categorization system that caregivers can readily comprehend. Among the various classification frameworks for children’s play, the system proposed by Bishop and Curtis has been both applied and refined within the scope of this study. This classification system places a distinct emphasis on the nature of children’s play behavior, stratifying it into three foundational types: those with high verbal, imaginative, or physical content [25]. As part of the pilot study, conducted prior to the main research, this classification was further developed. This development included a heightened focus on physical play, discerning whether play activities were organized and whether they necessitated specific facilities. This adaptation was due to the observation that physical activities were the dominant type, but verbal or imaginative play activities were rarely witnessed in public open spaces during the pilot study. Ultimately, within the formal research phase, this categorization framework was expanded to encompass a total of six distinct types of play activities. Detailed descriptions of these play activity categories can be found in Table 1.

2.2. Data Collection

Due to the specific focus on the behaviors of distinct groups, this study adopted sociological research methods. From 2020 to 2022, data collection was conducted in Changhai Sub-district, Yangpu District, Shanghai. Initially, a quantitative research approach was employed, involving a questionnaire survey to collect data concerning the current state of children’s outdoor activities and the methods caregivers use when accompanying them. Given that preschool children often lack the capacity to independently report their outdoor activities, parents or other adult guardians were entrusted with recording the children’s outdoor play. The questionnaire on this subject comprised 8 questions: 3 about basic information, 2 about children’s activities, and 3 about caregivers’ activities. However, the questionnaires were designed to document children’s activities, whereas a deeper understanding of the motivations behind these activities could only be attained through interviews. Subsequently, qualitative research was conducted via semi-structured interviews, centering on the behavioral motivations of different caregiver groups during children’s outdoor activities. Furthermore, insights into the community’s social and spatial environments were gleaned from conversations with local families.
It is noteworthy that the entire field research was crafted to comprehensively capture children’s outdoor play activities, especially from four dimensions: space, people, activity, and time. This structure was rooted in the SPIT (Spaces, People, Interventions, and Time) model for understanding children’s outdoor experiences, initially proposed by Woolley and subsequently refined by Tang [26] into the SPAT model (Space, People, Activity, and Time). This paper exclusively presents data and findings relevant to participants and activities within children’s outdoor play.

2.3. Data Analysis

The overall research employs a mixed methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative research [27]. The questionnaire data were analyzed using SPSS 13.0. The analysis commenced by employing Cochran’s Q test to identify differences among the options. Once the significant differences among the choice of options were confirmed, correspondence analysis (CA) was applied to further explore the correlations between the variables. CA is a multivariate statistical technique proposed by Hirschfeld in 1935, designed to check correlations between categorical data rather than continuous data [28]. The results of CA are presented in an interaction summary table composed of qualitative variables and through visualizations that illustrate the degree of association between the variables (see Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4). This comprehensive approach facilitated a deeper exploration of how differences in outdoor companions impact children’s outdoor activities.
Furthermore, the data collected through interviews underwent transcription and, subsequently, ROST Content Mining System (version 6.0), a content mining system software specifically designed for Mandarin text, was utilized for coding. By leveraging this software, the text data were organized and categorized based on the themes of “play activities” and “caregivers”. The next step involved employing the semantic network analysis function to delve into the underlying connections and structural relationships among words related to children’s outdoor activities and caregivers. The aim of this semantic network analysis on the interview transcriptions was to investigate the factors influencing how family members care for children during outdoor activities and to explore the impact of differences in accompanying caregivers on children’s outdoor experiences.

2.4. Participants

According to statistics collected for the local government, there were over 6400 children aged 1 to 6 years living in this area in 2020 [29]. With a confidence level of 95% and a confidence interval of 4, the sample size should be more than 549. Consequently, employing cluster sampling, children were recruited with assistance from three kindergartens within the Changhai sub-district. Parents or grandparents, who registered as the principal guardian of children, were asked to complete online questionnaires, capturing detailed records of their children’s outdoor activities, encompassing information about play spaces, participants, activities, and duration. Over these two years, over 600 families participated in the data collection. After excluding questionnaires with missing or incomplete answers to fundamental questions within each section, and those containing conflicting or contradictory responses, a total of 553 children’s outdoor activities were subjected to analysis. Additionally, within the questionnaire, families were invited to partake in interviews. Then, 74 families expressed their willingness to engage in interviews. Subsequently, the researchers established contact with each of them. After receiving comprehensive information about the interview’s content and procedure, and confirming the interview schedule, semi-structured interviews were successfully conducted with a total of 23 households, without any dropouts during the process. These interviews took place within the children’s homes and focused on aspects related to the reasons for choices made in the questionnaires. Each of the interviews took around 30 min.

2.5. Ethical Considerations

The research conducted in this study complies with the requirements and regulations in China. Ethical approval for all data collection procedures was granted by the Institutional Review Board at Tongji University. Furthermore, all participants were provided with in-detail information about the research procedure before granting their consent to participate. Consent forms were signed before initiating the online questionnaire responses, indicating permission for the authors to share the findings through publications and presentations. In addition, verbal consent was secured through audio recording before commencing the formal interviews. At no point during the data collection process were children and their families required to provide their full names. Additionally, all contact information, including phone numbers, was removed prior to the data analysis phase. Prior to commencing data collection, researchers underwent necessary training; a total of five researchers received training and conducted data collection over the span of two years.

3. Results

3.1. Children’s Gender and Age

In the survey, a total of 553 children’s outdoor activities were reported. There were more boys (58.77%) than girls (41.23%) (Table 2). Furthermore, the dominant age group among the surveyed children was 4 to 6 years old (Table 3).

3.2. Children’s Outdoor Activities and Accompany Adults

The results demonstrated that all p-values were less than 0.01, indicating significant differences in the proportions of children’s outdoor activity methods (Table 4) and outdoor activity companions (Table 5). The main ways for preschool children to carry out outdoor activities in the community are unorganized activities, with or without facilities. These activities include running, hanging around, and riding bicycles, scooters, or roller skates.
In terms of caregivers, showing in Table 5, mothers assume the primary caregiving role for preschool children during outdoor activities. Grandmothers also take on more responsibility for children’s outdoor play compared to fathers and grandfathers. However, babysitters, teachers, and other adults rarely accompany children during their outdoor play.

3.3. Correspondence Relations between Caregivers and Accompanying Modes

Correspondence analysis unveils the relationship between the accompanying adults and their methods of accompaniment. As shown in Table 6, correlations exist between these two variables. These relationships are graphically represented in the form of a correspondence graph in Figure 2. From Figure 2, it becomes apparent that grandparents, encompassing both grandfathers and grandmothers, exhibit a strong correlation with the ISPS and IWPS modes. Conversely, the ISPW mode is associated with parents, including both fathers and mothers. Furthermore, the IWPW mode displays certain correlations with babysitters and teachers, but has a weaker correlation when compared to parents or grandparents.

3.4. Correspondence Relations between Accompanying Modes and Children’s Activities

The connection between accompanying modes and children’s outdoor activities is also explored through correspondence analysis (as shown in Table 7). As depicted in Figure 3, it becomes evident that organized activities and community activities are closely associated with the accompanying modes of ISPW and IWPW. Conversely, unorganized activities, whether they involve facilities or not, as well as activities that rely on facilities, exhibit a strong relationship with the accompanying modes of ISPS and IWPS. This suggests that when children engage in organized ball games or community activities, caregivers pay less attention to ensuring their safety. However, when children participate in less structured outdoor activities, caregivers tend to prioritize their protection to a greater extent.

3.5. Correspondence Relations between Caregivers and Children’s Activities

The results further indicate that caregivers within the same generation display a more consistent preference for guiding children’s outdoor activities (refer to Table 8). Parents tend to promote unorganized activities for children, regardless of whether these activities involve facilities or not. Conversely, grandparents are more inclined to encourage children to use fixed facilities on site. Babysitters and teachers show greater similarity, as they tend to support community activities (refer to Figure 4).

3.6. Physical and Social Environments of Children’s Outdoor Activities

Based on the correlation analysis conducted above, the study clarified the special relationship between the accompanying mode and children’s outdoor activities. To further understand these relations, the study explores how family relationships and the social environment affect intergenerational care, based on the content of in-depth interviews. The interview data were analyzed thematically, categorizing the content of transcribed conversations into themes and topics.
Within the theme of “caregivers”, specifically in the sub-topic of ‘family roles’, the data reveal that families in Shanghai generally believe that parents should be the most important caregivers and play the most important role in educating and accompanying children, while grandparents usually undertake auxiliary work. This distinction is especially prominent in the contemporary prevailing culture, which emphasizes parental responsibility on communication, education, and guidance through entertaining activities during children’s outdoor activities. At the same time, grandparents, in their supporting role, focus more on “carefully watching” children and ensuring their safety. Additionally, parents and grandparents believe that they should not “intervene” in the care of neighborhood children, considering it “other family’s business”.
Continuing within the theme of ‘caregivers’, in the sub-topic of ‘perceptions of environments,’ the interviews reveal that parents and grandparents primarily consider “neighborhood relationships” and “same-age playmates” as determining factors of their accompany mode. Regarding neighborhood relations, caregivers commonly mention factors such as “unfamiliar neighbors”, “unknown faces”, and “strangers in the community”, which lead to increased guarding and watching of children. Moreover, due to a lack of same-age playmates in the community, accompanying caregivers have to assume the role of playmates, especially during activities such as running or riding bicycles and scooters. Many times, children still want to compete with others, but if there are no children of the same age or unknown children, the caregiver has to “play with the children”. However, compared to parents, the elderly has a relatively limited ability to act as children’s playmates. Therefore, grandparents prefer to take children to places with fixed equipment and watch them play.
Moreover, transitioning to the theme of “caregivers’ perceptions” within the other theme of ‘play activities’, the data underscore that because public spaces are constrained in urban central areas, children play in both formal playgrounds, such as plazas and playgrounds with fixed equipment, and informal play spaces, such as roads, lawns, and parking areas. Throughout the interviews, many parents express their reluctance to take their children to playgrounds with fixed facilities because they are “outdated”, “poorly maintained”, and “unsuitable for children’s play”. Therefore, more parents choose to let their children play in open spaces between buildings and on roads because they are more spacious and allow for bicycle or scooter riding. However, playing on the road presents more potential safety hazards, requiring caregivers to closely follow and firmly watch their children.

4. Discussion

This study provides a comprehensive understanding of intergenerational accompanying methods and their influence on children’s outdoor activities, as well as the reasons behind adults’ choices among these modes, within the communities in the inner-city area of Shanghai.
Regarding caregivers, the results highlight that intensive mothering and co-parenting are common phenomena in Chinese urban society. The phenomenon of intensive mothering, or a maternal-dominated parenting style, is not uncommon in both Eastern and Western societies [24]. Based on the study findings, it could be assumed that in contemporary Chinese cities, the emphasis on maternal rearing and care remains the dominant parenting style. However, unlike in traditional society, women in contemporary Chinese society participate in various types of work. Statistics indicate that in 2017, the female labor force participation rate in China was 61% (compared to 76% for men), which is among the highest in Asia and higher than the European average [12]. Consequently, balancing work and family duties can be challenging for women in contemporary Chinese society. In this context, joint child-rearing by both parents and grandparents becomes more of a necessity rather than a choice for families; though, joint child-rearing by both parents and grandparents has a long history in Chinese society [20]. For the elderly, taking care of grandchildren not only enriches their daily lives, but also provides an opportunity to experience family happiness [20]. Now, with more working mothers in urban families, co-parenting has become a necessity. There is a clearer division of responsibilities in joint child-rearing, which makes taking care of grandchildren more of a task than a choice for enjoying life for grandparents.
Furthermore, this research examines the differences in accompanying modes applied by different generations of adults when taking care of children’s outdoor activities. Considering the evidence presented, a tentative conclusion might be drawn that grandparents pay more attention to protection, while parents prefer to spend more time playing and talking with their children. A reasonable interpretation could revolve around the distribution of responsibilities within urban families, which likely plays a pivotal role in shaping this distinction. In modern urban families, parents play a more important role in leading and supporting various play activities, and even educating children through play activities, while grandparents provide more assistance and often act as substitutes in the absence of parents. Therefore, the purpose of grandparents’ accompanying is more basic: to prevent children from safety risks and potential harm. This research finding supports previous studies that concluded that different caregivers would adopt different modes of accompanying children during outdoor play [11,20,24]. This finding also further develops previous research indicating that maternal caregiving is more sensitive to safety risks [6,24], with the emphasis that the parenting methods of grandparents are even more influenced by potential hazards in the context of co-parenting in urban families in Chinese cities.
Additionally, this research reveals that different accompanying modes are related to different types of play. When children participate in organized ball games or community activities, caregivers tend to pay less attention to their safety. However, when children engage in activities such as running, chasing, cycling, or skating freely on the road, caregivers closely protect them from potential traffic dangers or stranger risks. On the other hand, when children play on fixed facilities in the playground, the potential harm posed by outdated fixed facilities becomes the main concern. Therefore, it is reasonable to consider that the primary concerns of caregivers during children’s outdoor play are still traffic dangers [4,30], stranger risks [31], and the potential harm posed by outdated fixed facilities. The concerns change with different activities, prompting caregivers to adopt different accompanying modes. Compared to research conducted in other parts of the world, the concerns of the potential harm posed by outdated fixed facilities are initially reported in Chinese cities, whereas, consistent with previous research, Asian and Indian parents consider traffic danger the most common reason for their concern regarding their children’s outdoor activities [4,32].
Beyond these results, this research provides a practical model for comprehending the rationale behind adults’ involvement in children’s outdoor activities. This model categorizes common accompanying behaviors into four modes based on the leading motive of interaction or protection. Serving as an intermediary, this model helps to understand the varied approaches adults adopt while accompanying children in outdoor play. Furthermore, it facilitates the exploration of the mechanisms underlying the different groups of adults’ accompanying modes on children’s outdoor play activities. Based on these four modes, the differences in the way parents and grandparents accompany children during outdoor activities could be described in detail and interpreted in-depth. Remarkably, this model’s relevance resonates with the prior research that examined the comparative supervision styles among fathers [6], mothers [33], and siblings [9], showcasing its adaptability to a wide array of caregiver groups. This flexibility underscores the model’s practicality and underscores its potential utility in understanding the intricate dynamics of caregiver involvement across diverse demographic contexts.
Based on these findings, for better environments in old communities in Shanghai or other similar high-density cities, it can be predicted that if the physical and social environments of these communities built decades ago are improved to be more child-friendly, children’s outdoor play could become more independent from caregivers. As a result, caregivers would feel more relaxed and engage more in play with their children. Furthermore, practical suggestions for building more child-friendly cities can be further developed with more consideration of improving the inclusivity of the community. This could also be considered as a limitation of this research, which can be a further developed topic in future research.

5. Conclusions

This study selected several communities in downtown areas of Shanghai as examples to explore the characteristics of children’s outdoor activities and intergenerational care within these communities. Based on this exploration, the study discussed the impact of intergenerational accompanying modes on children’s outdoor activities and examined the factors that influence the various accompanying modes adopted by different groups of caregivers. The results demonstrate that the division of labor within families, as well as the social and physical environment of communities, all influence the accompanying modes of caregivers. These research findings provide valuable insights from the perspective of Chinese cities for understanding the methods and characteristics of intergenerational care within the context of the “co-parenting” phenomenon in Chinese urban families.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, P.T., D.Y. and N.D.; methodology, P.T. and N.D.; software, P.T.; validation, P.T. and D.Y.; formal analysis, P.T.; investigation, P.T.; resources, P.T.; data curation, P.T.; writing—original draft preparation, P.T.; writing—review and editing, P.T.; visualization, P.T.; supervision, N.D.; project administration, P.T. and N.D.; funding acquisition, P.T. and N.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Shanghai Pujiang Program, grant number 22PJC109; and sponsored by Shanghai Planning Office of Philosophy and Social Science, grant number 2019BCK012.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Tongji University (protocol code 2020-0817 and date of approval: 18 June 2020).

Informed Consent Statement

Written informed consent has been obtained from the patient(s) to publish this paper.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the first author, Pai Tang, upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Sustainability 15 14658 g001
Figure 1. Categories of accompany modes.
Figure 1. Categories of accompany modes.
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Figure 2. Correspondence relations between caregivers and accompanying modes.
Figure 2. Correspondence relations between caregivers and accompanying modes.
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Figure 3. Correspondence relations between accompanying modes and children’s activities.
Figure 3. Correspondence relations between accompanying modes and children’s activities.
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Figure 4. Correspondence relations between caregivers and children’s activities.
Figure 4. Correspondence relations between caregivers and children’s activities.
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Table 1. Categories of children’s outdoor play activities.
Table 1. Categories of children’s outdoor play activities.
CategoryChildren’s Activities
Unorganized activities without facilitiesPlaying around, such as, walking, running, hanging around
Unorganized activities with facilitiesPlaying with equipment brought from home, such as skating, cycling, playing scooter
Organized activities (ball games)Playing football, tennis, and other balls
Activities relied on fixed facilitiesPlaying with fixed facilities on the site, such as slide, swing, and outdoor exercise equipment
Community activitiesEvents organized by local communities, involving play workers or leading adults
OthersOther activities cannot be categorized
Table 2. Frequency of Children’s Gender.
Table 2. Frequency of Children’s Gender.
NPercentage (%)Cumulative Percentage (%)
Gender (n = 553)Boy32558.7758.77
Girl22841.23100.00
Total554100.0100.0
Table 3. Frequency of Children’s Age.
Table 3. Frequency of Children’s Age.
CategoriesNPercentage (%)Cumulative Percentage (%)
Age140.720.72
291.632.35
3305.427.78
412622.7830.56
522841.2371.79
615628.21100.00
Total553100.0100.0
Table 4. Response and popularity rate of children’s outdoor activities.
Table 4. Response and popularity rate of children’s outdoor activities.
CategoriesResponsePopularity Rate (n = 553)
nResponse Rate
Unorganized activities without facilities33528.08%60.58%
Unorganized activities with facilities27523.05%49.73%
Organized activities (ball games)16113.50%29.11%
Activities relied on fixed facilities32226.99%58.23%
Community activities947.88%17.00%
Others60.50%1.08%
Total1193100%215.73%
Goodness of fit: χ2 = 448.209, p = 0.000.
Table 5. Response and popularity rate of children’s caregivers.
Table 5. Response and popularity rate of children’s caregivers.
CategoriesResponsePopularity Rate (n = 553)
nResponse Rate
Grandfather14814.33%26.76%
Grandmother25824.98%46.65%
Father22321.59%40.33%
Mother36235.04%65.46%
Baby-sitter191.84%3.44%
Teacher131.26%2.35%
Others100.97%1.81%
Total1033100%186.80%
Goodness of fit: χ2 = 795.748 p = 0.000.
Table 6. Correspondence analysis of relations between caregivers and accompanying modes.
Table 6. Correspondence analysis of relations between caregivers and accompanying modes.
ItemsCategoriesCaregivers (%)Totalχ2p
FatherMotherGrandfatherGrandmotherBaby-SitterTeacherOthers
Accompany ModesISPS151 (42.78)237 (42.93)113 (45.93)192 (49.10)12 (35.29)11 (33.33)4 (19.05)720 (44.17)62.3090.000 **
ISPW103 (29.18)159 (28.80)65 (26.42)88 (22.51)7 (20.59)12 (36.36)4 (19.05)438 (26.87)
IWPS75 (21.25)113 (20.47)55 (22.36)93 (23.79)9 (26.47)6 (18.18)5 (23.81)356 (21.84)
IWPW22 (6.23)39 (7.07)10 (4.07)14 (3.58)5 (14.71)3 (9.09)6 (28.57)99 (6.07)
Others2 (0.57)4 (0.72)3 (1.22)4 (1.02)1 (2.94)1 (3.03)2 (9.52)17 (1.04)
Total34353552391552343321
** p < 0.01.
Table 7. Correspondence analysis of relations between accompanying modes and children’s activities.
Table 7. Correspondence analysis of relations between accompanying modes and children’s activities.
ItemsCategoriesAccompany Modes (%)Totalχ2p
ISPSISPWIWPSIWPWOthers
Children’s Outdoor ActivitiesActivities relied on facilities211 (24.91)127 (23.87)135 (32.77)36 (23.53)6 (20.00)515 (26.09)137.0860.000 **
Community activities72 (8.50)70 (13.16)34 (8.25)16 (10.46)6 (20.00)198 (10.03)
Organized activities (ball games)105 (12.40)99 (18.61)50 (12.14)34 (22.22)7 (23.33)295 (14.94)
Others4 (0.47)4 (0.75)3 (0.73)3 (1.96)5 (16.67)19 (0.96)
Unorganized activities with facilities198 (23.38)117 (21.99)90 (21.84)32 (20.92)3 (10.00)440 (22.29)
Unorganized activities without facilities257 (30.34)115 (21.62)100 (24.27)32 (20.92)3 (10.00)507 (25.68)
Total847532412153301974
** p < 0.01.
Table 8. Correspondence analysis of relations between caregivers and children’s activities.
Table 8. Correspondence analysis of relations between caregivers and children’s activities.
ItemsCategoriesCaregivers (%)Totalχ2p
FatherMotherGrandfatherGrandmotherBaby-SitterTeacherOthers
Children’s outdoor activitiesActivities relied on facilities142 (26.59)204 (24.09)107 (30.40)180 (31.75)12 (24.49)10 (24.39)4 (16.00)659 (27.29)62.2090.000 **
Community activities41 (7.68)72 (8.50)32 (9.09)45 (7.94)6 (12.24)5 (12.20)4 (16.00)205 (8.49)
Organized activities (ball games)74 (13.86)125 (14.76)39 (11.08)57 (10.05)8 (16.33)6 (14.63)6 (24.00)315 (13.04)
Others1 (0.19)2 (0.24)3 (0.85)4 (0.71)1 (2.04)1 (2.44)2 (8.00)14 (0.58)
Unorganized activities with facilities120 (22.47)211 (24.91)73 (20.74)116 (20.46)10 (20.41)10 (24.39)5 (20.00)545 (22.57)
Unorganized activities without facilities156 (29.21)233 (27.51)98 (27.84)165 (29.10)12 (24.49)9 (21.95)4 (16.00)677 (28.03)
Total49534847567847494125
** p < 0.01.
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Tang, P.; Yang, D.; Dong, N. The Effect of Intergenerational Parenting Mode on Children’s Outdoor Activities: A Case Study of Downtown Shanghai Communities. Sustainability 2023, 15, 14658. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152014658

AMA Style

Tang P, Yang D, Dong N. The Effect of Intergenerational Parenting Mode on Children’s Outdoor Activities: A Case Study of Downtown Shanghai Communities. Sustainability. 2023; 15(20):14658. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152014658

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tang, Pai, Dan Yang, and Nannan Dong. 2023. "The Effect of Intergenerational Parenting Mode on Children’s Outdoor Activities: A Case Study of Downtown Shanghai Communities" Sustainability 15, no. 20: 14658. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152014658

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