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Review

The Use and Recycling of Agricultural Plastic Mulch in China: A Review

by
Hongguang Yang
1,
Zhichao Hu
1,2,
Feng Wu
1,2,
Kai Guo
1,2,
Fengwei Gu
2,* and
Mingzhu Cao
1,*
1
Nanjing Institute of Agricultural Mechanization, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Nanjing 210014, China
2
Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(20), 15096; https://doi.org/10.3390/su152015096
Submission received: 13 September 2023 / Revised: 13 October 2023 / Accepted: 18 October 2023 / Published: 20 October 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Agriculture)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The use of plastic film for mulching cultivation is an important agricultural production technology, which plays an important role in achieving agricultural yield increase and farmers’ income increase. China’s use of plastic mulch ranks first in the world, and China is also the country with the most severe residual plastic mulch pollution in farmland. It is of great significance to have a comprehensive understanding of the use and resource recycling of plastic mulch in China. As a result, this article reviews the recent advances in the use and recycling of plastic mulch in China. First, the types and characteristics of commonly used agricultural plastic mulch are introduced. Then, the development process and application situation of plastic mulch in China are mainly summarized, and the problems of farmland soil and environmental pollution caused by residual plastic mulch are discussed. Finally, the current situation, main practices, and existing problems of waste plastic mulch recycling in China’s farmland are explained in detail from the perspectives of government policy formulation and farmer practice. The research in this article will play an important role in further solving the problem of plastic mulch pollution in farmland soil in China and can also provide a reference for other countries.

1. Introduction

We all know that plastic is one of the great inventions of humanity [1,2]. This invention has brought many conveniences to human life. But plastic is difficult to degrade naturally [3]. Nowadays, plastic pollution has become one of the main environmental problems facing humanity [4,5,6].
Plastic mulch is one of the main types of agricultural plastics [7,8]. The use of plastic film mulching is a common cultivation technique and has significant implications for promoting stable and high yields of crops. A large number of studies have shown that plots covered with plastic film have higher soil temperatures than those not covered, which can significantly improve the emergence rate and uniformity of crops [9,10,11,12,13].
The research on plastic mulch began in the 1950s, and its commercial use can be traced back to the early 1960s [14]. The United States and Japan were the earliest countries in the world to study and apply plastic mulch [15]. At that time, it was mainly tested and applied in the cultivation of crops such as corn (Zea mays L.) [16], cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.) [17], and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) [18]. At present, plastic film mulching cultivation has become an indispensable technology in world agricultural production. This technology is widely used in countries such as China [19,20], India [21,22], the United States [23,24], Japan [18], South Korea [25], Australia [26], France [27], Nigeria [28], Italy [29], Canada [30], and Germany [31].
All in all, covering crops with plastic mulch has many advantages. However, with the continuous increase in the use of plastic mulch, the problems of soil and environmental pollution caused by some residual plastic mulch have become increasingly prominent [32,33,34,35]. Specifically, these residual waste plastic films can lead to an increase in the content of microplastics and phthalate esters in farmland soil [36,37,38,39]. This issue is very stark and rather troubling. Microplastic pollution in farmland is currently an environmental issue of global concern [40,41,42,43]. Steinmetz, Z. et al. developed a new method for the quantitative analysis of microplastic content in farmland soil [44,45]. And they used this new method to sample and analyze microplastics in the plastic-mulched soil in western Germany. The research results showed that the plastic debris in farmland soil mainly come from mulch film. These plastics accumulate in the soil over a long period and will further break into smaller and smaller debris over time [46]. Li Shitong et al. revealed the residual characteristics of microplastics in farmland soil after 32 years of plastic film mulching cultivation, confirmed that microplastics can migrate to deep soil, and quantified the contribution of plastic mulch to microplastics as 33% to 56% [47].
China is the country with the highest usage of agricultural plastic mulch. It is also the country most affected by plastic mulch pollution. How to achieve the resource recycling and utilization of waste plastic mulch has become a challenge for the green and sustainable development of agriculture in China. To further understand the current situation regarding the use and recycling of agricultural plastic mulch in China, this article provides a comprehensive review and analysis. Major points discussed are the classification and characteristics of agricultural plastic mulch, the current situation regarding the use of agricultural plastic mulch in China, and the practice of agricultural plastic mulch recycling and reuse in China. The research results of this article can encourage domestic and foreign scholars to further understand the use and recycling of agricultural plastic mulch in China. This study may be of great significance in solving the problem of farmland soil pollution caused by plastic film in China and can also provide a reference for other countries.

2. The Advantages and Classification of Agricultural Plastic Mulch

After years of practice, it has been shown that plastic film mulching cultivation has a significant impact on crops, soil, and the environment. The favorable impact effects are shown in Figure 1.
The plastic mulch currently used in agriculture is polyethylene blow. There are three main types of polymers used to make plastic films: low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE). There are significant differences in their molecular structure, material properties, processing characteristics, and product performance [48,49,50]. As shown in Figure 2, different types of polymers are made into plastic mulch.
At present, plastic films can be divided into clear, black, green, red, blue, composite, and silver-black based on their purpose and color. The different types of plastic films and their characteristics are shown in Table 1. Therefore, when selecting and using them, we need to comprehensively consider factors such as local climate conditions and actual crop demand.

3. The Current Situation Regarding the Use of Agricultural Plastic Mulch in China

The cultivation technique of plastic film covering in China was introduced by Masayoshi Ishimoto of Japan in 1978 [62,63,64]. In 1979, experimental demonstration and promotion began in Liaoning Province, China. At that time, the main application targets were vegetable crops such as cucumbers (Cucumis sativus L.) and tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.). In 1980, the promotion experiment and demonstration expanded from Northeast China to North China, and the application scope gradually extended from vegetable crops to crops such as grain (wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), corn), cotton, and oil (peanuts (Arachis hypogaea Linn.)). In 1982, plastic film mulching cultivation was expanded to 16 provinces and more than 20 crops in China. In the 1990s, it was widely promoted and applied nationwide.
The Dalian No.9 Plastic Factory was one of the earliest companies in China engaged in plastic mulch manufacturing and production. It began trial production of plastic mulch in 1979, mainly using HDPE to produce plastic mulch. In 1981, specialized equipment for producing plastic film was introduced from Japan, and China officially began large-scale production of plastic mulch. Later, many companies used LDPE and LLDPE as raw materials to prepare plastic mulch. The current plastic mulch used in China is mostly made of LLDPE as raw material [50].
The application of plastic mulch in China has a history of over 40 years, making significant contributions to the sustainable development of agriculture, especially in the arid and semi-arid regions of northwest China [65,66,67,68]. As shown in Figure 3, the typical crop cultivation in China is covered with plastic film.

3.1. The Area Covered by Plastic Mulch

The coverage area of crops is one of the key indicators for measuring the use of plastic mulch. Figure 4 illustrates data on the area covered by plastic mulch for major crops in China in the 1980s. In 1981, the area covered by plastic film for major crops in China was 15,400 ha. In 1990, it grew to 3.3 million ha, an increase of nearly 215 times compared to 1981, with an average annual growth rate of 81.6%.
At that time, plastic film covering was mainly used for rice seedling cultivation and cultivation of cotton, peanuts, vegetables, and melons (Citrullus lanatus). Figure 5 shows the changes in the area covered by plastic film for various crops between 1981 and 1990. From Figure 5, it can be seen that the area covered by plastic film for rice seedling cultivation, vegetables, and melons was basically increasing year by year. Peanuts showed a trend of increasing first, then decreasing, and then increasing again. Cotton underwent significant changes. In 1984, it suddenly increased to 0.86 million ha and then decreased year by year. It began to increase in 1988 and exceeded 0.87 million ha in 1990.
The proportion of plastic film coverage of major crops in China in 1981 and 1990 is shown in Figure 6. Compared to 1981, the proportion of rice seedling cultivation increased by 2% in 1990. Cotton remained unchanged at around a quarter of the total. Peanuts were reduced by half; vegetables decreased from 47% to 8%. Melons increased by 12%. Although the proportion of plastic film coverage on various crops increased and decreased, the area in 1990 increased compared to 1981. Figure 7 shows the multiple increases in the area covered by plastic film for various crops. Among them, the increase in melons was the most significant, 1411 times higher in 1990 than in 1981.
As shown in Figure 8, the area covered by plastic film in China has been increasing since 1993. In 1998, it exceeded 10 million ha. In 2011, it reached a peak of 19.8 million ha. In 2014, it decreased to 18.1 million ha. In the following years, it slowly increased, but remained within the range of 18 to 19 million ha. In 2021, the area was 17.3 million ha, an increase of 1122 times compared to 1981 and 2.9 times compared to 1992. However, it has been decreasing year by year since 2018.

3.2. The Consumption of Agricultural Plastic Mulch

Consumption is also a key basis for reflecting the use of plastic mulch. Figure 9 shows the consumption of agricultural plastic films and plastic mulch in China. From the figure, we can see that the consumption of plastic mulch accounts for more than half of agricultural plastic film consumption. Since 1993, there has been an increasing trend year by year. And in 2006, the usage exceeded 1 million tons, reaching a peak of 1.5 million tons in 2016. After 2017, there has been a decreasing trend year by year. By 2021, it had dropped to 1.3 million tons, but its consumption still ranks first in the world.
From the perspectives of different regions, there are also significant differences in the use of plastic mulch. China’s plastic film coverage was first demonstrated and applied in Liaoning Province. Subsequently, the types of crops applied increased from few to many, the area increased from small to large, and the region spread from north to the whole country. The consumption of plastic mulch in various provinces of China over the past four decades (1991, 2001, 2011, 2021) is shown in Figure 10 and Figure 11. From Figure 10 and Figure 11, it can be seen that over time, the consumption of plastic mulch in most provinces has shown an increasing trend. Among them, Yunnan, Gansu, and Xinjiang are the most obvious examples.
In 1991, Guangdong, Shandong, Xinjiang, Liaoning, and Hubei ranked among the top five in terms of plastic mulch consumption. In 2001, the rankings were Shandong, Xinjiang, Sichuan, Gansu, and Henan. In 2011, the rankings were Xinjiang, Shandong, Sichuan, Gansu, and Henan. In 2021, the rankings were Xinjiang, Gansu, Shandong, Yunnan, and Inner Mongolia. Among them, Xinjiang and Shandong both appeared in these four decades. The consumption of plastic mulch in these two provinces accounts for about a quarter of the national total. The consumption of plastic mulch in Beijing, Shanxi, Heilongjiang, Zhejiang, Hubei, Guangdong, and other provinces is decreasing year by year. The consumption of plastic mulch in Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, and other provinces is increasing year by year. And the total consumption of plastic mulch in these three provinces accounts for about one-third of the country’s total. The consumption of plastic mulch in Shandong shows a trend of first increasing and then decreasing, with the usage in 2021 only half of that in 2001.

4. The Practice of Agricultural Mulch Film Recycling and Reuse in China

The use of plastic film for covering cultivation has made significant contributions to the development of agriculture in China and has also brought enormous economic benefits. But crops are covered with plastic film year after year, and the plastic mulch left in the farmland causes serious pollution to the soil and environment. Land is the most basic and important means of production for agriculture. The pollution of arable land and the destruction of soil resources will directly affect the healthy development of agricultural production. Nowadays, solving the problem of plastic film pollution in farmland is related to sustainable agricultural development and the quality and safety of agricultural products [69,70]. As shown in Figure 12, there is residual plastic mulch in the farmland after the crop harvest.

4.1. Early Practice of Recycling and Reuse of Agricultural Plastic Mulch

The early practice of recycling agricultural plastic mulch mainly refers to the period between its widespread application and the convening of the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China. This time period was approximately 1981 to 2011.
In fact, the problem of farmland residue after the use of plastic mulch has concerned the Chinese government and scholars since its widespread application. During that time, they conducted a lot of research work on the problem of plastic mulch residue in farmland. The main methods and measures are as follows:
  • Preliminary study on the residual amount of plastic mulch in farmland and its impact on soil and crops
This research considered the residual situation of plastic mulch in farmland and whether these residues will cause crop growth and soil pollution. During that time, some scholars conducted extensive research on vegetable fields, cotton fields, corn fields, peanut fields, etc.
Chen Jing et al. [71] conducted experiments on the effects of different amounts of plastic mulch residues on crop yield, crop growth status, and soil physical properties. Their research results indicated that residual plastic mulch can have a significant impact on soil characteristics and crop growth. Wen Qikai et al. [72] also demonstrated that residual plastic film can cause poor soil physicochemical properties and crop yield reduction. Huang Xingjiong et al. [73] found that residual plastic fragments can have an impact on the growth and development of peanuts. Jiang Yijuan et al. [74] demonstrated a negative correlation between the amount of residual mulch in soil and the emergence rate of cotton. Liu Jianguo et al. [75] found that soil porosity and field water capacity increase with the increase in plastic mulch residue in farmland soil, but soil bulk density decreases. Moreover, residual plastic mulch can hinder the vertical growth of cotton’s main roots and alter the morphology of cotton root systems.
  • Attempts to manually remove residual plastic mulch from farmland
The use of manual removal is one of the earliest and most direct methods for treating plastic mulch residues in farmland. This approach can basically solve the problem when the plastic film coverage area is not large. But with the expansion of plastic film coverage, manual labor is no longer able to meet the operational needs. In particular, manual work can only remove the remaining plastic mulch on the surface, while the plastic mulch in the plow layer is buried in the soil.
  • Development of a plastic mulch lifter
The mechanized recycling of residual plastic mulch in the field is one of the effective ways to avoid plastic pollution in farmland soil. China began researching the mechanized recycling technology of plastic mulch in 1982 and began developing collectors in 1983 [76]. A large number of scholars have conducted research on the basic theory and key technologies of the mechanized recycling of plastic mulch [77,78,79,80]. They have successively developed various types of plastic mulch residue recycling machines, including spring-tooth [81], idler wheel enwind [82], and vibration sieve [83]. However, because the thickness of the plastic mulch produced and used in China is less than 0.01 mm, mechanized recycling is more difficult. And during that time, the government’s financial support was also relatively small, and the promotion and application of the developed technical equipment in actual production was not ideal.
  • Exploration and research on degradable agricultural film mulch film
China began research and application experiments on photodegradable plastic films in the early 1980s [84]. However, due to different climates, it is difficult to ensure that the same type of photodegradable plastic film is applied in different regions. Moreover, films buried in soil and obstructed by crops are difficult to photodegrade. Therefore, photodegradable plastic film has not been widely applied. Similarly, China began developing and applying biodegradable mulching films in the mid-1980s. However, the fate of biodegradable mulching film degradation and whether it will have an impact on soil, crops, etc., have not been clearly studied so far [85,86].
  • Research and formulation of relevant standards for agricultural plastic mulch
China has long established some national standards for the production, use, and recycling of plastic mulch. The promulgation and implementation of these standards effectively guarantee the use and recycling of plastic mulch in China. These standards are shown in Table 2.

4.2. Current Practice of Recycling and Reuse of Agricultural Plastic Mulch

The current practice of recycling and reusing agricultural film in China mainly refers to the period since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China in 2012. Since 2012, the Chinese government and people have continuously strengthened ecological and environmental protection and comprehensively promoted the construction of a beautiful China. China has also achieved a significant transformation from a participant in global environmental governance to a leader. More systematic and in-depth comprehensive management work has also been carried out to address the issues of plastic mulch recycling and reuse. The main methods and measures are as follows:
  • Determination of the residual quantity of plastic mulch in China
During this period, many regions in China have conducted extensive and in-depth investigations of the residual amount of farmland plastic mulch. As shown in Table 3, these studies have basically identified the residual amount of plastic mulch in provinces in China that mainly use plastic film mulching for cultivation. The research results provide important data support for the implementation of comprehensive management plans for plastic mulch residue in China.
As shown in Table 3, the average residual quantities of plastic mulch in Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia are 261.1 and 101.7 kg/hm2, respectively, which are far higher than the national standard limit of 75.0 kg/hm2 [91]. This belongs to areas where farmland is heavily polluted by plastic film. There are two reasons for the high residual quantity of plastic mulch. On the one hand, these two regions are basically located in the northwest of China, with a temperate continental climate and year-round drought with little rain. The cotton, corn, and potatoes grown in these areas have been cultivated with plastic film covering for a long time. On the other hand, the crops in these two regions mature once a year, and the plastic film covering time is long, resulting in a low plastic mulch recovery rate.
The residual quantity of plastic mulch in Jiangxi and Yibin is generally low. The main reason is that these two regions are mostly hilly and mountainous areas. There are mostly two or three crops a year, and the farmland where crops are grown is relatively small. Most of the plastic films used are manually picked up and recycled after the previous crop harvest. The reason for the wide range in residual quantities of plastic mulch in Guizhou, Shandong, Henan, and northern China is that the sampling areas involve multiple locations, and there are generally differences in the residual quantity of plastic mulch at each sampling point.
  • Further improvement of laws, regulations, and standards related to plastic mulch
As shown in Table 4, the Chinese government has introduced and formulated a series of policy measures to meet the actual needs of plastic mulch production and use. Especially in 2020, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China and other departments issued and implemented the “Agricultural Film Management Measures”. This policy document provides a legal basis for the production, sales, use, recycling, and reuse of plastic mulch in China and makes clear provisions for the lawful recycling of waste plastic mulch by agricultural film producers, sellers, and users.
At the same time, in order to meet the needs of agricultural waste plastic mulch recycling and environmental protection, the Chinese government has also revised and newly formulated multiple standards related to plastic mulch. The formulation and revision of these standards will greatly promote the healthy development of China’s plastic mulch use and recycling industry.
  • Vigorous promotion of mechanized recycling of plastic mulch
The most effective and feasible method to solve soil pollution caused by plastic mulch is to use mechanized methods for the recovery of residual plastic mulch from farmland. Compared to manual picking, mechanical operations can significantly improve efficiency and reduce manual labor intensity. In recent years, the Chinese government has continuously increased and supported the research and application of waste plastic mulch recycling machines. Especially driven by the agricultural research project “Comprehensive Treatment Technology Plan for Residual Film Pollution in Farmland” launched in 2015, Chinese researchers have developed a series of residual plastic mulch recycling machines suitable for different regions and crops. Meanwhile, in recent years, the country has also included agricultural film recycling machines in the scope of agricultural machinery purchase subsidies. This measure has effectively promoted the application of plastic mulch recycling machines in China. At present, the plastic mulch recycling machine has been widely promoted and used in regions such as Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai, and Inner Mongolia. Based on the public information on subsidies for the purchase and application of agricultural machinery in China, we conducted preliminary statistics, and the number of plastic mulch recycling machines that received subsidies in 2022 was nearly 2000.
  • Strengthen the research and promotion of biodegradable plastic mulch
As is well known, biodegradable mulching film can be degraded by microorganisms in the natural environment. In agricultural production, it not only has the function of traditional plastic mulch but also does not need to be recycled after use. Replacing traditional plastic mulch with biodegradable mulching film is one of the important solutions to the problem of farmland plastic film pollution [103,104,105,106]. In recent years, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China, together with relevant departments, has actively promoted the research and application of biodegradable mulching film. They will fully support eligible enterprises engaged in the research and development, production, and promotion of biodegradable film to enjoy preferential income tax policies. As shown in Table 5, national standards related to biodegradable mulching film have been formulated and introduced. The implementation of these standards will further standardize the production, use, and supervision of biodegradable mulching film for agricultural uses.
  • New breakthrough in recycling and utilizing waste farmland plastic mulch
In fact, waste plastic mulch is a resource of agricultural solid waste. Their residues in farmland soil can easily cause soil and environmental pollution and can also affect crop growth and agricultural machinery operations. How to achieve the recycling and utilization of waste plastic mulch is another important solution to solve the problem of plastic pollution in farmland [109,110]. To this end, the Chinese government, researchers, and farmers have conducted much exploration and testing.
Liang Jiangyuan et al. [111] studied the impact mechanism of farmers’ cognition and policy environment on the recycling of residual plastic film based on survey data from four provinces: Shandong, Gansu, Hebei, and Shanxi. The results indicated that active policy promotion and regulatory constraints have a positive moderating effect on farmers’ recycling behavior. Chaoqiong Li et al. [112] used survey data in northwest China to examine farmers’ views on compensation policies for controlling farmland film pollution. The results showed that the current compensation model is suboptimal. This study provides a reference for the optimization and improvement of compensation policies for farmland film pollution control in China. Ji Chen et al. [113] analyzed the management ability of farmers regarding waste farmland plastic mulch based on survey data from 1284 farmers in 10 counties in Yunnan Province. And they proposed that the government should increase subsidies for promoting biodegradable mulching film and communicate the harm from residual agricultural film to farmers through various channels.
Xu Juzhen et al. [114] systematically analyzed the use and recycling of plastic film by ordinary farmers, large planters (with a planting area greater than 6.67 ha), and agricultural cooperatives. Research has shown that the use and recycling of plastic mulch by agricultural cooperatives and large growers are more environmentally friendly. Xu Juzhen et al. [115] analyzed the influencing factors of farmers’ plastic mulch recycling behavior using a combination of binary logistic regression analysis and an explanatory structural model based on 333 survey data from farmers in Xinjiang. The research results indicate that the service life of plastic mulch and the area of cultivated land have a significant negative impact on farmers’ recycling behavior. The thickness of plastic mulch, recognition of reuse value, environmental supervision, and recycling subsidies have a significant positive effect on farmers’ recycling behavior for waste plastic mulch.
Long Wei et al. [116] used 900 valid questionnaires to explore the influencing factors of farmers’ willingness to recycle farmland plastic mulch in Yunnan Province, China. The research results indicate that positive policy guidance has a significant effect. Lv Jun et al. [117] analyzed the factors affecting cotton farmers’ recycling of plastic mulch through a survey questionnaire. The research results indicate that the recycling income has a significant positive promoting effect on farmers’ behavior regarding recycling plastic mulch, which is the most important factor. Wei Yang et al. [118] found that obtaining detailed and comprehensive policy information had a positive and significant impact on farmers’ plastic mulch recycling behavior.
The above investigation and research on the recycling and utilization of farmland plastic mulch provide rich data support and a theoretical basis for the formulation and practice of China’s plastic mulch recycling policy.
In 2017, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China implemented the action of recycling farmland plastic mulch, laying the foundation for the recycling and utilization of waste plastic mulch resources. Subsequently, multiple regions across the country carried out plastic mulch pollution control projects and achieved significant results. A preliminary relationship system has been established between producers, sellers, users, and recyclers of agricultural plastic mulch. As shown in Figure 13, a technical solution for the recycling and reuse of farmland plastic mulch has been explored and formed under government regulation and market promotion.
At present, this plan has been widely promoted and applied in regions such as Xinjiang, Ningxia, Qinghai, Gansu, and Inner Mongolia. It has also effectively curbed the growth of agricultural plastic mulch residue, forming a replicable and scalable solution.

5. Discussion

Plastic film mulching cultivation has the functions of increasing temperature, water retention, and improving the utilization rate of light, which is a technical measure that can significantly achieve crop yield increase. The main reasons why plastic film mulching cultivation is widely used in China are: (1) China has a large population and a high demand for grain and agricultural products. But the per capita arable land is limited, and there is an urgent need to increase crop yields. Practice has shown that plastic film mulching cultivation can increase crop yield by 30–50% [119,120,121]. (2) Many arable lands in China have extremely poor soil and relatively poor climate conditions. And plastic film mulching cultivation can effectively improve these natural conditions, ensure, and promote the healthy production of crops [67,122].
To this day, plastic film mulching cultivation is still being promoted and applied around the world, making significant contributions to the supply of food and important agricultural products in China and the world. However, the pollution of soil and the environment caused by residual plastic mulch in farmland has become a thorny problem faced by countries around the world. China is the country with the largest use of plastic mulch, consuming over 70% of the world’s agricultural plastic mulch [7,123].
However, there are currently frequent occurrences of extreme weather and local wars worldwide. An adequate supply of food and important agricultural products is fundamental to ensuring human survival. To ensure the effective supply of food and important agricultural products and sustainable agricultural development, developed countries such as the United States [124], Canada [125], and South Korea [126] still use plastic mulch for cultivation. Therefore, we should be aware that China and any other country in the world cannot completely abandon the use of plastic mulch at this stage. The widespread use of agricultural plastic mulch is a double-edged sword, and how to effectively recycle and reuse the waste plastic mulch after use is an urgent problem that China and even the world are facing.
Currently, there are many technical solutions for recycling industrial and domestic plastics internationally [127,128,129,130,131,132]. However, there are significant differences between agricultural plastic mulch and these industrial and domestic plastics, and these solutions cannot be directly applied. As shown in Figure 14, the current methods of treating farmland waste plastic mulch mainly include stockpiling, destroying, and recycling [14,133]. However, practice has proven that there is a risk of plastic pollution in waste plastic mulch treatment methods such as stockpiling and destroying. These operating methods have a serious impact on the ecosystem and soil environment, as well as the survival of humans, livestock, and wildlife.
To further comprehensively promote the construction of ecological civilization and achieve China’s goals of “carbon peak” by 2030 and “carbon neutrality” by 2060, the burning of waste plastic mulch has been banned by the Chinese government and gradually abandoned by farmers.
At present, the main measures to solve the problem of waste plastic mulch pollution in China are to vigorously promote resource recycling and the replacement of biodegradable mulching film. And equal emphasis will be placed on the recycling and utilization of waste plastic mulch resources, as well as the replacement of biodegradable mulching film. The Chinese government and people have created a “Chinese model” for the recycling and reuse of agricultural waste plastic mulch. It has provided “Chinese experience” and demonstrated “Chinese strength” for the control of plastic mulch pollution in other countries around the world. However, from a practical perspective, if we want to thoroughly control the problem of plastic mulch pollution in farmland, we should continue to gather the following aspects for in-depth research.
  • Strictly supervise and manage the production, sales, and use of high-strength plastic mulch
For a long time, China’s plastic mulch sales have been priced by weight. To reduce usage costs, farmers are generally willing to purchase ultra-thin plastic mulch (with a thickness of less than 0.01 mm, mostly concentrated in the range of 0.005 to 0.008 mm). The minimum thickness of plastic mulch allowed in Japan is 0.02 mm, while in the United States and European countries it is 0.025 mm [14]. From the thickness index, it can be seen that developed countries generally require more than twice the thickness of plastic mulch compared to China. Although China’s newly revised national standards specify the minimum thickness and strength of plastic mulch, government departments and farmers should still do a good job in supervision and management. It is especially necessary to strictly follow the regulations in the “Agricultural Film Management Measures”, strengthen the supervision and inspection of the production, sales, use, and recycling of plastic mulch, and form a community of responsibility for producers, sellers, users, and regulators, in order to promote the production and application of high-strength thickened plastic mulch.
  • Comprehensively promote the mechanized recycling of farmland waste plastic mulch
A mechanized operation is the best way to achieve high-quality and efficient recycling of farmland waste plastic mulch, which can greatly improve operation efficiency and reduce manual labor intensity. But currently, the promotion and application of plastic mulch recycling machines in China are only concentrated in provinces such as Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai, and Inner Mongolia. Other regions should fully utilize the subsidy funds for purchasing agricultural machinery and actively promote the application of plastic mulch recycling machines. Various parts of China are gradually realizing the replacement of manual picking-up of plastic mulch by machinery.
  • Explore new strategies and future directions for the reuse of waste plastic mulch
The waste plastic film in China is mainly used for resource utilization [133]. At present, the main method is size reduction, washing, drying, and pelletizing the waste plastic mulch and then making it into recycled products such as drip tape and trash cans. Or it can be mixed with plant fibers such as wood flour and straw, and then made into various boards. However, special attention should be paid to the separation of impurities such as plastic mulch, soil, and crop stems during resource utilization. The commonly used separation methods currently include water washing and pneumatic cleaning. The use of water washing mainly utilizes the sedimentation and aggregation characteristics of water on the plastic mulch and impurities [134,135]. The use of pneumatic cleaning mainly utilizes the suspension characteristics of airflow on the plastic mulch and impurities [136,137,138].
However, plastic mulch is mainly composed of polymer compounds extracted from petroleum. Under normal circumstances, pyrolysis oil technology can be used to decompose waste plastic mulch to obtain polymeric monomers, liquid and gas fuels, etc. This may be a new direction for the energy utilization of waste plastic mulch. First, the energy utilization of waste plastic mulch conforms to the sustainable development concept currently advocated by China and the world. This technology is more economical and environmentally friendly compared to traditional waste incineration, landfill, and other treatment methods. At the same time, achieving the refining and utilization of waste plastic mulch has important practical significance and is also one of the effective means to supplement and increase fuel supply. But this technology also faces many challenges, such as how to obtain waste plastic mulch with low impurity content to minimize subsequent processing costs and improve fuel quality as much as possible.
  • Continuously promote the research and application of biodegradable mulching film
Biodegradable mulching film is a green alternative to traditional plastic mulch and a research hotspot in many countries in recent years [139,140,141,142]. However, it has many problems such as high production costs, insufficient mechanical strength, poor controllability of degradation, and an unclear fate of degradation in the soil [143,144,145,146]. This makes it difficult to promote biodegradable mulching film on a large scale in the short term.
Due to differences in raw materials and processing techniques, the current market price of traditional plastic mulch is USD 1.6/kg. The market price of biodegradable mulching film ranges from USD 3.4/kg to USD 4.2/kg. From a cost perspective, biodegradable mulching film is 2–3 times more expensive than traditional plastic mulch [147]. It should be pointed out that with the expansion of production application scale and the progress in processing technology, the production cost of biodegradable mulching film will be significantly reduced. We believe that when the price of biodegradable mulching film drops to about 1.5 times that of plastic mulch, it is expected to be accepted by farmers. The higher price can be used to offset the recycling and processing costs of traditional plastic mulch. Therefore, this value can also be considered as the break-even point for the sustainable production cost of biodegradable mulching film.
At the same time, due to the limitations at the technological level, the currently developed and applied biodegradable mulching films generally have the problems of insufficient mechanical strength and poor degradation controllability. This poor controllability is mainly manifested in premature rupture and degradation, with coverage time much lower than the required safety period for crops. Currently, research to further standardize the production and use of biodegradable mulching film is being conducted. As shown in Table 6, Chinese national standards have made clear provisions on the mechanical properties of biodegradable mulching film.
At present, the application rate of biodegradable mulching film is about 10% in the United States, and less than 1% in China [147,148]. Any degradable plastic film can only be degraded under specific conditions. China has a vast territory, significant environmental differences between the north and south, and a wide variety of crops. The actual field environment in various regions is very complex. At present, most biodegradable mulching films have only been tested and simulated on a single crop in some places. The large-scale promotion and application of biodegradable mulching film still requires long-term, large-scale, and multi-crop comparative experimental research work. However, the application potential of biodegradable mulching film is enormous, and the future is promising.

6. Conclusions

This article elaborated on the function and classification of agricultural plastic mulch. The characteristics of plastic mulch made from LDPE, HDPE, and LLDPE were mainly discussed. The purpose and characteristics of different types of plastic mulch were compared and analyzed. This will provide a reference for farmers to understand and use agricultural plastic mulch.
Through a series of illustrations, a detailed analysis was conducted of the use of plastic mulch in China over the past 30 years. The focus was on exploring the trends in the cultivation area and consumption of plastic mulch in China and various provinces. The results showed that plastic mulch was applied in all provinces of the Chinese Mainland, mainly in Xinjiang, Gansu, Yunnan, Sichuan, Shandong, and Inner Mongolia.
A detailed analysis was conducted of China’s main practices, experiences, and current problems in the recycling and utilization of agricultural waste plastic mulch. And research suggests that equal emphasis should be placed on the recycling of agricultural plastic mulch and the replacement of biodegradable mulching film. Only by adopting a positive recycling attitude and putting in multiple efforts can we achieve the long-term, safe, and green development of plastic mulch culture.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.Y.; methodology, H.Y. and F.G.; software, K.G.; validation, F.W. and K.G.; formal analysis, F.W.; investigation, M.C.; resources, Z.H.; data curation, H.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, H.Y., F.G., and Z.H.; writing—review and editing, H.Y.; visualization, F.W.; supervision, Z.H.; project administration, H.Y. and M.C; funding acquisition, F.G. and F.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Central Public-interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund, grant numbers S202304, S202305.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the first author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. The advantages of plastic mulch culture.
Figure 1. The advantages of plastic mulch culture.
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Figure 2. Different types of polymers used to make plastic mulch.
Figure 2. Different types of polymers used to make plastic mulch.
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Figure 3. Typical crops are covered with plastic mulch for planting. (a) Cotton covered by plastic mulch; (b) onion covered by plastic mulch.
Figure 3. Typical crops are covered with plastic mulch for planting. (a) Cotton covered by plastic mulch; (b) onion covered by plastic mulch.
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Figure 4. The area covered by plastic mulch for major crops in China from 1981 to 1990. Note: The data were sourced from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook.
Figure 4. The area covered by plastic mulch for major crops in China from 1981 to 1990. Note: The data were sourced from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook.
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Figure 5. Changes in the area covered by plastic mulch for various crops from 1981 to 1990. Note: The data were sourced from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook.
Figure 5. Changes in the area covered by plastic mulch for various crops from 1981 to 1990. Note: The data were sourced from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook.
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Figure 6. Proportion of cultivation area covered with plastic mulch for different crops in 1981 and 1990. (a) 1981; (b) 1990. Note: The data were sourced from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook and post-processing calculation.
Figure 6. Proportion of cultivation area covered with plastic mulch for different crops in 1981 and 1990. (a) 1981; (b) 1990. Note: The data were sourced from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook and post-processing calculation.
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Figure 7. The multiple increases in 1990 compared to 1981.
Figure 7. The multiple increases in 1990 compared to 1981.
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Figure 8. The area covered by plastic mulch in China from 1992 to 2021. Note: The data were sourced from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook.
Figure 8. The area covered by plastic mulch in China from 1992 to 2021. Note: The data were sourced from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook.
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Figure 9. The consumption of agricultural plastic mulch in China from 1991 to 2021. Note: The data were sourced from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook and post-processing calculation.
Figure 9. The consumption of agricultural plastic mulch in China from 1991 to 2021. Note: The data were sourced from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook and post-processing calculation.
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Figure 10. Comparison of the consumption of plastic mulch in different regions over the past four decades (1991, 2001, 2011, and 2021). Note: the data are from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook. The data exclude the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Macao Special Administrative Region, and Taiwan Province of China.
Figure 10. Comparison of the consumption of plastic mulch in different regions over the past four decades (1991, 2001, 2011, and 2021). Note: the data are from the China Rural Statistical Yearbook. The data exclude the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Macao Special Administrative Region, and Taiwan Province of China.
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Figure 11. Comparison of the proportion of plastic mulch in different regions over the past four decades (1991, 2001, 2011, and 2021). The data exclude the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Macao Special Administrative Region, and Taiwan Province of China.
Figure 11. Comparison of the proportion of plastic mulch in different regions over the past four decades (1991, 2001, 2011, and 2021). The data exclude the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Macao Special Administrative Region, and Taiwan Province of China.
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Figure 12. Residual plastic mulch in the farmland after crop harvest. (a) After harvesting of onions; (b) after harvesting of peanuts.
Figure 12. Residual plastic mulch in the farmland after crop harvest. (a) After harvesting of onions; (b) after harvesting of peanuts.
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Figure 13. Scheme for recycling and reusing of farmland plastic mulch.
Figure 13. Scheme for recycling and reusing of farmland plastic mulch.
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Figure 14. Disposal methods of waste plastic mulch.
Figure 14. Disposal methods of waste plastic mulch.
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Table 1. Different types of agricultural plastic mulch.
Table 1. Different types of agricultural plastic mulch.
TypesPicturesCharacteristics
ClearSustainability 15 15096 i001This is currently the most commonly used plastic mulch in agricultural production. Its material is mainly polyethylene, suitable for planting crops in early spring and winter. The advantage is low cost and the ability to quickly increase soil temperature. But the disadvantage is that the ability to suppress weeds is weak, and herbicides usually need to be sprayed once before covering with plastic film [51,52].
BlackSustainability 15 15096 i002This type of plastic mulch is made by adding carbon black to polyethylene. It has low transparency and poor warming effect. But the effect is significant in reducing soil moisture evaporation and inhibiting weed growth [53,54].
Silver-blackSustainability 15 15096 i003
Sustainability 15 15096 i004		The front and back of this type of plastic film are black and silver. Generally, when used, the black color is facing downwards and the silver color is facing upwards. It not only has the effect of controlling grass with the black mulch, but also has the effect of repelling insects and preventing toxins with the silver surface [55,56,57].
CompositeSustainability 15 15096 i005This type of plastic mulch is distributed in clear and black intervals. It has both the warming effect of clear plastic mulch and the light-blocking and weed-controlling effect of black plastic mulch. Normally, the clear part covers crops [58].
Red, Blue, GreenSustainability 15 15096 i006
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Sustainability 15 15096 i008		This type of plastic mulch can further promote crop growth and is often used for economically valuable crops [59,60,61]. Red plastic mulch can meet the needs of rice, sugar beets, and other plants for red light. It can promote the vigorous growth of rice seedlings and increase the sugar content of sugar beets. Blue plastic mulch can promote the growth of muskmelon. Green plastic mulch can reduce the visible light transmittance of plants during photosynthesis and has the effect of inhibiting weed growth.
Table 2. Early implementation of relevant standards for agricultural plastic mulch.
Table 2. Early implementation of relevant standards for agricultural plastic mulch.
Standard NameStandard NumberMain ContentCurrent State
Polyethylene blown mulch film for agricultural usesGB 13735-1992This standard mainly specifies the product classification and technical requirements of polyethylene blown mulch film for agricultural uses. Among them, the minimum thickness of the plastic mulch is specified as 0.008 mm [87].Replaced by GB 13735-2017 [88]
Mulch film residue collectorGB/T 25412-2010This standard specifies the product requirements, operational performance indicators, and test methods of residual plastic mulch recycling machines [89].Replaced by GB/T 25412-2021 [90]
Limit and test method for residual quantity of agricultural mulch filmGB/T 25413-2010This standard specifies the limits and determination methods for the residual amount of plastic mulch in farmland soil. Among them, it is stipulated that the residual quantity of plastic mulch in the cultivation layer of the farmland to be sown should not exceed 75.0 kg/hm2 [91].Currently effective
Thickness limit and test method of mulch film for cotton plantingGB/T 25414-2010This standard specifies the limit values and measurement methods for the thickness of plastic mulch used for cotton cultivation. Among them, it is stipulated that the thickness limit of plastic mulch for cotton planting should not be less than 0.008 mm [92].Currently effective
Table 3. The residual quantity of farmland plastic mulch in major provinces.
Table 3. The residual quantity of farmland plastic mulch in major provinces.
RegionsMain Crops Covered by Plastic MulchResidual Quantity of Plastic Mulch in Farmland (kg/hm2)References
XinjiangCottonThe range is 143.3 to 378.9, with an average of 261.1.[93]
JiangxiVegetables, fruits, flue-cured tobacco, oilseeds, mushroomsThe average value is 11.54.[94]
GuizhouVegetables, flue-cured tobacco, pepperThe range is 8.18 to 235.39, with an average of 70.84.[95]
Inner MongoliaCorn, potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)The average value is 101.7.[96]
ShandongCotton, peanutThe range is 5.33 to 46.99, with an average of 23.91.[97]
Yibin, SichuanFlue-cured tobaccoThe average value is 6.88.[98]
HenanPeanut, cottonThe range is 6.8 to 37.3, with an average of 20.4.[99]
North ChinaPeanut, cottonThe range is 0.2 to 82.2, with an average of 26.8.[100]
GuangdongWinter melon, peanutThe average value is 45.0.[101]
JilinMelons, vegetables, corn, peanutThe average value is 27.7.[102]
Table 4. Latest revised and developed standards for agricultural plastic mulch.
Table 4. Latest revised and developed standards for agricultural plastic mulch.
Standard NameStandard NumberMain ContentCurrent State
Polyethylene blown mulch film for agricultural usesGB 13735-2017Compared with the original standard, this standard simplifies the original four types of plastic mulch products into two categories. The lower limit of film thickness was increased from 0.008 mm to 0.01 mm [88].Currently effective
Farm waste film pick-up machinesGB/T 25412-2021This standard revised the product requirements, operational performance indicators, and test methods of residual plastic mulch recycling machines [90].Currently effective
Table 5. Relevant standards for biodegradable mulching film.
Table 5. Relevant standards for biodegradable mulching film.
Standard NameStandard NumberMain ContentCurrent State
Biodegradable mulching film for agricultural usesGB/T 35795-2017This standard specifies the requirements, test methods, and inspection rules for biodegradable mulching film for agricultural uses [107].Currently effective
Degradability and identification requirements of biodegradable plastics and productsGB/T 41010-2021This standard specifies the degradability and identification requirements for biodegradable plastics and products [108].Currently effective
Table 6. Mechanical property indexes of biodegradable mulching film [107].
Table 6. Mechanical property indexes of biodegradable mulching film [107].
ItemsIndexes
d < 0.010 mm0.010 ≤ d < 0.015d ≥ 0.015
Tensile load (longitudinal and transverse)/N≥1.50≥2.00≥2.20
Nominal strain at fracture (longitudinal)/%≥150≥150≥200
Nominal strain at fracture (transverse)/%≥250≥250≥280
Right angle tear load (longitudinal and transverse)/N≥0.50≥0.80≥1.20
Note: d is the nominal diameter, mm.
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Yang, H.; Hu, Z.; Wu, F.; Guo, K.; Gu, F.; Cao, M. The Use and Recycling of Agricultural Plastic Mulch in China: A Review. Sustainability 2023, 15, 15096. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152015096

AMA Style

Yang H, Hu Z, Wu F, Guo K, Gu F, Cao M. The Use and Recycling of Agricultural Plastic Mulch in China: A Review. Sustainability. 2023; 15(20):15096. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152015096

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yang, Hongguang, Zhichao Hu, Feng Wu, Kai Guo, Fengwei Gu, and Mingzhu Cao. 2023. "The Use and Recycling of Agricultural Plastic Mulch in China: A Review" Sustainability 15, no. 20: 15096. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152015096

APA Style

Yang, H., Hu, Z., Wu, F., Guo, K., Gu, F., & Cao, M. (2023). The Use and Recycling of Agricultural Plastic Mulch in China: A Review. Sustainability, 15(20), 15096. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152015096

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