Investigating the Effectiveness of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) as an Antifraud Approach for Modified Epoxy Asphalt Mixes in Developing Countries
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results Analysis and Discussion
- A1249 = area of the absorbance peak at 1249 cm−1 using a BL from 1203 to 1275 cm−1. The wavelength of 1249 cm−1 relates to the peak of the sulfoxide functional group.
- A1725 = area of the doublet absorbance peak centred at 1725 cm−1 using a BL from 1675 to 1772 cm−1. The wavelength of 1708 cm−1 relates to the highest peak of the carbonyl functional group.
- H1708 = height of the absorbance peak at 1708 cm−1 using a BL drawn from 1810 cm−1.
- H1738 = height of the absorbance peak at 1738 cm−1 using a BL drawn from 1810 cm−1.
Concentration Calibration and Curing Correction Curves
- A1249CURE = area of absorbance peak at 1249 cm−1 using a BL drawn from 1203 to 1275 cm−1.
- A1725CURE = area of the doublet absorbance peak centred at 1725 cm−1 using a BL from 1675 to 1772 cm−1.
- H1708CURE = height of absorbance peak at 1708 cm−1 using a horizontal BL drawn from 1810 cm−1 and stretched straight to the other lowest point of the peak at a smaller wavenumber.
- H1738CURE = height of the absorbance peak at 1738 cm−1 using a BL drawn from 1810 cm−1 and stretched straight to the other lowest point of the peak at a smaller wavenumber.
- The corrected percentage Part A—percentage Part ACORR—was calculated using the concentration calibration curve for Part A and the value of A1249CORR. Similarly, the corrected percentage Part B—percentage Part BCORR—was calculated using the concentration calibration for Part B and the value of A1725CORR.
- The percentage epoxy bitumen content was calculated as follows:
- The component ratio β was calculated as follows:
- The standard component ratio βSTD was calculated using the component proportions specified by the epoxy bitumen supplier (i.e., Part A (STD) = 14.6 weight % and percentage Part B (STD) = 85.4 weight %) for a 25% diluted epoxy bitumen blend. Therefore,
- The component ratio difference was as follows:
4. Conclusions
- Epoxy content is crucial within the mixes of modified epoxy bituminous surfaces, such as modified epoxy asphalt surface (MEAS) and modified epoxy chip seal (MECS). Failure to use appropriate ratios of epoxy due to fraudulent actions will lead to premature failures of roads and therefore excessive lifecycle costs. Fraud could be a result of temptations to make excessive profits by reducing the quantity of epoxy, which is probably the most expensive of the bituminous binder components.
- FTIR can accurately determine the epoxy content within bituminous binders and therefore prevent possible fraud at the mixing plant level. When an on-field construction target mixture of a bituminous binder with 25% epoxy is used, the equations in Figure 12 and Figure 13 can be used for bitumen grades 80/100 and 60/70, respectively. The 25% modified epoxy binder is recommended by the New Zealand Transport Agency (NZTA) to optimise strength, durability, and economic benefits of modified epoxy surfacing.
- This study has shown that if the sample preparation, sampling, and testing processes are appropriately performed, FTIR results are expected to fall within ±1% of the actual quantities of epoxy used during the mixing of modified epoxy bituminous binder materials.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Methods | Evidence |
---|---|---|
Changes in carbonyl/sulfoxides molecules | FTIR tests | Changes in areas and peaks of spectral bands (a,b). |
Effects of curing of epoxy resin in bitumen emulsion | Multiple stress creep recovery (MSCR) tests and FTIR tests | Adhesion, strength, fatigue performance, and rutting resistance of the binder were improved, making it suitable for cold recycling and cold-mix asphalt paving (c,d). |
Kinetic parameters and polymerisation | Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) | Calorimetric levels and overcuring reduced MEB’s workability. Polymerization rate affected the mechanical properties (e,f). |
Tensile strength | Direct tensile tests (DTT), relaxation tests (RT) and dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) tests. | , for MEB than bitumen (g). |
Thermal and rheological properties. | FTIR | Thermal and rheological properties were improved during mixing of materials and curing under room temperatures (h). |
Ageing | Dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) and FTIR | Antiageing compounds (AACs) influenced bitumen’s long-term ageing. DSR’s crack model could evaluate fatigue performance of AAC-modified binder. Good correlation between carbonyl index and the fatigue of AACs-modified binders (i). |
fatigue | and frequency sensitivity | , hence allowing longer curing time to satisfy construction standards (j). |
Type of Test | N * | Bitumen Grade | Epoxy Content (%) | n ** | Part A (14.6%) (g) | Part B (85.4%) (g) | Bitumen (g) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Concentration calibration curves | 8 | 60/70 | 0.0 | 2 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 100.0 |
15.0 | 1 | 2.19 | 12.81 | 85.0 | |||
20.0 | 1 | 2.92 | 17.08 | 80.0 | |||
25.0 | 1 | 3.65 | 21.35 | 75.0 | |||
27.5 | 1 | 4.01 | 23.49 | 72.5 | |||
30.0 | 1 | 4.38 | 25.62 | 70.0 | |||
35.0 | 1 | 5.11 | 29.89 | 65.0 | |||
Curing correction curves | 1 | 60/70 | 25.0 | 13 | 3.65 | 21.35 | 75.0 |
Concentration calibration curves | 20 | 80/100 | 0.0 | 2 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 100.0 |
15.0 | 3 | 2.19 | 12.81 | 85.0 | |||
20.0 | 3 | 2.92 | 17.08 | 80.0 | |||
25.0 | 3 | 3.65 | 21.35 | 75.0 | |||
27.5 | 3 | 4.01 | 23.49 | 72.5 | |||
30.0 | 3 | 4.38 | 25.62 | 70.0 | |||
35.0 | 3 | 5.11 | 29.89 | 65.0 | |||
Curing correction curves | 1 | 80/100 | 25.0 | 13 | 3.65 | 21.35 | 75.0 |
Mixed Quantities (%) | FTIR Results for Epoxy Content (%) | Β | βstan | βdiff | Deviation (FTIR—Mixed) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Epoxy Content | Part A | Part B | Part Acorr | Part Bcorr | Total | ||||
15.0 | 2.19 | 12.81 | 1.90 | 16.59 | 18.49 | 0.115 | 0.171 | 0.056 | −3.49 |
20.0 | 2.92 | 17.08 | 2.04 | 20.27 | 22.32 | 0.101 | 0.171 | 0.070 | −2.32 |
25.0 | 3.65 | 21.35 | 2.62 | 23.46 | 26.08 | 0.112 | 0.171 | 0.059 | −1.08 |
27.5 | 4.02 | 23.49 | 3.62 | 25.59 | 29.21 | 0.141 | 0.171 | 0.030 | −1.71 |
30.0 | 4.38 | 25.62 | 3.65 | 28.28 | 31.93 | 0.129 | 0.171 | 0.042 | −1.93 |
35.0 | 5.11 | 29.89 | 4.49 | 32.60 | 37.09 | 0.138 | 0.171 | 0.033 | −2.09 |
Average deviation | −2.10 |
Mixed Quantities (%) | FTIR Results for Epoxy Content (%) | β | βstan | βdiff | Deviation (FTIR—Mixed) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Epoxy Content | Part A | Part B | Part Acorr | Part Bcorr | Total | ||||
15.0 | 2.19 | 12.81 | 1.59 | 13.36 | 14.95 | 0.119 | 0.171 | 0.052 | −0.05 |
20.0 | 2.92 | 17.08 | 2.68 | 17.87 | 20.55 | 0.150 | 0.171 | 0.021 | +0.55 |
25.0 | 3.65 | 21.35 | 3.42 | 22.40 | 25.82 | 0.153 | 0.171 | 0.018 | +0.82 |
27.5 | 4.02 | 23.49 | 4.25 | 22.43 | 26.68 | 0.189 | 0.171 | −0.019 | −0.82 |
30.0 | 4.38 | 25.62 | 4.59 | 24.27 | 28.86 | 0.189 | 0.171 | −0.018 | −1.14 |
35.0 | 5.11 | 29.89 | 5.65 | 28.63 | 34.28 | 0.197 | 0.171 | −0.026 | −0.72 |
Average deviation | −0.23 |
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Ngezahayo, E.; Eskandari Torbaghan, M.; Metje, N.; Burrow, M.; Ghataora, G.S.; Desalegn, Y. Investigating the Effectiveness of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) as an Antifraud Approach for Modified Epoxy Asphalt Mixes in Developing Countries. Sustainability 2023, 15, 16332. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152316332
Ngezahayo E, Eskandari Torbaghan M, Metje N, Burrow M, Ghataora GS, Desalegn Y. Investigating the Effectiveness of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) as an Antifraud Approach for Modified Epoxy Asphalt Mixes in Developing Countries. Sustainability. 2023; 15(23):16332. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152316332
Chicago/Turabian StyleNgezahayo, Esdras, Mehran Eskandari Torbaghan, Nicole Metje, Michael Burrow, Gurmel S. Ghataora, and Yitagesu Desalegn. 2023. "Investigating the Effectiveness of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) as an Antifraud Approach for Modified Epoxy Asphalt Mixes in Developing Countries" Sustainability 15, no. 23: 16332. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152316332