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Review

Current Status of and Challenges for Phytoremediation as a Sustainable Environmental Management Plan for Abandoned Mine Areas in Korea

by
Sang-Hwan Lee
1,
Hyun Park
2,* and
Jeong-Gyu Kim
3,*
1
Technical Research Institute, Mine Reclamation Corporation, Wonju 26464, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
3
Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(3), 2761; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032761
Submission received: 9 January 2023 / Revised: 30 January 2023 / Accepted: 30 January 2023 / Published: 3 February 2023
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Abstract

:
Since conventional ecological remediation technologies are often unreliable and inefficient, the use of phytoremediation, which uses plants to restore damaged or polluted environments, has been actively developed. In particular, phytoremediation for the management of abandoned mines has gained public acceptance due to its aesthetic advantages, environmental friendliness, use of solar energy, and low remediation costs. In this article, we review the current status of the phytoremediation of abandoned mines in Korea and the challenges that are faced. The technical and policy challenges that need to be overcome for the successful application of phytoremediation in Korea are discussed, along with its potential for use in sustainable ecosystem management. To fully deploy phytoremediation technology in old mining areas, further basic and applied research are required.

1. Introduction

Mining activity worldwide has led to a large number of polluted and physically damaged sites, many of which have subsequently been successfully reclaimed, restored, and/or remediated to overcome or ameliorate their negative environmental and ecological impacts. Mining adversely impacts vegetation, soil, and microbial communities and has long-term implications for both natural vegetation and future land use. In particular, mining and related activities require the removal of the vegetation cover, which results in a loss of soil, soil microbes, and seed banks and also leads to soil compaction, soil acidification, and a reduction in the soil water-holding capacity. As a result, estimates of the cost of the ecological restoration of abandoned mines must account for the degradation of water and soil quality, the loss of biodiversity, and the risks to human health [1]. This is also true for Korea, where there were 5544 licensed mining sites in 2016, with 701 of these in operation. The closed mines may be long-term sources of environmental pollution, especially when the mining and refining facilities are left to decay, and the mine tailings and waste runoff are uncontrolled [2].
As public awareness of the adverse effects of pollution on ecosystems within mining areas has increased, so too has interest in developing guidelines and techniques to restore ecosystem health [3]. As such, the ecological restoration, reclamation, and/or remediation of mining sites have become important components of sustainable development strategies in many countries. Environmentally friendly management plans and environmental management minimize the impact of mining on the environment and preserve the biodiversity. In Korea, most abandoned mines are located in remote areas, where land prices are very low; thus, innovative, low-cost, and low-input technologies that are accepted by local communities are needed for their restoration and/or reclamation [3].
A number of physiochemical strategies have been developed for the remediation of mining sites. Physical treatment, such as dumping, covering, and solidification, is the simplest and most effective method of ecological restoration for almost all mining areas. It can lead to a rapid improvement in the soil conditions, prevent the leaching of contaminants, and promote plant growth. Some of the most common chemical treatments include leaching/acid extraction and washing to remove contaminants. However, these physicochemical remediation methods are limited by their excessive cost and the fact that the treatment itself may damage the ecosystem quality [4]. For these reasons, the revegetation of mining areas has been identified as an efficient way to reduce environmental risks by stabilizing mining soil. The greening of disturbed ecosystems not only improves their aesthetics but can also restore the site. Indeed, phytoremediation has been demonstrated to improve ecosystem quality by increasing the levels of organic matter, nutrients, and biological activity [5].
Compared to physicochemical processes, plant-based ecological restoration is cost-effective and environmentally friendly [6]. Wan et al. [7] estimated that the cost of plant remediation of soil contaminated with As, Cd, and Pb was USD 75,375 hm−2 (USD 37.7 m−3), which is significantly lower than physicochemical approaches. In addition, while physiochemical techniques irreversibly alter ecological properties, phytoremediation can improve the physical, chemical, and biological quality of contaminated soil in mining areas [8]. Phytoremediation techniques that have been employed in mining areas include plant extraction, plant stabilization, plant evaporation, and root filtration [9,10,11,12].
Phytoremediation was first introduced to Korea in the 1980s and 1990s, when it was primarily employed on an indoor or pilot scale to assess its applicability for use in the field. An exception to this was the use of forest restoration near abandoned coal mines. In this study, we examined the use of phytoremediation in Korea, with the goal of improving its efficiency in the areas surrounding abandoned mines. We also examined both the constraints and improvements needed to ensure that phytoremediation can become more universally available.
A bibliographic review of studies published between 2000 and 2022 on phytoremediation was conducted. A search of English and Korean literature was conducted using terms such as “reclamation”, “phytoremediation”, and “forest restoration” in conjunction with “abandoned mine area”. Data were retrieved via Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com.br, accessed 1 December 2022).

2. Overview of Phytoremediation

Phytoremediation is defined as the use of plant species as a means of purifying polluted soil, water, and air [13]. The term derives from the Greek word phyto (“plant”) and the Latin word remedium (“to correct or remove an evil”). Phytoremediation is a more economically feasible and efficient remediation option than other techniques, such as washing, flushing, or solidification [13,14].

2.1. Phytoremediation in Mining Areas

The removal of contaminants such as toxic trace elements (TTEs) from polluted sites involves phytoextraction, phytostabilization, and phytovolatilization (Figure 1) [15]. Phytoextraction, in which contaminants are absorbed through the roots, plays a key role in the removal of metals and metalloids from contaminated soils, water, and sediments [13,16]. The absorbed and extracted contaminants are transported from the roots to the aboveground, harvestable parts of the plant, which are then disposed of as hazardous waste or incinerated.
Plant stabilization (or plant immobilization) refers to the use of plants to reduce the mobility and/or bioavailability of contaminants, thus preventing their entry into the surrounding environment or food chain. Contaminants in the root zone are fixed within the plant rhizosphere by adsorption or precipitation. The low mobility of the contaminants trapped in the plant rhizosphere means that they cannot easily leach into groundwater or spread to agricultural land, preventing their entry into the food chain [13,17,18]. However, the introduction and initial growth of plants can be limited by the physicochemical characteristics of mine waste, including extreme pH levels, high salinity, low water retention, high pollutant concentrations, and a lack of soil organic matter and fertility. Therefore, improvements in the physicochemical and biological properties of mine waste-contaminated soil [19,20], such as organic and/or inorganic amendments [21,22,23], are often required before plants can be introduced. In this aided phytostabilization, the main purpose is not to remove contaminants but to reduce the risk that they pose by reducing their mobility and biological effectiveness [21,23]. In phytovolatilization, soluble pollutants are taken up together with water and released into the atmosphere via stomatal diffusion, which is accompanied in some cases by evaporation into the atmosphere via the leaves [24,25]. TTEs, however, are not completely removed from the atmosphere; rather, they move from one system to another. Phytovolatilization has been applied to sites contaminated with metalloids, such as Hg and Se [13,17,18,26].

2.2. Suitable Plants for Phytoremediation in Mining Areas

Plant screening is required for successful phytoremediation. In general, species native to the region are preferred for ecosystem restoration or remediation due to concerns about the potential harm caused by the invasion of alien species, including a reduction in local plant diversity (and thus biodiversity), which can disturb the ecosystem [25]. High remediation efficiency and the successful establishment of stable vegetation cover also require plants that are well adapted to the local environment and require little management (e.g., with fertilizers). Since the availability of nutrients in polluted soil is generally low [27], the use of nitrogen-fixing legumes has been widely examined [28,29,30]. Other factors that need to be considered in plant screening include the root structure, the properties of the contaminants and soil, and the climatic conditions [31]. Plant root length increases from grasses to shrubs and from shrubs to trees, with deeper roots allowing for the removal of metal complexes bound deep in the soil. However, grass is the most widely used plant in soil remediation because of its high biomass, rapid growth, high tolerance, and versatility [32]. Plants with well-developed roots reduce soil erosion, generally remain well-confined, and reduce air pollution by creating vegetation cover [33,34]. In the field, a multi-faceted approach using grasses, shrubs, legumes, perennial grasses, and other long-living trees is likely to be more effective than employing a monoculture.
Hyperaccumulators are plants that are able to accumulate relatively large amounts of pollutants, such as 100 mg cadmium kg–1; 1000 mg Cu, Pb, or As kg–1; and 10,000 mg Zn kg–1 [35,36]. The most effective species for phytostabilization are those that prevent contaminants from entering the food chain or other environmental media by accumulating them underground. Plant species that have been frequently used in phytostabilization include Agrostis spp. and Festuca spp. [23,37]. Since plant growth can actually promote metal leaching due to soil acidification and the production of dissolved organic matter, plant species that cause low soil acidification and that do not translocate metals to their leaves in high quantities are most suitable for phytostabilization [25].

3. Environmental Problems in Mining Areas in Korea

As of 2016, there were 5544 licensed mining sites in Korea, although only 701 mines were in operation (Table 1). Closed mines may be long-term sources of environmental pollution, because many of the mining and refining facilities at abandoned metal mines are left to decay, with the site and surrounding area often contaminated by mine tailings and ore waste [2].
According to MIRECO [2], 2434 of the 5544 mines (44%) in Korea require remediation, restoration, and/or restoration measures. The previous operations of around 83% of the abandoned mines in Korea (i.e., 2015 of 2434) involved the removal of forest, leading to secondary damage such as lower environmental and aesthetic quality; the dispersion of contaminated dust; and imbalanced water and carbon cycling via the loss of forest soil, pollution, and landscape damage. Due to this, combined with the fact that most mines in Korea are located in mountainous areas, forest restoration is typically the main goal of most restoration projects at abandoned mines [2].
In addition to the visual scarring of the landscape, remediation must address four types of large-volume waste: mine waste (overburden and barren rocks), tips and tailings, dump heap leachates, and mine water [38]. Tips and tailings contain toxic waste products from both mining and ore processing operations, which can be spread in wind-blown dust, while the products of mineral weathering can leach into nearby watercourses. These forms of pollution have serious detrimental effects on crops and public health; thus, the reclamation of these sites after mining operations have ended will restore their environmental quality. In fact, in most countries, reclamation schemes are a requirement for the granting of mining licenses and are included in the planning stages for a prospective mine.
Coal mine waste consisting of low-grade coal with no economic value and waste rock is generally disposed of in ditches and valleys adjacent to the mining area. Due to the physical and chemical characteristics of coal waste, the resulting soil and water pollution adversely impacts the local environment via the release of toxic pollutants (e.g., hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and other toxic gases and aerosols) into the air [39,40]. For nearby communities, the dispersal of sulfide tailings in the wind, water erosion, and seepage can cause environmental and health problems, while the oxidation of sulfide minerals can increase the mobility of TTEs via the production of acids [41,42].
Of the technologies used to restore sites containing mine waste, plant-based stabilization is one of the most viable. Successful revegetation can be permanent, visually appealing, and relatively inexpensive. Vegetation cover reduces water pollution by preventing the windborne spread of particulates and provides the surface stability needed to prevent the leaching and runoffs effects of rainfall. However, the environmental characteristics of mining sites, including their high levels of TTEs, macronutrient deficiencies, and poor substrate structure, are generally unfavorable for plants, thus limiting revegetation efforts. Consequently, metal waste sites often remain largely devoid of natural vegetation many years after their abandonment. Though efforts to restore mining sites have been successful in some cases, their broad application has been limited by the significant variation in the physical, chemical, and biological properties of different types of mine waste [43].
As a result, there is growing interest in revegetation and/or phytoremediation as an effective method for the ecological restoration of discarded waste heaps and the overall improvement of the environment [44]. According to Bradshaw [45], in severely degraded habitats, including mine waste sites, natural succession processes are very slow, with 50–100 years often needed for suitable vegetation cover to develop. As such, the use of non-native vegetation has been actively explored, because it results in much faster coverage [46,47].

4. Status of Phytoremediation in Korea

To date, the phytoremediation of mining areas in Korea has primarily involved the restoration, reclamation, and/or remediation of coal mines until the mid-1990s and metalliferous mines in the early 2000s. In particular, the 455 cases of forest restoration at abandoned mines account for about 59% of all mining reclamation projects, with about 98% of the projects implemented since 1994 (i.e., 350 out of 357 projects) involving forest restoration and phytoremediation [17].

4.1. Coal Mine Areas

The introduction of natural vegetation to abandoned coal mines does not necessarily require any special measures, but it can take decades to effectively minimize environmental contamination [48]. Due to high temperatures, spontaneous combustion may occur, and the high clay content, poor substrate porosity and aeration, waterlogging, and heteromorphous soil structure make it difficult for vegetation cover to thrive [49,50,51,52]. Thus, post-mining rehabilitation may include covering the disturbed land and discarding the waste dumps to support vegetation and control the elution of wastewater and pollutants that occurs via the reaction of the mine waste with oxygen and water.
Phytoremediation in the form of forest restoration has also been carried out for coal mines by planting vegetation on waste piles and over the vegetation damaged by mining operations. In Korea, the primary method used for greening waste rock heaps involves covering the waste rock with 20–60 cm of general soil collected from cut slopes, which is then sown with seed or planted.
As shown in Table 2, the main species used for forest restoration are Robinia pseudo-acacia (false acacia), Lespedeza bicolor (bush clover), Pinus rigida (pitch pine), Alnus japonica (alder), Pinus koraiensis (nut pine), and Amorpha fruticose (false indigo) [53,54]. It should be noted that a forest restoration project that focuses on specific trees without considering the surrounding environment and ecology is not considered true ecological restoration [55]. The remediation site may also require supplementary measures due to the loss of cover soil or the death of planted trees, while the establishment of a forest that matches that of the surrounding area is often difficult [56].
According to Lim et al. [57], a newly abandoned coal mine site is ecologically similar to the first succession stage without vegetation, thus restoration plans should seek to incorporate this stage. When selecting plants for this purpose, Dobson et al. [58] suggested the use of those that can restore ecosystem functions and become part of the ecosystem, including species that promote a high level of biodiversity in the future and become functioning components of the overall restored ecosystem.
In general, the poor physicochemical properties of mine waste, including high temperatures, a lack of moisture, and low pH, make it difficult for vegetation to become established. The waste rock is generally coarse and has a high heavy metal content. In addition, surface temperatures may exceed 60 °C under direct sunlight during the summer, physiologically stressing the vegetation. To overcome these problems, the use of microorganisms and introduction of vegetation-based materials have been proposed.
Restoration strategies also often include soil amelioration in which organic matter is added to the soil during the early stages of reclamation in order to restore the pristine conditions and establish a self-sustaining ecosystem. For example, organic fertilizer is an excellent soil ameliorator in this respect, because it contains high levels of available phosphorus and organic matter [57,59]. Yang et al. [60] also reported that lime cake treatment increased the pH of coal waste from 3.5 to 6.0 and that of runoff and leachates from 4.3 to 6.7. This increased the surface cover of seeded species because the neutralization of the acidic conditions allowed the germination of grass species, such as Dactylis glomerata L. In addition, Jun et al. [61] reported that mycorrhizae play an important role in providing nutrients and water after the seeding of plants. When tested at an abandoned coal mine, mycorrhizae prevented plant death caused by a lack of nutrients and water, supported plant growth and development during the seedling stage, and prevented soil erosion. Kim et al. [62] also analyzed the biomass and population density of Lespedeza cyrtobotrya Miq. according to vegetation cover and the treatment of coal waste rock heaps. They found that coverage of sufficient depth was the most important factor at sites where vegetation growth was restricted. Soil conditioning and erosion inhibition effectively supported the growth of Lespedeza cyrtobotrya Miq. Jeong et al. [56] examined the effects of wood chip mulching, straw mats, and peat moss on the survival of Betula schmidtii, Betula platyphylla var. japonica, Amorpha fruticosa, and Quercus mongolica. From an economic perspective, wood chips were found to be the most efficient mulching material.
Vegetation cover on the surface of tailings can restore the aesthetic appearance of an abandoned mine site, thus this is the most common and direct method of tailing reclamation. This method can also prevent the release of acidic mine drainage and the transport of metals/metalloids. In mine restoration, three types of cover can be employed: chemical, physical, and vegetation [63]. Single or multilayered physical cover, such as coarse rock, soil, and other materials with low permeability, reduces water infiltration, gas diffusion, and capillary action [64], while the chemical cover interacts with the fine tailings to form a hardpan and/or converts the toxic components so that they become more resistant to weathering and leaching, thus minimizing environmental problems such as acidic mine drainage and the transport of toxic metals/metalloids. Vegetation cover provides a protective barrier against both wind and water erosion and reduces downward drainage and metal/metalloid transport while also creating an aesthetically pleasing landscape.

4.2. Metal Mine Areas

Tailings from metal mines generally consist of sand, fine-grained solid materials, water, and significant quantities of TTEs [19]. As by-products of mineral processing, these tailings are generally deposited in open-air tailing ponds without any treatment. The significant risks to human health and the environment posed by mine tailings have been well documented [65,66]. Since they are rather loosely structured, flow easily, and collapse when stacked, tailing dams frequently fail catastrophically, with consequent property losses and death [67].
The phytoremediation of metalliferous mines can be broadly classified into plant screening, the improvement in remedial efficiency with the addition of rhizobacteria or mycorrhizae, and the promotion of phytostabilization using amendments. Plant screening has yet to identify hyperaccumulator species native to Korea that could be used for phytoextraction. Research on phytoremediation in metalliferous mines in Korea has mostly focused on single contaminants, with studies conducted on a laboratory scale or focusing on identifying plants native to heavy-metal-contaminated areas.
Ju [68] reported that the aboveground tissues of Pteris multifida are capable of accumulating >1000 mg As kg–1, meaning that it can be used in phytoremediation. In a follow-up study, Kwon et al. [69] reported that treatment with citric acid can increase the bioavailability and absorption of As by the aboveground parts of Pteris multifida, thus increasing its phytoextraction efficiency.
Members of the family Asteraceae have been widely investigated for potential use in the phytoremediation of mining sites in Korea. It has been reported that Asteraceae species have excellent growth and high environmental adaptability, which is advantageous for the remediation of TTE-contaminated sites. In particular, Artemisia princeps is able to accumulate high levels of heavy metals such as Cd (26.35 mg kg−1) and Zn (2853 mg kg−1) and thus represents a valuable species for phytoremediation [70,71,72]. In addition, Aster koraiensis, Helianthus annuus, and Cosmos bipinnatus tend to accumulate high levels of Cd and Cu [71,73,74], while Scariola orientalis and Gundelia tournefortii accumulate heavy metals such as Cd, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, and Zn [75,76]. Kwon et al. [77] has also reported that there are many Asteraceae species with the ability to accumulate high concentrations of various heavy metals while offering excellent ornamental value, making them valuable for flora purification techniques. Ok et al. [78] evaluated the suitability of four indigenous plants for phytoremediation in Korea (Figure 2). They reported that Artemisia princeps was of sufficient value as a phytoremediator and that its efficiency was higher in amended soil (Figure 3). According to Ju et al. [79], Liriope platyphylla can be used as a heavy-metal-resistant plant (i.e., a metallophyte), with potential use as a phytoremediator with its high Cd accumulation.
The search for plants suitable for the phytoremediation of metal mines has focused on herbaceous plants, with fewer studies evaluating the efficiency of woody species. Chang et al. [80] reported that poplar (Populus davidiana) could be used for the revegetation of large-scale mine tailings. Oh et al. [81] also evaluated the Cd-absorption capacity and tolerance of Betula schmidtii in the presence of a nutrient solution and reported that the ratio of Cd absorbed into the body of B. schmidtii was 1.26, thus demonstrating its suitability for phytoextraction. Chang et al. [80] reported advantages of poplar (Populus davidiana) for the revegetation and natural remediation of mine tailing dumps, including its tolerance of low soil pH (3–4), arsenic, and heavy metals, and its high accumulation ability and biomass.
Given that few indigenous plants have been classified as hyperaccumulators and thus used for phytoextraction, phytostabilization using microorganisms and/or amendments may be the preferred approach for the phytoremediation of metalliferous mines. Rajkumar et al. [82] suggested that plant-associated microbes have the ability to reduce the phytotoxicity of toxic elements by immobilizing them in roots or via binding, accumulation, or dilution within the host plant. Babu et al. [83] assessed the potential of endophytic bacteria to enhance the growth and metal accumulation of the hyperaccumulator Alnus firma. A bacterial strain isolated from roots of Pinus sylvestris identified as Bacillus thuringiensis GDB-1 demonstrated the ability to remove heavy metals from mine tailings. GDB-1 also exhibited plant-growth-promoting traits, siderophore production, and P solubilization. The authors reported that inoculating A. firma with B. thuringiensis GDB-1 improved its effectiveness for the phytoremediation of soil containing mine tailings contaminated with heavy metals. Shagol et al. [84] also reported the possible use of As-tolerant plant-growth-promoting bacteria such as Brevibacterium, Pseudomonas, Microbacterium, Rhodococcus, Rahnella, and Paenibacillus for increasing the efficiency of phytoremediation in As-polluted soils.
Lee et al. [85] suggested that agricultural by-products, including lime, phosphate, and organic matter, and industrial by-products, such as zeolite, steelmaking slag, and red mud, could be used to stabilize TTEs in soil. In another study [86], they evaluated the effect of four different amendment strategies (bone mill, bottom ash, furnace slag, and red mud) as immobilizing agents for the phytostabilization of Pb and Zn mine tailings by Miscanthus sinensis and Pteridium aquilinumin. Fe-rich soil amendment significantly reduced the amount of soluble and extractable heavy metals in the tailings. The same study recommended the use of M. sinensis for the phytostabilization of Pb and Zn mine tailings, and reported that Fe-rich soil amendment was effective in immobilizing TTEs. Lee et al. [86] reported that the effect of so-called aided phytostabilization, in which the concentration of CaCl2-extractable heavy metals in tailing were significantly reduced by the planting of M. sinensis and P. aquilinumin and treatment of amendments, was confirmed. Here, CaCl2 extractable heavy metals are used as indicators of heavy metal mobility and bioavailability (Table 3).

5. Barriers to Phytoremediation in Korea

Phytoremediation is an attractive option for the remediation of contaminated soil in mining areas, but its use in Korea has been restricted by a number of technical and regulatory issues that have not yet been overcome. In particular, the further development of phytoremediation requires technological improvements, such as the identification of a wider range of plant species with purifying capabilities, the optimization of phytoremediation processes (such as plant selection and agricultural practices), understanding how plants absorb, transport, and metabolize pollutants, and a reduction in the treatment time required for contaminated biomasses [86]. Appropriate methods for the evaluation of the effectiveness of phytoremediation are also lacking. Efficient phytoremediation can improve ecosystem functions by reducing the labile pool of TTEs, but the dynamics and restoration of ecosystem processes have received little systematic research attention. The restoration of abandoned mine ecosystems should be evaluated with assays that monitor key ecosystem functions and contaminant concentrations using conventional analytical testing and extraction procedures [87]. Chemical analysis is not sufficient, because it does not consider the effects of chemicals on organisms or the interactions among contaminants, ecosystem matrices, and the biota [87,88].
In addition to technical barriers, government regulations also influence the overall success of phytoremediation. Since the remediation industry is compliance-driven, assessments of the effectiveness of phytoremediation technologies must consider regulatory compliance [89]. Regulations and management plans specifically tailored to phytoremediation technology should be established. The environmental criteria employed to assess abandoned mine areas in Korea are typically based on the total concentration of pollutants extracted via aqua regia. Since phytostabilization does not consider the total concentration of pollutants, it often fails to meet these environmental standards.

6. Conclusions

Although many phytoremediation technologies are still in their research and development phase, the potential utility of several of these has been demonstrated in Korea. Phytoremediation has many potential advantages over traditional remediation technologies, including greater public acceptance and a considerably lower cost. In our review of the use of phytoremediation in abandoned mine areas in Korea, the challenges related to coal mines were distinguished from those associated with metalliferous mines. The phytoremediation of coal mines has primarily been carried out using forest restoration, but true ecological restoration has often not been possible, because only a restricted range of plant species have been used. Plant species suitable for phytoextraction at metal mine sites have also yet to be clearly identified and verified. Thus, laboratory- and pilot-scale studies related to aided phytostabilization using microorganisms and/or soil amendment are ongoing.
For phytoremediation to develop in Korea, further research aimed at understanding the interactions among key rhizosphere factors, including pollutants, the soil, microbes, and plant roots, is needed, while the identification of suitable native plants and an analysis of their impact are also required. Improving the interaction between plants and beneficial microorganisms could also increase the efficiency of phytoremediation in mine areas in Korea.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.-H.L., H.P. and J.-G.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.-H.L.; and writing—review and editing, S.-H.L., H.P. and J.-G.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Korea University, grant number 2022.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Phytoremediation in a mining area.
Figure 1. Phytoremediation in a mining area.
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Figure 2. Examples of forest restoration at a coal mine. (a) Birch (Betula platyphyphylla) planted on a gentle slope, and (b) birch and pine (Pinus koraiensis) planted on stone masonry work.
Figure 2. Examples of forest restoration at a coal mine. (a) Birch (Betula platyphyphylla) planted on a gentle slope, and (b) birch and pine (Pinus koraiensis) planted on stone masonry work.
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Figure 3. Examples of a pilot study for phytostabilization. (a) Zn-contaminated soil without vegetation. (b) Phytostabilization with Artemisia princeps using organic amendment.
Figure 3. Examples of a pilot study for phytostabilization. (a) Zn-contaminated soil without vegetation. (b) Phytostabilization with Artemisia princeps using organic amendment.
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Table
Table 1. Number of active and abandoned mines by type in Korea [2].
Table 1. Number of active and abandoned mines by type in Korea [2].
Coal MetalliferousNon-MetalliferousTotal
Active678617701
Abandoned394210623434843
Total400 (269)2184 (1217)2960 (948)5544 (2434) 1
1 Numbers in parentheses indicate mines requiring action.
Table
Table 2. Summary of plant species used in forest restoration in Korea [54].
Table 2. Summary of plant species used in forest restoration in Korea [54].
Plant SpeciesNo. of Sites
Robinia pseudo-acacia (False acasia)82
Lespedeza bicolor (Bush clover)43
Pinus rigida (Rigida pine)36
Alnus japonica (Alder)31
Pinus koraiensis (Nut pine)29
Amorpha fruticosa (False indigo)17
Betula platyphyphylla var. japonica (Birch)8
Larix leptolepis (Larch)8
Thuja orientalis (Thuja)3
Populus tomentiglandulosa (Poplar)3
Pinus thunbergii (Japanese black pine)1
Pinus densiflora (Red pine)1
Table
Table 3. CaCl2-extractable heavy metal concentrations (mgkg−1) of the tailings with different amendments addition and plants [86].
Table 3. CaCl2-extractable heavy metal concentrations (mgkg−1) of the tailings with different amendments addition and plants [86].
Cd CuPbZn
M. sinensis
NPC0.96 a0.52 b9.55 a16.23 a
PC0.16 c0.21 c2.89 c4.06 b
BM0.53 b1.13 a5.93 b18.02 a
FS0.08 d0.23 c4.62 b2.85 b
BA0.10 d0.20 c6.00 b2.97 b
RM0.19 c0.22 c2.76 c2.20 b
P. aquilinum
NPC0.96 a0.52 b9.55 a16.23 a
PC0.19 c0.22 c2.89 c4.93 bc
BM0.49 b1.19 a5.93 b16.11 a
FS0.11 d0.33 c4.62 b3.95 cd
BA0.25 c0.37 bc6.00 b6.89 bc
RM0.20 c0.23 c2.76 c2.07 d
Means (n ¼ 3) followed by same letter within a row are not significantly different (p > 0.05). NPC, Non planted control; PC, Planted control, BM, Bone meal; FS, Furnace slag; BA, Bottom ash; RM, Red mud.
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Lee, S.-H.; Park, H.; Kim, J.-G. Current Status of and Challenges for Phytoremediation as a Sustainable Environmental Management Plan for Abandoned Mine Areas in Korea. Sustainability 2023, 15, 2761. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032761

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Lee S-H, Park H, Kim J-G. Current Status of and Challenges for Phytoremediation as a Sustainable Environmental Management Plan for Abandoned Mine Areas in Korea. Sustainability. 2023; 15(3):2761. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032761

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Lee, Sang-Hwan, Hyun Park, and Jeong-Gyu Kim. 2023. "Current Status of and Challenges for Phytoremediation as a Sustainable Environmental Management Plan for Abandoned Mine Areas in Korea" Sustainability 15, no. 3: 2761. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032761

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