Valorization of Lyophilized Olive Mill Wastewater: Chemical and Biochemical Approaches
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Solvent Extraction
2.2.2. Supercritical CO2 Extraction
2.2.3. Fatty Acid Composition Analyses
2.2.4. Analyses of Triglycerides (TAGs)
2.2.5. Total Phenolic Contents
2.2.6. Total Flavonoids Contents
2.2.7. Antioxidant Activity
DPPH Radical-Scavenging Method
ABTS Radical-Scavenging Assay
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Composition of SC-CO2 Extracts: Oil Composition Analyses
3.1.1. Fatty Acids
3.1.2. Triglycerides (TAGs)
3.2. Polar Fraction: Analysis of Lyophilized OMW Residue after the SFE
3.2.1. Total Phenolic Content
3.2.2. Total Flavonoids
3.2.3. Free Radical-Scavenging Ability by the Use of a Stable DPPH Radical
3.2.4. ABTS Free Radical-Scavenging Activity
3.3. Composition of the Oil Extracted by the Conventional Solvent Extraction
3.3.1. Evaluation of the Extracted Oil Yield
3.3.2. Analysis of Hexane Extracts
Fatty Acids
Triglycerides
3.3.3. Polar Fraction: Analyses of Ethanol and Dichloromethane Extracts
Total Phenolic Content
Total Flavonoids
Free Radical-Scavenging Ability by the Use of a Stable DPPH Radical
ABTS Free Radical-Scavenging Activity
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters | Temperature | Pressure | SC-CO2 Flow Rate |
---|---|---|---|
Supercritical CO2 extraction | [40–60 °C] | [25–35 MPa] | 3.39–5.99 g/min |
Sousse | Sfax | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S1 | S2 | S3 | S4 | S5 | S6 | F1 | F2 | F3 | F4 | F5 | F6 | t-Test | Significance (0.05) | |
25/40 | 30/40 | 35/40 | 25/60 | 30/60 | 35/60 | 25/40 | 30/40 | 35/40 | 25/60 | 30/60 | 35/60 | |||
C16:0 | 18.60 | 18.75 | 19.11 | 19.56 | 19.73 | 19.79 | 17.10 | 17.21 | 17.35 | 18.32 | 18.43 | 18.53 | 4.168 | 1.92 × 10−3 * |
C16:1 | 2.35 | 2.37 | 2.39 | 2.45 | 2.48 | 2.51 | 2.60 | 2.63 | 2.65 | 2.71 | 2.73 | 2.77 | −6.857 | 4.4 × 10−5 * |
C17:0 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.08 | --- | Ns |
C17:1 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 2.236 | 0.049 * |
C18:0 | 2.67 | 2.67 | 2.68 | 2.69 | 2.70 | 2.72 | 2.23 | 2.24 | 2.25 | 2.27 | 2.26 | 2.26 | 43.911 | 9.01 × 10−13 * |
C18:1 | 61.08 | 61.01 | 60.97 | 60.54 | 60.50 | 60.45 | 59.10 | 59.02 | 58.95 | 58.84 | 58.8 | 58.77 | 14.186 | 5.96 × 10−8 * |
C18:2 | 13.93 | 13.87 | 13.62 | 13.44 | 13.30 | 13.26 | 17.43 | 17.36 | 17.30 | 16.36 | 16.26 | 16.19 | −11.924 | 3.10 × 10−7 * |
C18:3 | 0.54 | 0.52 | 0.51 | 0.48 | 0.46 | 0.45 | 0.82 | 0.80 | 0.78 | 0.75 | 0.77 | 0.76 | −15.915 | 1.97 × 10−8 * |
C20:0 | 0.45 | 0.43 | 0.42 | 0.43 | 0.43 | 0.42 | 0.33 | 0.35 | 0.33 | 0.35 | 0.35 | 0.32 | 13.036 | 1.33 × 10−7 * |
C20:1 | 0.24 | 0.24 | 0.25 | 0.26 | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.24 | 0.24 | 0.24 | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.877 | 0.40 ns |
FA | 21.34 | 21.49 | 21.86 | 22.32 | 22.50 | 22.58 | 19.41 | 19.53 | 19.68 | 20.67 | 20.77 | 20.87 | 5.276 | 3.6 × 10−4 * |
MUFA | 64.19 | 64.12 | 64.10 | 63.76 | 63.74 | 63.71 | 62.34 | 62.31 | 62.24 | 62.22 | 62.20 | 62.18 | 17.639 | 6.20 × 10−9 * |
PUFA | 14.47 | 14.39 | 14.13 | 13.92 | 13.76 | 13.71 | 18.25 | 18.16 | 18.08 | 17.11 | 17.03 | 16.95 | −12.319 | 2.2813 × 10−7 * |
UFA | 78.66 | 78.51 | 78.23 | 77.68 | 77.50 | 77.42 | 80.59 | 80.47 | 80.32 | 79.33 | 79.23 | 79.13 | −5.209 | 3.6 × 10−4 * |
Sousse | Sfax | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S1 | S2 | S3 | S4 | S5 | S6 | F1 | F2 | F3 | F4 | F5 | F6 | t-Test | Significance (0.05) | |
25/40 | 30/40 | 35/40 | 25/60 | 30/60 | 35/60 | 25/40 | 30/40 | 35/40 | 25/60 | 30/60 | 35/60 | |||
ECN42 | 3.62 | 3.50 | 3.41 | 3.13 | 3.07 | 2.95 | 1.40 | 1.33 | 1.25 | 1.13 | 1.08 | 1 | 10 | 1.36 × 10−8 * |
ECN44 | 8.92 | 8.90 | 8.92 | 8.92 | 8.91 | 8.92 | 10.77 | 10.75 | 10.77 | 10.77 | 10.76 | 10.77 | 10 | 3.62 × 10−22 * |
ECN46 | 31.23 | 31.33 | 31.39 | 31.69 | 31.8 | 31.91 | 34.71 | 34.83 | 34.87 | 35.09 | 35.22 | 35.28 | 10 | 4.72 × 10−10 * |
ECN48 | 51.10 | 51.24 | 51.31 | 51.55 | 51.62 | 51.71 | 48.48 | 48.55 | 48.61 | 48.74 | 48.82 | 48.90 | 10 | 5.20 × 10−10 * |
ECN50 | 5.13 | 5.03 | 4.97 | 4.71 | 4.60 | 4.51 | 4.64 | 4.54 | 4.50 | 4.27 | 4.12 | 4.05 | 10 | 7.94 × 10−3 * |
Origin of OMWs | Operating Condition [P (MPa)/T (°C)] | Total Phenolic Content mg GAE/g | Content Flavonoïdes mg EQ/g | DPPH IC50 μg/mL. | ABTS IC50 μg/mL. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sousse | S1 (25/40) | 181.70 ± 1.60 | 104.00 ± 0.90 | 55.90 ± 0.10 | 29.60 ± 1.00 |
S2 (30/40) | 188.20 ± 2.70 | 108.40 ± 1.40 | 53.40 ± 0.10 | 25.60 ± 0.00 | |
S3 (35/40) | 201.50 ± 0.90 | 112.90 ± 0.80 | 52.10 ± 0.10 | 22.10 ± 0.30 | |
S4 (25/60) | 211.70 ± 1.00 | 112.50 ± 1.10 | 50.50 ± 0.30 | 18.20 ± 0.10 | |
S5 (30/60) | 216.10 ± 1.90 | 121.50 ± 1.60 | 50.10 ± 0.00 | 16.90 ± 0.10 | |
S6 (35/60) | 196.00 ± 0.90 | 103.20 ± 1.00 | 52.70 ± 0.20 | 23.30 ± 0.40 | |
Sfax | F1 (25/40) | 79.10 ± 1.00 | 25.60 ± 0.30 | 287.50 ± 2.70 | 116.20 ± 0.10 |
F2 (30/40) | 87.30 ± 2.70 | 27.00 ± 0.10 | 243.30 ± 0.20 | 82.20 ± 0.40 | |
F3 (35/40) | 85.80 ± 1.70 | 33.70 ± 0.90 | 229.40 ± 0.00 | 75.60 ± 0.50 | |
F4 (25/60) | 94.80 ± 1.50 | 38.10 ± 1.50 | 214.20 ± 0.10 | 60.40 ± 0.20 | |
F5 (30/60) | 104.20 ± 0.50 | 43.90 ± 0.50 | 207.10 ± 3.10 | 51.40 ± 0.30 | |
F6 (35/60) | 85.90 ± 2.00 | 21.00 ± 1.00 | 266.90 ± 0.20 | 100.90 ± 0.00 | |
t-test | 16.868 | 17.663 | −14.843 | −5.777 | |
Significance (0.05) | 1.13 × 10−8 * | 7.20 × 10−9 * | 3.86 × 10−8 * | 1.79 × 10−4 * |
FA (%) | Sousse | Sfax |
---|---|---|
C16:0 | 18.64 | 14.37 |
C16:1 | 2.32 | 2.42 |
C17:0 | 0.03 | 0.22 |
C17:1 | 0.13 | 0.09 |
C18:0 | 2.76 | 2.44 |
C18:1 | 61.62 | 61.20 |
C18:2 | 13.36 | 17.75 |
C18:3 | 0.40 | 0.46 |
C20:0 | 0.53 | 0.83 |
C20:1 | 0.21 | 0.22 |
SFA | 21.43 | 17.03 |
MUFA | 64.81 | 64.76 |
PUFA | 13.76 | 18.21 |
UFA | 78.57 | 82.97 |
Sousse | Sfax | |
---|---|---|
ECN42 | 3.73 | 1.61 |
ECN44 | 8.85 | 10.64 |
ECN46 | 30.04 | 34.13 |
ECN48 | 53.14 | 49.72 |
ECN50 | 4.24 | 3.90 |
Extract | Origin of OMW | Total Phenolic Content mg GAE/g | Flavonoids Content mg EQ/g | DPPH CI50 μg/mL. | ABTS CI50 μg/mL. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ethanol | Sousse | 170.60 ± 0.90 | 160.30 ± 1.70 | 31.10 ± 0.10 | 14.50 ± 0.10 |
Sfax | 67.60 ± 0.70 | 52.20 ± 0.90 | 60.80 ± 0.30 | 55.90 ± 0.80 | |
dichloromethane | Sousse | 124.20 ± 0.50 | 113.50 ± 2.40 | 98.70 ± 0.30 | 21.60 ± 0.30 |
Sfax | 61.60 ± 0.20 | 48.50 ± 1.10 | 213.00 ± 0.00 | 59.20 ± 0.70 | |
t-test | 3.539 | 3.687 | 0.748 | 101.81 | |
Significance (0.05) | 0.071 (ns) | 0.066 (ns) | 0.478 (ns) | 0.01 * |
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Dali, I.; Abdelwahab, A.T.; Aydi, A.; Fares, N.; Eladeb, A.; Hamzaoui, M.; Abderrabba, M.; Abdelfattah, M.A.; Guetat, A. Valorization of Lyophilized Olive Mill Wastewater: Chemical and Biochemical Approaches. Sustainability 2023, 15, 3360. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043360
Dali I, Abdelwahab AT, Aydi A, Fares N, Eladeb A, Hamzaoui M, Abderrabba M, Abdelfattah MA, Guetat A. Valorization of Lyophilized Olive Mill Wastewater: Chemical and Biochemical Approaches. Sustainability. 2023; 15(4):3360. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043360
Chicago/Turabian StyleDali, Imen, Abdelrahman T. Abdelwahab, Abdelkarim Aydi, Nouha Fares, Aboulbaba Eladeb, Mondher Hamzaoui, Manef Abderrabba, Marwa A. Abdelfattah, and Arbi Guetat. 2023. "Valorization of Lyophilized Olive Mill Wastewater: Chemical and Biochemical Approaches" Sustainability 15, no. 4: 3360. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043360