Investigation of the Nutrient Composition of Fluted Pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) under Herbicide Treatment

Abstract

During the 2013 and 2014 harvest seasons, field and laboratory experiments were conducted in Nigeria’s inferred agroecological zone. The nutritive value of fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) leaves was evaluated by measuring the levels of carbohydrate, protein, fat, ash, dietary fiber, and moisture content in Telfairia occidentalis using the standard analytical methods. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) and repeated four times. Three separate applications of paraquat herbicide (non-selective) at rates of 100, 150, and 200 L ha⁻¹ were applied to the treated plots. Comparative studies of the nutritive value of T. occidentalis were observed in the treatment and control plots. The effects of herbicides showed that the proximate composition of the T. occidentalis leaves of the treated plot was 70% carbohydrate, 29% protein, 1.8% fat, 1.7% dietary fiber, 7.9% ash, and 8.7% moisture. In contrast, the values of the control plots were 6.5% carbohydrate, 1.9% protein, 1.5% fat, 1.2% dietary fiber, 7.0% ash, and 7.9% moisture. The results show that paraquat herbicide spray increased moisture, protein, fat, carbohydrate, ash, and vegetable yields in the treated plot and that T. occidentalis leaves are rich in lipids, fiber, and protein. As a result, the control plot’s fiber, carbohydrate, protein, ash, and moisture content decreased drastically without using paraquat. These results demonstrate that herbicides can affect the nutritional yield of T. occidentalis by eliminating weeds alongside the main crops (T. occidentalis) in the agroecological zone of south-eastern Nigeria. Therefore, if consumed in sufficient quantities, the studied leafy vegetables will significantly contribute to the nutritional needs of human health and the Nigerian population’s food security.

1. Introduction

The fluted pumpkin (T. occidentalis), also referred to as “Ugwu” by the Igbo people of eastern Nigeria, is a creeping leafy vegetable with huge lobed leaves and long twisting tendrils [1,2]. The vegetable is commercially lucrative and grown throughout West Africa’s lowland humid tropics (Sierra Leone, Ghana, and Nigeria being the leading producers) [3]. T. occidentalis prefers a shaded area with loose, friable soil.

Nitrogen is necessary for healthy vegetation and is best provided as manure [4]. Fluted pumpkins are harvested 120–150 days after planting [5]. T. occidentalis seeds and leaves are consumed because they are healthy sources of lipids, vitamins, fiber, and minerals such as iron, potassium, phosphorus, and mineral salt [6,7].

Additionally, T. occidentalis bioaccumulates a few secondary metabolites, including phytate, oxalate, nitrate, and cyanogenic glycoside, which, in high concentrations, can be toxic to humans and animals [8,9]. For instance, the chelators oxalate and phytate decrease the bioavailability of various mineral elements. Kidney stones are caused by oxalate in combination with calcium [10,11,12].

It has been found that cyanide, produced by cyanogenic glycosides in plants, inhibits the electron transport chain ATP synthesis [10,13], whereas nitrate is a cause of methemoglobinemia and cancer [14,15]. The leaf positioning on the mother plant determines the number of phytotoxins and nutrients in T. occidentalis [16].

One of the underutilized crops in the Cucurbitaceae family includes the genus Cucurbit (pumpkin). Neglect in Nigeria is currently endangering its existence. In Nigeria, pumpkin is mainly grown for subsistence and has little economic value. The historical use of pumpkin, a vine crop, as a cover crop and weed suppressant is significant [17].

Nigeria’s traditional vegetable crop is primarily grown for its leaves, fruits, and seeds. The leaves, fruits, and seeds are consumed by boiling, roasting, or baking [18]. The fruits, flowers, seeds, and leaves all have nutritional benefits. In some industrialized nations, various plant parts have been employed as medicines. The leaves can be applied topically to treat burns and act as an analgesic and hematinic. The pulp has historically been used to treat stomach ailments, dyspepsia, and intestinal irritation [19].

Vitamin A, which the body requires for healthy vision, expected growth, and disease prevention, is abundant in pumpkin fruit. Additionally, it is plentiful in lycopene, dietary fiber, vitamin C, and vitamin E [20,21]. According to numerous nutritional studies [22,23,24], traditional African vegetables represent a significant source of minerals and vitamins for the rural population. Farmers have grown and harvested these veggies for many years as an additional food source. The genetic foundation of the most significant vegetables, including pumpkin, have been evolved through farmer-based breeding techniques and natural selection.

International research groups and national agricultural research programs have conducted formal research on vegetable production techniques to increase output in recent decades [25]. African leafy greens are becoming more widely acknowledged as potential sources of vitamins and bioactive substances for African populations’ diets. Leafy vegetables with antioxidants can contribute significant amounts of zinc, calcium, beta carotene, and iron to daily meals, according to statistics on the more widely consumed kinds [26]. The gap between the global food supply and the expanding world population keeps widening. The question of how to bridge this gap has grown critical and needs immediate attention. So, it is hardly surprising that interest in nutrient-dense foods is increasing. However, the objectives are yet to be achieved because there is meagre attention on this issue. For the benefit of humans and animals, many plants have a very high nutritional value but still need to be fully utilized [27]. The nutritional composition of fluted pumpkin (T. occidentalis) has been the subject of much investigation. Still, little is known about the Nigerian T. occidentalis species, proximate composition, and its mineral content.

Recent studies have examined the optimum paraquat herbicide dosage for leaf yields. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are limited studies on the variations of the nutritional composition of T. occidentalis within Delta State, particularly in the Oleh municipality. This work’s main objectives are: (1) To investigate the nutritional composition of T. occidentalis consumed in the Oleh municipality, Delta State, Nigeria. (2) To provide information on possible variations in its nutritional composition. (3) To study the effects of non-selective herbicides on T. occidentalis. This was performed by determining the carbohydrate, protein, fat, ash, fiber, and moisture content levels in fluted pumpkins using the standard AOAC method using an ultraviolet spectrophotometer. This will ascertain the nutritional value of the crop species and hopefully spark interest in its use outside of the traditional localities. This study would also play an essential role in promoting the consumption of fluted pumpkins, enhancing the sustainable production of T. occidentalis, addressing nutrition-related problems in Nigeria, and considering the crop’s ability to grow and develop well, even with minimal management. It will also aid in addressing the present issues of global food security.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

In the 2013–2014 growing season, fluted pumpkin seeds (T. occidentalis) were planted at the Delta State University, Faculty of Engineering, Oleh campus, Delta State, Nigeria, research farm, located at latitude 5.45° N, longitude 6.20° E, and elevation 52 ft. The soil is sandy loam. The field experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) and replicated four times. The sandy location has eight (16 × 9 m²) square plots spaced one meter apart.

Each subplot had dimensions of 16 m by 9 m, with a 1 m inter plot interval and a 1 m circumference around the experiment. After ploughing, the seeds were sown on 25 June 2014. Manual weeding was carried out three weeks after planting, then 8, 17, and 25 weeks later. For ease of treatment identification, the plots were appropriately labelled after random treatment allocation. Figure 1 below displays a map of the study region.

2.1.1. Temperature

The research area’s average maximum daily temperature throughout the year is 28.64 °C. February, March, and April are the dry season months with the highest mean daily maximum temperatures. March had a temperature reading of 36 °C, while February had a reading of 35.1 °C over ten years (1985–1994). This same spatial pattern may be seen for the mean daily minimum temperature.

2.1.2. Rainfall

It is always possible to forecast the monthly rainfall, which increases toward July and August before declining in the dry season months of November and February. Between July and September, the most rain falls. Although the exact period of occurrence varies, the Delta State sees the July/August break, sometimes known as the “little dry season” [29].

2.2. Sample Collection and Sample Treatment

Four weeks after planting, the treated plots received three separate applications of paraeForce herbicide (non-selective) at rates of 0.5, 1, and 1.5 L ha⁻¹ (

Table 1. Manufacturer, trade name, and herbicide treatment used in this study.

Herbicide Treatment (Commercial Name)	Trade Name	Dosage (L ha−1)	Mode of Action	Manufacturer
ParaeForce	Paraquat	100, 150, and 200	Contact-photosynthesis inhibitor	Nichino Private Limited, India

). The paraeForce herbicide was applied at 1/10th the recommended rate on the label. The 1/10th rate was used to demonstrate a highly concentrated drift rate from the recommended 1 L ha⁻¹ labelled rate of the herbicide used in LibertyLink^® (BASF Corporation, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA) or Roundup Ready^® (Bayer Crop Science LP, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA) cropping systems.

The study also included an untreated check for the control plot. The herbicide was applied using a CO₂-pressurized backpack sprayer calibrated to provide 100 L ha⁻¹ at 195 kPa. The boom comprised 51 cm nozzle spacing with Turbo TeeJet (TeeJet Technologies, Springfield, IL, USA) Induction (TTI) 110015 nozzles.

The T. occidentalis sample used in this study was obtained from the farm site at the Faculty of Engineering in Oleh Town, Delta State, Nigeria. The leaves were rinsed with tap water and then washed with distilled water before being analyzed. The residual moisture was removed from the leaves at room temperature and then carefully dried in an oven at 60 °C for 12 h. The dried leaves were crushed in a porcelain mortar, put through a 2 mm mesh sieve, and packed in polythene bags for storage. Both proximate and mineral analyses were performed using the powdered material. Fresh leaves were used to measure the moisture content. The sample preparation of the fluted pumpkin (T. occidentalis) is presented in Figure 2.

2.3. Chemical Analysis

The proximate composition of the samples was analyzed by studying the ash, crude fiber, moisture, protein, and fat content using the standard official method of analysis [30].

2.3.1. Determination of Carbohydrate Content

The conventional phenol sulfuric acid method [31] was used to determine the number of carbohydrates. The dilutions of glucose standards with concentrations of 40, 80, 120, 160, and 200 g per 200 µL were prepared by transferring the appropriate amount of glucose from the standard glucose solution (1 mg/mL) and adjusting to a total volume of 200 µL by adding distilled water. Each tube contained 0.2 mL of a 5% phenol solution and was thoroughly mixed after adding 1 mL of strong sulfuric acid. The contents of the tubes were combined after 10 min before being placed in a water bath heated to from 5 to 30 °C for 20 min. The spectrometer (Unicam 969 AA Spectrometer (26093) Series) was turned on and 490 nm was selected as the wavelength. The absorbance of the blank optical density (OD) was set to zero in the first step while all ODs of the tubes (1–7) were added. After each OD, the cuvette was thoroughly cleaned. In addition, a standard absorbance curve at 490 nm was plotted on the “Y” axis against the glucose concentration in µg/200 µL on the “X” axis. The curve’s unknown value “x” corresponding to the measured values of the test samples OD was plotted.

The determination of the glucose concentration in the unknown sample can be calculated using the following formula:

$$\mathrm{Glucose}\mathrm{concentration}\mathrm{in}\mathrm{Test}\mathrm{Sample}=\mathrm{Concentration}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{unknown}“\mathrm{x}”\mathrm{in}\mu \mathrm{g}/200\mu \mathrm{L}=\times 5\mu \mathrm{g}/\mathrm{mL}$$

(1)

2.3.2. Determination of Protein

Nine blank tubes labelled (1–8) were used to prepare the protein concentrations [32]. The protein standards (BSA) were then diluted to concentrations of 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, and 1 mg/200 µL by withdrawing the appropriate amount of BSA from the protein standard solution (50 mg/mL) and adjusting the volume with distilled water to a total of 200 µL. The contents of each test tube, including the blank and unknown tubes, were then mixed by blowing out or shaking the tubes, and 2 mL of Biuret reagent was added. The solution was then kept at room temperature for 10 min. The spectrometer was turned on, set to a wavelength of 540 nm, and the absorbance (OD) was measured once it warmed up. The blank OD was set to zero before measurement. Then, the blank tube was removed, and each tube containing OD was subsequently measured. After collecting each OD sample, the cuvette was cleaned. Then, a standard absorbance curve at 540 nm was plotted on the “Y” axis against the concentration of protein mg/200 μL on the “X” axis. When reading the optical density of the test sample, the value “x” of unknown was well noted from the graph.

• Determination of Protein Concentration in Unknown Sample

The protein concentration can be calculated using Equation (2) below:

$$\mathrm{Protein}\mathrm{Concentration}\mathrm{in}\mathrm{Test}\mathrm{Sample}=\frac{\mathrm{Concentration}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{Unknown}\mathrm{in}“\mathrm{mg}”}{\mathrm{Volume}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{sample}\mathrm{in}“\mathsf{\mu }\mathrm{L}”}\times 100\mathrm{mg}/\mathrm{L}$$

(2)

2.3.3. Determination of Fat Content

The apparatus and reagents include a Soxhlet extractor, round bottom flask, beaker, and desiccators.

The Association of Official Analytical Chemists AOAC (2010) standard technique was used to calculate the fat content [33]. A 500 mL round bottom flask and a Soxhlet extractor with a reflux condenser were set up. Petroleum ether was added in about 300 mL to the flask with a flat bottom. The sample (2 g) was placed into a cotton-wrapped thimble, weighed, and labelled before being inserted into the Soxhlet extractor’s extraction tube. After assembly, the Soxhlet extractor was refluxed for around 6 h. At that point, the thimble was carefully removed, the petroleum ether gathered on top, and the liquid was drained into a container for reuse. The flask was removed, dried in desiccators, and weighed once it was no longer filled with ether. The fat content was obtained by using Equation (3) below.

$$\mathrm{Fat}(\%)\mathrm{content}=\frac{{\mathrm{W}}_2-{\mathrm{W}}_1}{\mathrm{W}}\times 100$$

(3)

where W = weight of sample used. W₁ = weight of the empty extracting flask. W₂ = weight of flask and extracted oil.

2.3.4. Determination of Ash Content

The samples’ ash content was calculated using AOAC standards (2010) [34]. A crucible was weighed after being heated and cooled. On a Bunsen flame within a fume cupboard, the sample was burned. A white or light grey ash was produced after the charred sample spent two hours in a muffle furnace that was heated at 550 °C. After being removed, the sample was chilled in desiccators and weighed. The ash content was derived by applying Equation (4).

$$\mathrm{Ash}\mathrm{content}=\frac{{\mathrm{W}}_3-{\mathrm{W}}_1}{{\mathrm{W}}_2-{\mathrm{W}}_1}\times 100$$

(4)

where W₁ = weight of the empty crucible. W₂ = weight of crucible + weight of the sample. W₃ = weight of crucible + weight of the sample after washing.

2.3.5. Determination of Fiber Content

This was carried out using the standard AOAC (2010) procedure [35].

Apparatus and reagents: Sulfuric acid, sodium hydroxide, and alcohol.

The sample was dried in an oven at 105 °C. A 500 mL beaker containing 2 g of powdered, dried material was then filled with 200 mL of boiling, 1.25% H₂SO₄. Three minutes were spent boiling the beaker on a hot skillet while it was being periodically rotated. A Buchner funnel was used to filter and chill the beaker via suction. With two 50 mL measures of hot water, the beaker was washed. Next, 200 mL of 1.25% NaOH was added to the residue after it had been adequately put into a beaker. Then, it was filtered, chilled, and washed twice in 50 mL of hot water after 30 min of heating. The sample was then cleaned with 25 mL of 95% alcohol. The residual material was dried in an oven for two hours at 130 °C, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed. A desiccator was used to cool the sample after it had been heated for 30 min at 600 °C. The fiber content was obtained by applying Equation (5), as shown below.

$$\mathrm{Crude}\mathrm{fiber}=\frac{\mathrm{weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{residue}}{\mathrm{Weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{sample}}\times 100$$

(5)

2.3.6. Determination of Moisture Content

Apparatus and reagents: Desiccators, crucibles, and weighing balance.

The sample’s moisture content was measured by the AOAC standard (2010) [36]. The crucibles were cleaned before being dried at 100 °C in the oven for an hour. The weight was recorded as (W₁); 2 g of each sample was weighed into the crucibles separately, and their weights were recorded as (W₂) before and during the drying process at 100 °C to the constant weight (W₃). Equation (6) was applied to calculate the sample’s moisture content.

$$\mathrm{Moisture}\mathrm{content}=\frac{{\mathrm{W}}_2–{\mathrm{W}}_3}{{\mathrm{W}}_1}\times 100$$

(6)

where W₁ = weight of the empty crucible. W₂ = weight of crucible and sample before drying. W₃ = weight of the sample after drying to a constant weight.

3. Result and Discussion

3.1. Proximate Composition

Table 2. Proximate composition of T. occidentalis leaves.

Parameters	Treated Plot	Control Plot
Carbohydrate (%)	65 ± 0.5767 a	70 ± 1.2096 b
Protein (%)	19 ± 0.1537 b	29 ± 0.2695 b
Fat (%)	15 ± 0.0314 a	18 ± 0.0532 b
Fiber (%)	12 ± 1.0259 b	17 ± 0.7621 a
Ash (%)	70 ± 0.2627 a	79 ± 1.0043 b
Moisture content (%)	79 ± 0.9391 a	87 ± 1.1229 a

Values are means of duplicate ± standard deviation. ^a,b Means that the values in the column are significantly different (p < 0.05).

shows the study’s results on the proximate composition of T. occidentalis leaves, which revealed significant variations (p < 0.05). The carbohydrate level of dried T. occidentalis samples was the most abundant component (65–70%) for both treated and control plots, while the fiber level was the lowest (12–17%). The carbohydrate values measured were higher than those reported for other local vegetables (9.35–26.19%) [37,38], indicating that the studied vegetable had a higher caloric content. T. occidentalis is cheap and a good source of protein (19–29%) and fat (15–18%). Therefore, it can be used to meet the dietary nutritional requirements of poor communities in sub-Saharan Africa.

In general, the moisture levels (79–87%) of T. occidentalis leaves in the treated and control plots are quite high. This high moisture level, responsible for making vegetables prone to spoilage or decay after being stored for a while, is reduced by drying, allowing more extended storage of these vegetables [39].

However, T. occidentalis leaves have a protein content of 29% in the control plot against 19% in the treatment plot. It was clear from this that leafy vegetables are not good protein providers. Additionally, the treated plot’s fat content of T. occidentalis is 15%, while the control plot is 18%. The low fat level is in line with the widespread perception that leafy greens are low in lipids, causing it to be healthier to avoid overeating [40].

T. occidentalis leaves in the treated and control plots contained 12% and 17% of fiber, respectively. The lower fiber content in the treated T. occidentalis leaves may be attributed to the effect of adding paraquat herbicide. Vegetables are an essential source of fiber for maintaining digestive health [41]. The plots not treated with paraquat herbicide had the highest carbohydrate content (70%), closely followed by the plot that had been treated (65%). T. occidentalis leaves from the treated and control plots were found to have high glucose contents of 65% and 70%, respectively. Similar observations were reported by Kumari et al. and Ali et al. [42,43], indicating the higher calorie content of the vegetables studied.

T. occidentalis leaves also contain minerals such as potassium. They have beneficial potassium sources, which are favorable in terms of health because a diet high in this mineral is crucial for controlling hypertension because potassium lowers blood pressure. In the body, sodium and potassium work together to maintain a healthy acid-base balance and regular nerve transmissions. Both early in infancy and later in life, calcium is crucial for maintaining and creating healthy bones and teeth. The T. occidentalis leaves contained 0.0 mg of calcium. The production of bones and teeth is the primary use of phosphorus in the human body. The amount of phosphorus discovered was also 0.0 mg. Since Mg is a part of leaves-chlorophyll, its presence in these leaves is expected. Creating the oxygen-carrying proteins myoglobin and haemoglobin requires iron in the human body. The T. occidentalis leaves also contain a high ash content, of which the control is the highest. A high ash composition is evidence of the mineral content of this leaf. Thus, this corroborates the increased deposit of mineral elements found in the leaves [28,44].

Several enzymes that are necessary for adequate food digestion and utilization are activated by manganese. Zinc aids in accelerating the healing of wounds. People are typically urged to consume carved pumpkins for their health since they are considered an excellent source of vitamins, minerals, and fiber. These plants contain essential and hazardous metals in various amounts, depending on where they are grown and how they are treated after harvest. This is because most plants collect metals from polluted surroundings through deposits on their exposed surfaces and from contaminated soil. In practically every community, it is well known that one of the leading public concerns is food safety. In the recent past, studies on the danger associated with consuming food items that pesticides, heavy metals, and toxins have polluted have been spurred by the growing need for food safety.

3.2. Soil Analysis

The significant soil properties and available P and K were analyzed using standard methods, as detailed in Table 2. To examine their properties, the soil samples were air-dried, ground, and sieved through a 2 mm mesh. The analyzed soil parameters were pH, organic matter, total nitrogen (N), and available phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). A glass electrode was used to measure the soil pH (soil/water, 1:1) [45]. Wet oxidation with K₂CrO₇ was used to determine the presence of organic matter [46]. The Kjeldahl digestion method (salicylic acid modification) was used to estimate total nitrogen [47]. The technique described by [48] was used to determine the available phosphorus (P), while the flame photometric method was used to determine available potassium (K) [49]. As seen in

Table 3. Soil test parameters.

Test Parameter	Method	Value	Reference
pH	Glass electrode	6.10	Yang [45]
Organic matter	Wet oxidation method	0.81 (%)	Walker [46]
Total N	Kjeldahl method	0.11 (%)	Bremner [47]
Available P	Olsen’s method	6.05 (mg/kg)	Olsen [48]
Available K	Flame photometer method	24.50 (mg/kg)	Toth and Prince [49]

, all soil minerals required for the proper growth and development of T. occidentalis and similar crops are present in the soil. This further demonstrates that the soil used for this study was nutrient rich.

3.3. Phenol Sulfuric Acid Method

Table S1 shows the readings of carbohydrate estimation using the phenol-sulfuric acid method. The method of phenol sulfuric acids involves mixing a set of solutions with known glucose concentrations and the method’s phenol sulfuric acid reagent. A standard curve was created and the sugar concentrations of untested samples were determined. In this experiment, the total carbohydrate content of T. occidentalis was 18%.

The plot of absorbance against the glucose concentration (Figure S1) shows that the glucose concentration also increased as the absorbance increased. Additionally, the nature of the graph was linear; by including the blank solution, the graph obeyed Beer’s law. According to Beer’s law, the absorbance of a solution should be zero (100%) when none of the absorbing species are present [50]. A blank solution contains no sugar materials and has zero (0) absorbance.

In addition, glucose is dehydrated to hydroxymethyl-furfural in a heated acidic media; therefore, the heat was essential for forming a yellow-brown-colored product containing phenol, with a maximum absorption of 540 nm. This is one of the most accurate approaches of estimating total carbs. The phenol-sulfuric acid technique is precise to ±2% under optimal conditions [31]. This appears to be the case based on the absorbance columns in Tables S1 and S2. However, the accuracy of the results is entirely dependent on the accuracy of the standard curve above.

This method provides the most accurate and precise values compared to others to the best of our knowledge because the above results are unambiguous. This is supported by Wu et al. [51], who compared methods and found the same. However, enzymatic methods are widely used and readily available. They are typically specific to only one sugar in a sample. Chemical processes such as the phenol–sulfuric acid assay can provide an approximation. Still, because different sugars react differently with the assay reagents in solutions, a measurement of total sugar would be an approximation based on the reactivity of the sugar used to construct the calibration curve (usually glucose). This method is sufficient if only an approximate or expected value is required. The distinct specific enzymatic approaches are preferable when determining the precise amount of each sugar present.

3.4. Biuret Method

Table S3 shows the readings of the protein estimation using the Biuret method. The Biuret method produces a series of solutions with known protein concentrations and combines them with the Biuret reagent (Table S4). The concentrations of unidentified protein samples can be calculated from a standard curve.

In this experiment, the total protein content of T. occidentalis was determined to be 30%. The Biuret reaction is a method for determining the concentration of soluble protein in a solution. The Biuret reagent (copper sulfate in a strong base) changes color when it reacts with peptide bonds (which link amino acids to create proteins). The spectrophotometer was utilized to measure the color’s intensity. The greater the presence of protein, the darker the color.

Developing a standard curve to quantify the amount of protein represented by a given absorbance value was necessary. Therefore, the absorbance measurements obtained from these solutions were then used to construct a plot of absorbance versus protein concentration (Figure S2). This plot, known as an assay standard curve, can be used to convert the absorbance measurements of the experimental samples to a protein concentration or amount. According to the graph generated, the standard protein concentration for the samples corresponds to the result. The graph shows sample 6 had the highest protein concentration, while sample 1 had the lowest.

4. Conclusions

The T. occidentalis samples from the control and treated plots were compared during the proximate analysis. The results revealed that manual weeding or hand pulling positively impacted the control plot’s leaf production, vine development, and nutritional makeup, unlike the treated samples, which were affected by the addition of herbicide.

The overall results of this study indicate that the extract of T. occidentalis leaves is a good source of energy and carbohydrates. The leaves’ iron, copper, potassium, and manganese contents are sufficient to meet daily human requirements. Since any food source high in these mineral elements prevents hypertension, the higher potassium content is further evidence that the leaves of this plant can serve as a superior diet for hypertensive patients. Regular consumption of this plant’s leaves can help reduce the negative consequences of nutrient deficiency.

This study also suggested that manual weed control enhances fluted pumpkins’ vegetative growth and dry matter output; thus, this helps resource-poor farmers in Nigeria and other African nations with similar socio-economic conditions to harvest healthy T. occidentalis leaves, thereby boosting their agro-revenue and subsequently enhancing their standard of living. As a result, it is evident from the information provided above that the research goal/purpose has been achieved in the instant data recorded.

5. Recommendation

As a result, it is advised that farmers be informed about the importance of using agricultural chemicals in strict accordance with the approved dosage. In the struggle against weeds waged by vegetable farmers, paraquat herbicide should be considered adaptable. It can be sprayed to burn down weeds right before planting seeds or transplanting without running the danger of harming that crop or even subsequent crops in the rotation because it deactivates on contact with soil. Unlike many other herbicides with residual effects, its application is not constrained by leaching, persistence, or root uptake issues. However, broad-spectrum herbicides are not selective. Due to paraquat’s static nature, the little amounts that land or evaporate cause little to no agricultural damage. Since it effectively and swiftly functions, farmers should also be advised to apply it. Operators can quickly determine whether areas have already been treated because paraquat-sprayed weeds frequently exhibit symptoms (browning) by the afternoon.

Fluted pumpkin leaves are highly nutrient-rich vegetables mainly cultivated by small-scale farmers and are frequently consumed by the public. To increase blood production and combat anemia, it is proposed that this hematinic, which has also been shown to be an anti-inflammatory, anticholesterolemic, and antidiabetic, farm product be grown in the gardens and is advised to be used as food in appreciable quantities.

The leaves should be recommended for medical purposes due to their abundance of dietary fiber, a vital ingredient found only in plant-based meals. In a healthy diet, fiber helps remove harmful cholesterol from the arteries, reducing the risk of heart disease. Fiber maintains a healthy digestive tract and contains vitamins and minerals that support growth and maintain good health, such as vitamins A, C, and E, folic acid, niacin, potassium, thiamine, and riboflavin.