Green Nature or Green Fantasies: Representations of Ecotourism in Vietnam

Abstract

Although ecotourism is believed to help reduce the negative effects of vacationing inflicted on the natural world, it is still an ambiguous concept. The contentious interpretations of the term thus affect not only ecotourism in practice but also ecotourism policy development. This research article provides a qualitative analysis of how ecotourism is framed in Vietnamese online advertisements and news media coverage. The article’s theoretical underpinnings were gleaned via a review of the relevant literature. This was followed by a thematic analysis of online advertisements for thirty national parks and seventeen ecotourism sites/resorts in Vietnam. The article also features a thorough analysis of -related content from the country’s five most popular online newspapers. The research findings uncovered three major patterns of ecotourism representation in Vietnam: purely ecological tourism in national parks, nature-based tourism that is combined with anthropogenic landscapes as a form of pseudo-ecotourism in tourism resorts, and emerging checking-in hotspots at spontaneous sites. These patterns differ not only in the extent to which they correspond to the core elements of ecotourism but also in their perspectives of nature and the human–nature relationship. The implications of the three patterns for future ecotourism development in Vietnam, particularly concerns regarding policymaking and mismanagement, are discussed in the paper’s conclusions.

1. Introduction

Sustainable development has been a rallying cry for people all over the world in recent years as a response to the catastrophic destruction of the environment. The original definition of sustainable development was provided by the Brundtland Commission in Our Common Future as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [1]. The emergence of the concept of sustainable development marked a convergence between economic development and environmentalism. This convergence was officially illustrated at the Stockholm Conference on Humans and the Environment in 1972, the first of a series of major UN conferences on global issues related to the environment [2].

The tourism industry is one of the numerous groups that frequently make reference to the concept of sustainable development. Sustainable tourism has many definitions [3] but, in general, it is defined as tourism that meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future [3,4,5]. Sustainable tourism can sustain the local economies without damaging the environment on which it depends [6].

Ecotourism, as a form of sustainable tourism, is a growing sector of the tourism industry that promotes environmentally responsible vacationing as a tool for social and economic progress [7]. Environmental conservation and economic development often come together in this form of tourism, which promotes itself as “sustainable” on all fronts [8].

Since the 1990s, ecotourism has become a buzzword among tourism practitioners and those in academia [9]. Despite ecotourism’s widespread promotion and application as a cure that will ensure sustainable development [10], the term remains vague, allowing many stakeholders to use it in everyday speech while pursuing divergent objectives [8,11]. As a result, ecotourism has been given a wide range of definitions, some of which are at odds with one another [8].

Moreover, there are substantial differences between ecotourism theory and practice [12]. Despite the fact that ecotourism strikes a balance between environmental protection and socioeconomic development, case studies on this type of vacation have shown otherwise when these aspects are ignored, perverted, or manipulated [13]. If this balance is not achieved, bringing visitors to pristine and fragile ecosystems may even exacerbate environmental degradation. Thus, the ecotourism industry exemplifies one of the greatest challenges facing sustainable development efforts to halt ecological decline and societal unrest [14,15,16].

While ecotourism represents a significant shift in how tourism activities are conducted, the manner in which this shift is implemented is largely dependent on how those who partake in this type of vacationing define the concept [13]. Based on their knowledge of ecotourism, policymakers develop ecotourism management strategies, travel agencies determine what to see and do on their tours, and visitors select where to go and how to conduct themselves while they are there. Together, they can disclose overlaps and divergences between the environmental and socioeconomic dimensions of sustainable development.

Representations of the tourism industry are of interest as a barometer of trends in public discourse on its key concepts [17], to which both the perceived supply and the demand side of tourism are susceptible. Despite this, most studies on ecotourism have primarily focused on ecotourism practices at the sites rather than how it is portrayed to the public [18]. Those portrayals, however, have become more influential given that partnerships between the internet industry and tourism companies have increased their promotion of ecotourism, particularly in developing nations [19]. Online ecotourism advertisements do more than facilitate purchases because they inform consumers and shape their opinions of the advertised locations [19]. Generally, travelers evaluate ecotourism-related packages and journeys based on their prior knowledge and the influence of social media advertisements [20].

In this context, this article contributes to filling this knowledge gap by analyzing how ecotourism is represented in the news media and online advertising for ecotourism in Vietnam, which has been going on since the mid-1990s [21]. These sources have become increasingly influential in shaping public discourse on ecotourism. With the proliferation of internet usage and smartphone technology, the number of Vietnamese internet users and online ecotourism advertising is growing. Individuals, therefore, search for vacation-related information online, and the knowledge they gain from ecotourism websites and news media also influences their views on ecotourism and sustainable development.

The objective of this article is to shed light on how ecotourism in Vietnam has been depicted in the public sphere and how various actors advocating ecotourism have portrayed their interests in an effort to shape the public’s perceptions of ecotourism. The main research question is: Are the contents of internet advertising and news media coverage regarding ecotourism consistent with the concept of ecotourism and sustainable development? The answers to that question pertain not only to the growth of the ecotourism industry but also to the sustainable development of Vietnam and other developing countries, where trade-offs exist between economic and environmental goals. Furthermore, not only are they significant at the national level but they are also even more important in the context of global sustainable development, where there are divergent opinions and approaches for bringing together the concept’s three main tenets.

This paper is broken up into six different sections. After the introduction, Section 2 reviews the theoretical basis and practice of ecotourism. Section 3 describes the study methods and the analytical framework. Section 4 analyses the research findings. Section 5 presents a breakdown and a discussion of the findings in relation to the concept of ecotourism. Section 6 concludes the study.

2. Ecotourism

Although ecotourism has been gaining prominence as a potential remedy to the problems that are caused by traditional forms of mass tourism [7], it is still a relatively recent concept [8]. The term was coined in the early 1980s by Ceballos-Lascuráin, who later defined it in 1987 as:

Tourism that consists in traveling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific object of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in these areas.

[22]

The International Ecotourism Society defined ecotourism as follows, in 2015:

Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people and involves interpretation and education.

[23]

The ecotourism theory in general postulates that protecting the environment and growing the economy are not mutually exclusive [24]. However, the concept of ecotourism has been subject to a variety of different interpretations, with no overall theoretical or practical consensus [11,25,26]. Despite this, most ecotourism definitions share the following characteristics: tourism activity is conducted in a relatively undisturbed natural setting; the negative effects of tourism are mitigated; natural habitats are preserved; economic benefits are directed toward local people, who are actively involved in tourism; sustainable development is aided; and educational, appreciative, and interpretive elements are woven into the learning experience and further provide opportunities for local people to enjoy natural areas [9,27,28,29,30]. Ecotourism is, therefore, largely associated with small-scale community-controlled and long-term social well-being [26,30,31]. In order to preserve the resource base, ecotourism restricts the number of tourists who can visit any given area [26].

The significant role that ecotourism can play in boosting a country’s economy by generating new employment and revenue has led to its acceptance as a key development strategy for developing nations [26]. Ecotourism thus provides a great alternative to mass-market tourism, especially for rural and undeveloped regions [32]. Although the purpose of ecotourism is to engage tourists in ecosystems in a low-impact, non-consumptive, and locally oriented way, in order to preserve species and habitats [32], there are significant differences between the theory and the practice of ecotourism management, especially in Southeast Asian countries [12]. The practice of ecotourism has been criticized for placing economic interests above environmental benefits, with the ultimate goal of protecting natural resources so that the tourism sector can profit from them [33,34,35]. According to the findings of a discourse analysis of ecotourism marketing featured on the website Responsible Travel, conducted by Trčková (2016), advertising is typically inconsistent with the core principles of ecotourism and frequently portrays the landscapes as unalterable and isolated, leading to their commodification [35]. Some studies on ecotourism in Kenya, Zimbabwe, and South Africa found that some actors even disguise unsustainable environmental practices as eco-tours [36,37]. The practice of “pseudo-ecotourism”, which promotes nature-based tourism rather than conservation or local well-being [38,39], may degrade and irreversibly damage natural regions and may increase local tensions [28]. Mismanagement concerns are also among the hazards of ecotourism operations [40].

Even though local communities are viewed as key players in ecotourism, their participation in ecotourism activities continues to be a challenge. Obstacles may include the limited benefit they receive, their lack of tourism expertise, and their unequal partnership with tourism businesses [37]. Inadequately trained personnel, miscommunication with other participants, and a dearth of business opportunities resulting from ecotourism activities are typical issues [41]. Also cited are inadequate government support and funding, as well as the marginalization of local communities in the planning process [42,43].

Vietnam serves as an excellent case study for analyzing the issues of ecotourism. The country’s vast biodiversity makes it an ideal destination for ecotourism [44]. According to the 2005 National Environmental Present Condition Report, the country ranks sixteenth among twenty countries with a high level of biodiversity [45]. Ecotourism is growing in Vietnam as a way to boost the economy and protect natural resources while the country transitions from a centrally planned to a socialist-oriented market [44,46]. The Vietnamese government recognizes it as a key industry that helps rural communities earn a living and raises public environmental awareness [47]. The proposed revision of the current Tourism Development Master Plan for Sustainable Tourism Development in Vietnam and the Ordinance on Tourism, which lays the legal and policy groundwork for developing tourism, with due regard for biodiversity conservation and social, cultural, and environmental sustainability, has been implemented by the Vietnamese government since early 1999 [48]. The IX National Congress of Vietnam approved a state decree on tourism for 2001–2010 in February 1999, recognizing tourism as a major economic driver and requiring the use of natural resources and cultural and historic sites to meet domestic and international tourism demand and regional tourism growth [44]. The operations of ecotourism in Vietnam are directed by the 2017 Tourism Law’s definition of ecotourism, which is as follows:

Du lịch sinh thái là loại hình du lịch dựa vào thiên nhiên, gắn với bản sắc văn hoá địa phương, có sự tham gia của cộng đồng dân cư, kết hợp giáo dục về bảo vệ môi trường

[Ecotourism is a type of nature-based tourism, associated with local cultural identity, community participation, and environmental education].

[49], Article 3

Based on reviews from the literature on the theoretical concept of ecotourism, this study established an analytical framework (

Table 1. Analytical framework.

Variable	Criteria
Green destinations	- Relatively undisturbed natural areas
Travel styles	- The main style of the tour (romantic, relaxing, cultural, or adventurous)
Environmental protection	- Visitor quotas, eco-friendly infrastructure, contribution to conservation funds
Environment education	- Information on responsible visitor behavior - Information on the cultural and historical significance of the places - Tour interpretation
Local participation	- Local input into the tours’ designs and plans - Local interpretations for tourists - The provision of local food and other services

) to explore the representation of ecotourism in Vietnam using the following criteria:

3. Methods

Using a qualitative approach, this research examined the content of online news media coverage and tourism advertising to identify the characteristics of ecotourism that are most frequently highlighted in Vietnam. The following online resources were evaluated in light of the criteria given in Table 1:

• Websites of 30 national parks: Ba Be, Ba Vi, Bach Ma, Bai Tu Long, Ben En, Bidoup Nui Ba, Bu Gia Map, Cap Ca Mau, Cat Ba, Cat Tien, Chu Mom Ray, Chu Yang Sin, Con Dao, Cuc Phương, Hoang Liên, Kon Ka Kinh, Lo Go-Xa Mat, Nui Chua, Phong Nha-Ke Bang, Phu Quoc, Phuoc Binh, Pu Mat, Tam Dao, Tram Chim, U Minh Ha, U Minh Thuong, Vu Quang, Xuan Son, Xuan Thuy, and Yok Đon;
• Internet advertising of 17 ecotourism areas and resorts: Lang Xanh (Ben Tre), Thoi Son islet (Tien Giang), Ngam Doi (Da Nang), Thuy Chau (Binh Duong), Binh Chau (Ba Ria—Vung Tau), Tuan Chau—Ha Long (Quang Ninh), Tuan Chau (Ha Noi), Ham Rong (Lào Cai), Nam Phuong Ho Nui Coc (Thai Nguyen), Nhan Tam (Nha Trang), Trung Thanh Nam (Phan Thiet), M’Đrăk (DakLak), Pha Tam Giang (Hue), Hon Mat (Nghe An), Dien Lam (Nghe An), Ham Ho (Binh Đinh), and Mang Den (Kon Tum);
• Articles on ecotourism in 5 Vietnam’s popular newspapers: Tuoi Tre, Thanh Nien, Vietnamnet, VN Express, and Dan Tri.

The author looked at all the NPs in Vietnam and their respective websites. The ecotourism areas and resorts were chosen to represent the country’s three main regions (the East, the Central Region, and the Southern Region). The selection of these areas also took into account their respective landscapes to represent Vietnam’s different tourist locales, whether that be a hilly location, a seaside place, or a lowland one. For each website/advertisement, the author considered how the destinations’ values were portrayed and what activities were featured in the tours’ itineraries. The author has made an effort, via these accounts, to trace the participation of local people in tourism, its value and activities, and the prominence given to environmental education and conservation. In addition to the textual information, the existence and type of images inside the advertisements and articles were also taken into account during the data collection process. The characteristics of ecotourism representation in Vietnam in relation to the five variables of the analytical framework were determined using thematic analysis, which consists of coding and finding themes and patterns (Table 1). The implications of ecotourism representations were then examined in relation to certain ecotourism challenges, including pseudo-ecotourism and management.

4. Results

The results of the thematic analysis revealed three main patterns of ecotourism representation in the internet advertising of Vietnam’s NPs and ecotourism resorts.

4.1. The Green Nature of Ecotourism in National Parks

There is a growing consensus that ecotourism in national parks can assist developing countries in achieving their sustainable development goals [50]. The cornerstone of the ecotourism system consists of the protected areas and scenic locations, both of which are vital to the preservation of natural resources and the environment [51]. Ecotourism in Vietnam’s protected areas is a relatively new economic activity that could raise funds for forest rehabilitation and biodiversity conservation while providing local communities with a new source of income [48,52]. The Vietnam Forestry Development Strategy 2006-2020 encouraged public forest development planning, along with piloting and scaling up the licensing of special-use forests for ecotourism [53] (p. 25).

With the advent of the sustainable forest management paradigm in the early 2000s, national and nature reserves around the country were able to flourish [54]. Since then, 30 national parks have been established [55], six of which are managed by the central government (Bach Ma, Cuc Phuong, Tam Dao, Ba Vi, Cat Tien, and Yok Don). This section analyzes how Vietnam National Parks (NPs) have portrayed ecotourism on their respective online presences.

The NPs’ tourism websites were replete with images of nature and information on the forest/marine ecosystems. These eco-tours advertised themselves as a way to “return close to nature”, “immerse yourself in nature”, and “live with nature”. The tours promised to help visitors explore relatively untouched and conserved natural landscapes (forests, mountains, valleys, falls, rivers, sea, lagoons, and caves) and learn about the endemic, diverse, and abundant flora and fauna, including rare species recognized in the Red Book of Vietnam. Amazing natural landscapes, ecosystems, and wilderness, rich in biodiversity, endangered species, ancient trees, heritage trees, green environment, etc., are all phrases that come to mind as the NPs’ websites described their respective locations.

All NPs’ websites offered expedition tours (some adventurous) that included activities such as trekking and cycling through the primeval forest to explore the flora and fauna, watching wildlife and camping overnight in the forest, climbing, kayaking, canoeing, and fishing (Table 2). In addition to expedition tours, tourists could visit the botanical gardens and a center for wildlife rescue and conservation. For instance, visitors were able to learn about wild animals and plants in Cuc Phuong NP’s first Carnivore and Pangolin Conservation Education Center and Bu Gia Map National Park’s sample room. Children had the opportunity to learn about interesting features of the wildlife in the parks (amphibians, reptiles, and insects), and their behavior. Some NPs also permitted visitors to get involved in rescue activities. Con Dao NP, for example, offered tours that involved the release of baby turtles into the sea. Some NPs (Ca Mau cape, Chu Mom Ray, Bu Gia Map, Kon Ka Kinh, and Phong Nha Ke Bang) provided excursions to visit historical sites related to the Vietnam war, such as a tour to visit the revolutionary base of the Krong commune in Kon Ka Kinh NP and the tour to see the Memorial Temple for Heroes in Phong Nha-Ke Bang NP.

The tour interpretations in NPs aimed to increase the tourists’ awareness of nature’s values and the need to preserve them by means of the provision of specific, academic information about the importance of biodiversity and landscape:

• The tour guide will present the ecological characteristics of sea turtles, the conservation efforts of Con Dao National Park, the regulations, and methods for viewing mother turtles nesting and laying eggs [56].

Table 2. Some typical descriptions of ecotourism destinations in NPs.

NPs	Destinations’ Attractions	Activities
Cuc Phuong	Cuc Phuong preserves the most biologically diverse limestone forest ecosystem in Vietnam [57].	-Trekking and cycling in the primary forest. -Watching wildlife and biodiversity spots. -Exploring caves and villages -Visiting the Education Center
Phong Nha-Ke Bang	Ha Ma Da valley is surrounded by majestic limestone mountains and is home to a vast virgin forest containing numerous valuable and rare wood species [58].	-Exploring caves, valleys, and streams -Visiting the Memorial Temple for Heroes and the Martyrs of Road 20—Quyet Thang -Camping, staying overnight in Son Dong Cave -Visiting the Botanical Gardens
Con Dao	The forest in Tre Lon Island is home to numerous species, such as pythons, monitor lizards, monkeys, and especially White Culvers, a rare bird in the pigeon family [56].	-Hiking through the forest -Watching turtles lay eggs -Releasing baby turtles into the sea -Snorkeling to view coral -Watching a school of shiny fish playing around coral reefs or fancy giant clams hiding in the sunlight shimmering through the water
Bu Gia Map	The recognition of Vietnamese Heritage trees at Bu Gia Map NP is also of great importance in promoting the richness and diversity of flora and ancient and rare species in the Park and the region [59].	-Visiting the Botanical Gardens and Wildlife Rescue Center -Walking, stream-bathing, off-road riding -Watching wildlife and staying overnight in the forest -Learning local culture
Pu Mat	Pu Mat NP is renowned for its primary rainforest and wildlife biodiversity. Here, visitors can see the rarest wild creatures in Vietnam [60].	-Hiking along Da Nong stream to Da Ban and Ba Floor waterfall -Watching wildlife -Learning about medicinal plants
Cat Ba	The park’s rare and valuable flora and fauna and distinct scenery make it a unique treasure on Vietnam’s northeastern coast [61].	-Watching wildlife -Discovering the local culture -Kayaking in the charming waters of Cat Ba Archipelago
Ca Mau Cape	The park’s geographic, cultural, and touristic features are representative of the entire nation. Ca Mau Cape is sacred to the Vietnamese and everyone desires to go there at least once [62].	-Visiting the mangrove forest and alluvial beach -Visiting the natural forest succession and Ong Trang dune -Touching the proud symbol of national sovereignty -Boarding the iconic ship that sails directly to the East Sea

Table 2. Some typical descriptions of ecotourism destinations in NPs.

NPs	Destinations’ Attractions	Activities
Cuc Phuong	Cuc Phuong preserves the most biologically diverse limestone forest ecosystem in Vietnam [57].	-Trekking and cycling in the primary forest. -Watching wildlife and biodiversity spots. -Exploring caves and villages -Visiting the Education Center
Phong Nha-Ke Bang	Ha Ma Da valley is surrounded by majestic limestone mountains and is home to a vast virgin forest containing numerous valuable and rare wood species [58].	-Exploring caves, valleys, and streams -Visiting the Memorial Temple for Heroes and the Martyrs of Road 20—Quyet Thang -Camping, staying overnight in Son Dong Cave -Visiting the Botanical Gardens
Con Dao	The forest in Tre Lon Island is home to numerous species, such as pythons, monitor lizards, monkeys, and especially White Culvers, a rare bird in the pigeon family [56].	-Hiking through the forest -Watching turtles lay eggs -Releasing baby turtles into the sea -Snorkeling to view coral -Watching a school of shiny fish playing around coral reefs or fancy giant clams hiding in the sunlight shimmering through the water
Bu Gia Map	The recognition of Vietnamese Heritage trees at Bu Gia Map NP is also of great importance in promoting the richness and diversity of flora and ancient and rare species in the Park and the region [59].	-Visiting the Botanical Gardens and Wildlife Rescue Center -Walking, stream-bathing, off-road riding -Watching wildlife and staying overnight in the forest -Learning local culture
Pu Mat	Pu Mat NP is renowned for its primary rainforest and wildlife biodiversity. Here, visitors can see the rarest wild creatures in Vietnam [60].	-Hiking along Da Nong stream to Da Ban and Ba Floor waterfall -Watching wildlife -Learning about medicinal plants
Cat Ba	The park’s rare and valuable flora and fauna and distinct scenery make it a unique treasure on Vietnam’s northeastern coast [61].	-Watching wildlife -Discovering the local culture -Kayaking in the charming waters of Cat Ba Archipelago
Ca Mau Cape	The park’s geographic, cultural, and touristic features are representative of the entire nation. Ca Mau Cape is sacred to the Vietnamese and everyone desires to go there at least once [62].	-Visiting the mangrove forest and alluvial beach -Visiting the natural forest succession and Ong Trang dune -Touching the proud symbol of national sovereignty -Boarding the iconic ship that sails directly to the East Sea

In terms of environmental protection, although the majority of lodges in NPs made use of local materials, some had concrete guesthouses built deep within the forests. All the NPs’ websites included information about their environmental education initiatives for locals, particularly secondary school students. The Bu Gia Map Park included propaganda to raise the awareness of people and tourists when visiting and traveling around this attractive destination.

Nevertheless, it is surprising that only three NPs (Con Dao, Bai Tu Long, and Nam Cat Tien) provided information regarding responsible tourist behavior on their websites. The page of Con Dao NP featured two images of tourists at the seascapes with the following slogans: “Con Dao—a destination for plastic reduction; come without plastic, depart with compassion” [56]. It also gave a plea and a strong warning: “Allow sea turtles to survive! It is punishable by up to 7 years in prison to hunt, kill, transport, keep, and trade in sea turtles and sea turtle eggs” [56]. The website of Bu Gia Map NP warned: “Hunting, trafficking, captivity, and slaughter of wild animals may be subject to legal action. Infractions involving rare species may result in imprisonment under the criminal code” [59]. In general, although the websites of all NPs contained information about environmental education activities for local residents and schoolchildren, the nature of their environmental education offerings for tourists was unclear.

Most of the NPs’ websites failed to prominently showcase the local involvement in ecotourism. Yok Don NP serves as an example. Despite the presence of minority groups (the Ê Đê and the Ba Na), little emphasis was placed on the residents or their culture and cuisine when the park promoted its eco-tours. Only eleven of Vietnam’s thirty national parks (Ba Be, Bidoup Nui Ba, Bu Gia Map, Ca Mau Cape, Chu Mom Ray, Cuc Phuong, Nui Chua, Pu Mat, Xuan Son, Xuan Thuy, and Phuoc Binh) provided travelers with homestays, guides, traditional dances, handicrafts, and local cuisine. These items are available to visitors at Cuc Phuong NP:

With one or two nights staying in [the] villages of the ethnic Muong, tourists have generated income for local people and supported conservation efforts. During their stay in the village, the Muong people, with enthusiasm and hospitality, will provide guests with comfort and the opportunity to learn about and explore their unique indigenous culture.

…

Coming to Cuc Phuong, visitors can enjoy the traditional dances and songs of the Muong and other highland ethnic groups, performed by Muong girls and boys in traditional costumes in front of the flickering campfire.

[57]

Similarly, visitors to Pu Mat NP could see the Xoe Thai dance, brocade weaving, and knitting, as well as purchase exquisite Thai-woven towels and bags with intricate patterns and surprising sophistication. Other NPs’ websites, such as Bidup Nui Ba NP, only hinted at local involvement through images, such as one depicting members of the K’ho ethnic group playing gongs around a campfire.

The cuisine of ethnic minorities, in particular, appeared to be one of the attractions of ecotours in the NPs. An excerpt from Pu Mat NP suggests, “A visit to one of the local villages to observe the culture and day-to-day life of Thai residents is therefore strongly suggested” [60]. Com lam, a typical food of the S’tieng, was available to visitors in Phuoc Binh NP, as were the traditional dishes of the S’tieng and M’nong, among others, in Bu Gia Map NP.

As evidence, some NPs cited the participation of locals in tour interpretation. Visitors to Cuc Phuong NP can, for instance, take a 1.5- to 2-h tour along the Buoi River with a forest ranger and a local guide. Tourists in Con Dao NP could interact with local rangers:

Interact with our rangers and learn about the biological characteristics of marine turtles [and] conservation work in Con Dao National Park, as well as [the] required regulations to observe turtles laying eggs. You will also be invited to stay up late with park rangers to observe turtles nesting and laying eggs at night on the beach.

[56]

In general, the websites for Vietnam’s NPs portrayed ecotourism as a spectacular picture of green nature seen through adventurous trips. While the majority of the content focused on a wild destination abundant in biodiversity, environmental protection and education were still underrepresented. Although it is evident that some local communities benefited directly from ecotourism, little is known about local input into tour design and planning, or the roles of the local community in conservation efforts at the sites.

4.2. The Green Fantasies of Ecotourism Driven by Tourism Companies

Online advertisements for eco-trips managed by ecotourism resorts displayed a different set of visuals compared to ecotourism in NPs. Ecotourism there has inspired green fantasies in destinations, which also included man-made nature, such as plantations, farms with fruit trees, orchards, rivers, canals, and floral gardens.

Although the advertisement for these resorts featured gorgeous images of nature (mountains, rivers, lakes, waterfalls, and forests), they had no intention of showcasing to tourists the area’s marvelous biological resources and unspoiled natural landscapes. Instead, they promised to transport visitors to more artificial “exotic” destinations, such as rural places, far away from the rush and bustle of city life.

Khu Du Lich Sinh Thai Lang Xanh (Ben Tre), for instance, was a small area designed to resemble a rural farming village, with thatched-roof homes, basic rustic cottages, pools, canals, and a Cau Khi (a simple bamboo or wooden bridge built by hand over a ravine or stream) [63]. During the tours, visitors had the opportunity to act out the role of farmers by wearing Bà Ba (one of the commonest types of clothing worn by farmers in the countryside of southern Vietnam). They would engage in a variety of rural farm activities, such as planting vegetables, taking care of domestic animals, crossing Cau Khi, catching fish in a poon, and so on.

Those excursions presented several cultural characteristics, such as introducing guests to local cuisine and traditional music (Đờn ca tài tử). Some aspects of the tours, such as the provision of homestay services, local cuisine, and local music, demonstrated the participation of local people. Nevertheless, it was not made apparent how these tours were beneficial to the locals. In addition, there was a lack of information regarding environmental education and protection. Some only advised visitors to refrain from littering in certain areas (

Table 3. Some typical internet advertising of rural ecotourism.

Rural Ecotourism Sites	Description of the Sites	Activities
Làng Xanh (Bến Tre province)	Considered an entertainment paradise, the 3-hectare campus of Lang Xanh is covered with verdant trees, ponds, and lakes. In addition, the cabins are equipped with a cooling mist system and an artificial rain system on the huts. All create a relaxing, green, tidy, and pleasant space for visitors [64].	-Traversing a bamboo bridge by bicycles -Slapping ditches to catch fish -Canoeing and river rafting
Thoi Son islet (Tien Giang province)	Thoi Son, a tranquil island in the beautiful Tien River, is a popular getaway for those in search of a serene and relaxing rural environment. Visitors who come here will entirely escape the hustle and bustle of the city [65,66].	-Walking along the village roads -Enjoying fresh and sweet fruits from local gardens -Sleeping on the swinging hammocks -Enjoying the traditional Southern Đờn ca tài tử performed by local artists.

). The following is derived from the advertisement of Khu Du lich Sinh Thái Làng Xanh Bến Tre:

The rooms are designed to resemble a modest, rustic cottage. Each room features a double bed, a private bathroom, a set of bamboo tables and chairs, a mini bar, and other amenities. The room is surrounded by a garden, a green pond, [and] a flower garden, allowing guests to feel immersed in nature. The relaxing and tranquil atmosphere of the resort will undoubtedly provide you with the best moments of rest.

[63]

There are an increasing number of ecotourism resorts that provide comparable activities and attractions to those found in theme parks. The overwhelming majority of their operations were conducted in expansive areas endowed with natural scenery, such as forests, waterfalls, rivers, hills, mountains, and coastlines, among others. A few examples of the breathtaking architecture that can be discovered in scenic locations included huts, bungalows, flower gardens, swimming pools, bridges, and miniature photo scenes. The presence of these structures gave visitors the opportunity to escape from their busy lives in order to relax, breathe in the fresh air, and take pictures (Table 4). However, as the protection of the natural environment was not a priority in these resorts, they even altered the natural terrain to provide visitors with the greatest possible views. Environmental education was also not a part of their operations, and local participation consisted solely of providing locally sourced food or labor.

Locally sourced materials such as bamboo, thatch, and wood became popular in those resorts, but concrete buildings remained the norm. Furthermore, these local materials were not necessarily used to lessen the environmental impact; rather, they were included to provide visitors with a photogenic taste of the “exotic” while they were far from the concrete jungles of their home cities. An excerpt from the advertisement for the Ngam Doi ecotourism resort reads: “Go to Ngam Doi; panning from every angle, visitors will have a good photo” [67]. Some large ecotourism resorts were intensively concreted despite the usage of native materials in some of their areas. The ecotourism project Tuan Chau (Hanoi) features a golf course, amusement parks, an international trade center, villas, a 5-star hotel, an international convention center, a high-class apartment building, and 13 luxury resort apartments [68].

Table 4. Some of the internet advertising of ecotourism resorts.

Ecotourism Resorts	Description of the Resorts	Activities
Thuy Châu (Bình Dương)	Thuy Chau is a natural weekend getaway location. Its campus (18 hectares), despite being an artificial landscape (with forests, rivers and streams, and waterfalls), will allow visitors to momentarily escape from the polluted, daily hustle and bustle of industrial cities into a fresh natural setting [69].	-Picnicking at the artificial Thuy Chau falls -Enjoying the Thuy Chau swimming-pool system -Watching freshwater crocodiles in a lake
Ngam Doi (Đà Nẵng)	Ngam Doi is the perfect suggestion for those who wish to stay away from the noisy city for a few days and seek the “green” values of nature to “recharge” their energy. This secluded ecological area with poetic natural scenery will help visitors immerse themself in nature to get extremely effective “healing” [67].	-Check-in at the wooden bridge over the cool water, round smooth, long-tanned rocks, and the water cascading down from above - Playing in the water, bathing in the stream - Stream bathing in the midst of the mountains and forests
Tuần Châu—Hạ Long (Quảng Ninh)	The most beautiful beach in Vietnam can be found in Tuan Chau, where visitors will enjoy the cool breeze from the sea and bathe. The resort is located on the gentle hills of the island. The shore of Tuan Chau is an artificial beach with a 2-kilometer-long sand carpet. There are entertainments, sports, and numerous other tourist activities here [66].	-Swimming and kayaking in Ha Long Bay -Visiting beautiful scenery -Camping and climbing -Participating in outdoor activities on the pine hill -Watching dolphin and sea lion performances
Hàm Rồng (Lào Cai)	Ham Rong, a mountain in the shape of a dragon’s head, is one of Vietnam’s most popular ecotourism destinations. At the mountain’s peak (1800 m above sea level), visitors can see the whole view of Sapa and feel as though they are lost in the “fairytale landscape”, with the natural grandeur of Muong Hoa, Sa Pa, and Ta Phin valleys, which are hidden in fog [66].	-Visiting the picturesque Ham Rong floral garden, which was built on the natural terrain of the mountain - Visiting Thach Lam rock garden - Climbing to the peak of Ham Rong in search of clouds
Nhan Tam (Nha Trang)	The resort stretches over 18 hectares of spacious farmland with fresh nature. The Cho River divides the tourist area into two large hill gardens connected by a 130-m-long iron suspension bridge. This architectural design, with an emphasis on nature, has provided visitors with a real sense of harmony with nature [70].	-Traveling in a motorized folk car -Enjoying fruits at Nhan Tam Garden - Camping, picnicking, and sailing on the Cho river to enjoy the scenery -Participating in folk games
Trung Thanh Nam farm (Phan Thiet)	Not only is the resort famous for its inexpensive and delicious cuisine, but also for its entertainment and games. Away from the noisy and busy city, visitors will be immersed in this paradise of peace and relaxation [70].	- Floating on a lake in a swan boat to appreciate the poetic scenery -Jumping on an ostrich’s back or playing a thrilling game with them on a grass-sliding hill

Table 4. Some of the internet advertising of ecotourism resorts.

Ecotourism Resorts	Description of the Resorts	Activities
Thuy Châu (Bình Dương)	Thuy Chau is a natural weekend getaway location. Its campus (18 hectares), despite being an artificial landscape (with forests, rivers and streams, and waterfalls), will allow visitors to momentarily escape from the polluted, daily hustle and bustle of industrial cities into a fresh natural setting [69].	-Picnicking at the artificial Thuy Chau falls -Enjoying the Thuy Chau swimming-pool system -Watching freshwater crocodiles in a lake
Ngam Doi (Đà Nẵng)	Ngam Doi is the perfect suggestion for those who wish to stay away from the noisy city for a few days and seek the “green” values of nature to “recharge” their energy. This secluded ecological area with poetic natural scenery will help visitors immerse themself in nature to get extremely effective “healing” [67].	-Check-in at the wooden bridge over the cool water, round smooth, long-tanned rocks, and the water cascading down from above - Playing in the water, bathing in the stream - Stream bathing in the midst of the mountains and forests
Tuần Châu—Hạ Long (Quảng Ninh)	The most beautiful beach in Vietnam can be found in Tuan Chau, where visitors will enjoy the cool breeze from the sea and bathe. The resort is located on the gentle hills of the island. The shore of Tuan Chau is an artificial beach with a 2-kilometer-long sand carpet. There are entertainments, sports, and numerous other tourist activities here [66].	-Swimming and kayaking in Ha Long Bay -Visiting beautiful scenery -Camping and climbing -Participating in outdoor activities on the pine hill -Watching dolphin and sea lion performances
Hàm Rồng (Lào Cai)	Ham Rong, a mountain in the shape of a dragon’s head, is one of Vietnam’s most popular ecotourism destinations. At the mountain’s peak (1800 m above sea level), visitors can see the whole view of Sapa and feel as though they are lost in the “fairytale landscape”, with the natural grandeur of Muong Hoa, Sa Pa, and Ta Phin valleys, which are hidden in fog [66].	-Visiting the picturesque Ham Rong floral garden, which was built on the natural terrain of the mountain - Visiting Thach Lam rock garden - Climbing to the peak of Ham Rong in search of clouds
Nhan Tam (Nha Trang)	The resort stretches over 18 hectares of spacious farmland with fresh nature. The Cho River divides the tourist area into two large hill gardens connected by a 130-m-long iron suspension bridge. This architectural design, with an emphasis on nature, has provided visitors with a real sense of harmony with nature [70].	-Traveling in a motorized folk car -Enjoying fruits at Nhan Tam Garden - Camping, picnicking, and sailing on the Cho river to enjoy the scenery -Participating in folk games
Trung Thanh Nam farm (Phan Thiet)	Not only is the resort famous for its inexpensive and delicious cuisine, but also for its entertainment and games. Away from the noisy and busy city, visitors will be immersed in this paradise of peace and relaxation [70].	- Floating on a lake in a swan boat to appreciate the poetic scenery -Jumping on an ostrich’s back or playing a thrilling game with them on a grass-sliding hill

In general, online advertisements for ecotourism sites/resorts presented a glimmering picture of green fantasies via romantic or relaxing vacations that promised to whisk visitors away from the chaos of urban areas. Although natural settings were still important in these fantasies, they featured a blend of natural and artificial elements. The primary purpose of ecotours was apparently to unwind and capture unique shots at designated checkpoints. Environmental education and protection barely registered as a topic. Local people were almost excluded from the tours’ designs and planning, although their presence could be spotted tacitly through the provision of local food and labor.

4.3. Check-In Hotspots at Spontaneous Ecotourism Sites

The five online newspapers’ coverage of ecotours primarily centered on the second theme of green fantasies in ecotourism sites/resorts, even though some pieces also addressed ecotours in NPs. They particularly highlighted the emerging ecotourism hotspots and discussed the growing popularity of established tourist sites. Stories such as this highlight the fact that ecotourism destinations, especially new ones, attract curious guests who would like to visit unique and fascinating sites. For example, a new eco-tourism location called Lugar Con En was recently described in an article in the Tuoi Tre newspaper in January 2023, as follows:

On January 25 (the 4th day of Tet), thousands of people everywhere flocked to The Luga Con En eco-tourism area to visit, enjoy, and check-in [to see] the beautiful early spring scenery on the river Tien.

[71]

Based on what they wrote, it was clear that the most exciting part of those relaxing and romantic vacations was the prospect of seeing something truly special. The following quotations are derived from one article:

Thousands of visitors flock to The Lugar Con En to check-in, with driftwood blocks that are hundreds of years old. The people of the island also benefit from the provision of many services.

…[The] Con En eco-tourism area was put into use for the first time, attracting young people because of its novelty and river travel.

…In particular, [the] Con En eco-tourism area provides numerous photo corners for visitors to [experience], including a wooden architectural bar yacht area, souvenir kiosks, [and] a natural golden sand dune beach.

[71]

Incredible scenery remained a major draw for vacationers, but this time, it was all about getting the perfect “selfie” or a striking landscape photo. An article from the Thanh Nien news promoted eco-tourism at Dong Giang Heaven Gate, with the following excerpt:

Dong Giang Heaven Gate eco-tourism area in A So village, Ma Cooih commune, Dong Giang district, Quang Nam province has just been awarded the record title of “Tourism area [with] the most natural waterfalls in Vietnam” for its 25 waterfalls in the natural forest.

[72]

It was the natural and uncharted environments that piqued the interest of explorers the most. Despite the dangers, some backpackers visited these areas [73], not because they intended to learn about or protect the natural resources there but rather to have a unique experience, check in, and take photos that would stand out on social media.

Some issues of Vietnam’s ecotourism were particularly revealed by the online newspaper coverage. Crowded destinations and the alteration of natural landscapes were highlighted, among other undesirable aspects of this type of vacationing. An article on the Vietnamnet depicted heavy traffic jams on the rivers in the Trang An ecotourism area when visitors flocked to the location. The piece also contained selfies and group photos taken by tourists against the backdrop of the river and limestone mountains:

On the 3rd day of Tet, [the] Trang An eco-tourism area welcomes thousands of tourists visiting the site at the beginning of the year. Many individuals waited in line to purchase tickets as more than a thousand vessels operated continuously.

[74]

Online newspaper coverage also confirmed the expanding concrete infrastructure of ecotourism resorts:

The infrastructure in Quan Lan (Minh Châu, Vân Đồn, Quảng Ninh) has also [been] transformed, major roads have also been constructed, [and] numerous investors have embarked on the construction of high-class resorts. Many people have also invested in building large-scale resorts to satisfy the needs of visitors.

[75]

News coverage in the media also concerned the pollution caused by ecotourism sites, for example, an article in the Dan Tri newspaper discussed the waste problem in the Hai Tien marine eco-tourism area (Hoang Hoa district, Thanh Hoa province):

The term “eco-tourism area” refers to a form of tourism based on nature and indigenous culture that includes environmental education, contribution to conservation efforts, and sustainable development with the active participation of local communities. However, images of garbage of all kinds, strewn from the casuarina forest to the beach, indicates that this resort is living up to its name.

[76]

Articles published in the five digital newspapers particularly highlighted the growth of unregulated, often illegal ecotourism resorts. Phu Yen province is a good illustration of this issue. Tourists flocked to Phu Yen with the release of the film Hoa vàng trên cỏ xanh (Yellow Flowers in Green Fields), which featured the province’s beautiful natural scenery. In order to cash in on the craze, many eco-resorts have sprung up. A series of spontaneous eco-tourism sites, including emerging check-in points, were found to demonstrate violations regarding land use and construction rules (BB Farm, Long Vân Garden, Suối Mơ, thác Cây Đu, Sky Panorama, Đồi Tím, Đá Đĩa Farmstay, thác H’Ly, Sơn Thủy—Suối Lạnh, and Mộc Farm) [77]. According to Ms. Nguyen Thi Hong Thai, the acting director of the Department of Culture, Sports and Tourism of Phu Yen province, most of the spontaneous tourism sites were built on agriculture and forest lands, violating the provincial land-use planning rules [77]. Spontaneous ecotourism areas also sprung up in other provinces, such as those in Phu Yen. Vuon Xoai Eco-tourism in Binh Duong province, for example, grew from an initial 1.6 hectares to 42 hectares by acquiring and repurposing agricultural land from the local people [78].

In short, the online newspapers exposed some of the “ugly” sides of Vietnam’s burgeoning ecotourism industry, including the lukewarm motivations of some tourists who joined relaxing trips for the sole purpose of checking in, as well as the pollution and concrete infrastructure that plagued many popular tourist destinations. In particular, it revealed the flurry of investor interest in “pseudo-ecotourism” at spontaneous ecotourism sites in Phu Yen and other provinces, which were largely constructed via deforestation, the conversion of agricultural land, and the modification of landscapes, including the changes of hills and mountains to obtain a better view. This pattern did not at all include environmental education, environmental conservation, or community involvement.

Table 5. The three patterns of ecotourism representation.

Variable/Criteria	Green Nature	Green Fantasies	Checking-in Hotspots
Green destinations	Relatively undisturbed natural areas	Natural areas + anthropological landscapes	Natural areas + man-made construction
The main travel styles	Adventurous (+some cultural elements)	Romantic, relaxing (+some cultural elements)	Romantic, relaxing
Environmental protection
-Visitor quotas	No	No	No
-Eco-friendly infrastructure	Yes	No	Some
-Contribution to conservation funds	Yes	No	No
Environment education
-Information on responsible visitor behavior	Some	No	No
-Information on the cultural and historical significance of the places	Yes	Some	No
-Tour interpretations	Yes	No	No
Local participation
-Local inputs into the tours’ designs and plans	Not clear	No	No
-Local interpretations for tourists	Yes	Some	No
-The provision of local food and other services	Yes	Some	No

summarizes the three representation patterns of ecotourism with respect to the study’s analytic framework. The green nature ethos in NPs is the most committed of the three patterns to the characteristics of ecotourism, having fulfilled 8 out of 11 criteria, while the green fantasies partially fulfilled 5 out of 11 criteria and the checking-in locations only partially fulfilled 2 out of 11 criteria.

5. Discussion

The three patterns of ecotourism representation in internet advertising and online newspaper coverage were distinct in their various aspects of ecotourism, and, in general, did not comprehensively fulfill the generally accepted characteristics of ecotourism (nature-based tourism, environmental conservation, environmentally friendly tourist behavior, and local participation [9]). Ecotourism in NPs, often known as “green tourism,” adhered to the idea of responsible tourism by putting an emphasis on the significance of natural landscapes and the resources that made up biodiversity. It gave consideration to environmental education and protection but, at the same time, it did not do a good job of involving local participation in their activities, although a central part of ecotourism practice was the social benefits for local communities [79]. This finding corresponds to the earlier argument that ecotourism in Vietnam’s NPs still lacked initiative in linking up with local communities and with environmental and landscape protection activities [80]. For that reason, this type of ecotourism cannot be considered socially sustainable, particularly at a time when tensions between local communities and national parks have been a constant problem. In addition, although this pattern emphasized environmental conservation, its lack of attention to tourist quota may constitute a concern for future environmental degradation if the number of tourists increased over and above the parks’ carrying capacity. More people visiting these parks, many of which are home to rare and endangered species, as well as delicate ecosystems, could lead to more negative environmental impacts.

The green fantasies of ecotourism, which were driven by tourism firms, overlooked the conservation of biodiversity and the ecosystem. While the vacation spots did include some natural elements, such elements may well have been artificially created, and the activities did not deviate too far from the typical kinds of purely nature-based ecotourism. Ecotourism of this sort is akin to what Sirakaya (1999) warned us about: it might be just another “buzzword” that allows tourism businesses to cash in on the influx of young people interested in exploring exotic, off-the-beaten-path destinations, such as the Antarctic [81]. These straightforward perspectives on ecotourism, from both the supply and the demand sides, have sped up the uncontrolled growth of ecotourism resorts in Vietnam. Checking-in hotspots at spontaneous ecotourism sites were an unofficial and unplanned form of the green fantasies, with the same goal: to serve vacationers who cared more about having a good time and taking some impressive photos than learning about and protecting the environment. The green fantasies in ecotourism resorts and the illegal form of spontaneous tourism sites can be referred to as pseudo-ecotourism [13,38], which not only fails to meet the ideals of ecotourism but is also harmful to the ecosystem. This type of vacationing cannot be considered environmentally or socially sustainable. The environmental impacts have the potential to be harsher than those of traditional mass tourism, due to the environmentally sensitive ecotourism destinations [82].

These patterns were different from each other, not only in their views of nature but also in their implications regarding the relationship between people and nature. The perspectives of nature offered by NPs and other ecotourism resorts/sites were quite different from one another. Nature, in the eyes of NPs, consisted of priceless natural landscapes and resources for biological diversity that ought to be preserved for future generations. Activities were adventurous and educational, even including engaging in wildlife rescue. In the case of other ecotourism resorts/sites, nature may present itself as something comparable to forests, mountains, rivers, beaches, and oceans; however, these elements can be manipulated to create a greener version of the fantasies to attract visitors who would like to retreat from the stress and busy life in major cities. Although admiration was expressed for aspects of nature that may also have anthropogenic features, this was not for the purposes of conservation but rather for usage, enjoyment, and commercial gain.

The second and third patterns of ecotourism representation also exposed some shortcomings of ecotourism planning and management in Vietnam. While the spontaneous tourism hotspots in Phú Yen and Binh Duong seemed to show the mismanagement activities of provincial governments and local authorities in the field of tourism, the approved ecotourism project, Tuan Chau (Hanoi), necessitating the building of a heavy infrastructure (golf course, amusement parks, 5-star hotel, international convention center, high-class apartments, and luxury resort apartments) [67], indicates that this challenge must be addressed at a high level of planning and decision-making. As the distorted view of ecotourism has led to provincial and central decision-making to allow this type of pseudo-ecotourism (both legal and illegal), low levels of awareness on the components of ecotourism appeared to be one of the key factors that led to such mismanagement, besides inadequate transparency, poor accountability practices, and weak integration mechanisms between ecotourism operations and the country’s development plans, as mentioned by Pasape et al. (2015) [83]. The prevalence of pseudo-ecotourism in Vietnam also affirmed that the actors who control the meanings of “environment” and “development” in national settings may have a significant impact on the industry’s prospects [8].

6. Conclusions

Although ecotourism, which promotes ecologically responsible vacationing as a vehicle for social and economic improvement, has been championed as a solution to sustainable development, it is still an ambiguous term, allowing players to communicate while pursuing contradictory objectives. This was demonstrated with respect to ecotourism in Vietnam. Three distinct patterns emerged from this study’s analysis of online advertisements and news coverage on Vietnam’s ecotourism: NPs’ green nature, ecotourism resorts’ green fantasies, and the emerging checking-in hotspots at spontaneous tourism sites. While the first somewhat followed the core elements of ecotourism, the last two patterns depict a distorted image of green vacationing, featuring some kinds of pseudo-ecotourism. These patterns were different from each other, not only in their views of nature but also in their implications for the relationship between people and nature. Local involvement, a cornerstone of ecotourism, was, in general, downplayed or overlooked across the three patterns. These incomplete views of ecotourism and poor oversight have enabled ecotourism sites to spring up for check-ins and relaxation, altering the natural landscape and damaging the environment.

This study’s findings thus highlight the challenges associated with combining the environmental, economic, and social components of sustainable development in Vietnam. The policymaking process in Vietnam should facilitate genuine and meaningful local participation in ecotourism and should take into account the problem of pseudo-ecotourism. Clear standards for ecotourism practices should be set out, in order to provide provincial decision-makers with meaningful information; the stakeholders involved in ecotourism should receive adequate guidelines on this type of vacationing. The emergence of spontaneous ecotourism sites also calls for comprehensive tourism planning, effective oversight, and good management at all levels. In addition to managerial solutions, such as ecotourism standards, certification, accreditation schemes, and codes of conduct [26], the public’s understanding of the essential tenets of ecotourism is a crucial aspect in combating pseudo-ecotourism. The research findings are not only relevant to ecotourism growth but also to the sustainable development of Vietnam and other developing countries, where the tensions between economic and environmental goals are a constant problem. In addition, the findings are especially pertinent to sustainable development on a global scale, as varying viewpoints and practices exist on how to integrate the three facets of the concept.

Due to this study’s emphasis on online ecotourism advertisements, its secondary data preclude the investigation of factors that contribute to inconsistencies between ecotourism in practice and its theoretical form, particularly the issue of power in ecotourism management. Current and potential levels of community empowerment in ecotourism practices, as well as environmental education for tourists and the general public, have thus necessitated further research at these sites. Furthermore, it is essential to examine how current online ecotourism advertising has influenced tourists’ comprehension of the concepts of ecotourism and the extent to which this understanding influences their responsible behavior while traveling. Additional in-depth analyses of specific instances of pseudo-ecotourism will contribute to the literature on ecotourism mismanagement and inform policymakers and decision-makers on ways to combat this issue. With the growing prevalence of ecotourism in Vietnam, more research on the carrying capacity of NPs and ecotourism resorts/sites is required to ensure the minimal impact of tourist activities in these areas.