The Impact of Hiring People with a Disability on Customers’ Perspectives: The Moderating Effect of Disability Type

Abstract

The present study investigates the effect of hiring people with a disability in the service staff on customers’ perspectives in Jordan, with the moderating role of disability type. The quantitative research method was adopted to obtain the necessary data for the research; the study sample was convenient and consisted of 765 participants who are social media users belonging to different age groups. The data were collected using an online questionnaire distributed through various social media platforms. Findings exhibited that the antecedent variable positively affects the consequent variables (quality, brand image, and loyalty), while there was no significant effect on purchase intention or stereotyping. Further, hiring people with a disability had the strongest impact on perceived brand image. The findings from this research could eventually furnish assistance to existing and future entrepreneurs to build sustainable enterprises while keeping pace with a nation becoming socially responsible.

1. Introduction

In our modern day, people with a disability face various challenges that prevent them from having a decent everyday life or from actively participating in society. All human rights are universal, unified, interconnected, and interdependent. Nonetheless, around 15% of the overall world population lives with some type of disability [1], where the overall unemployment rate for PWDs was 80.9 percent in 2021, compared to only 36.3 percent of the unemployment rate for people without a disability [2]. Accordingly, the low employment rates, alongside low salaries, contribute to high poverty rates among PWDs compared to those without a disability [3]. In recent years, there has been increased attention toward corporate sustainability and social responsibility [4,5], where employers are becoming more interested to communicate and market such activities [6,7], which has a positive impact on society.

Alongside increased awareness of the rights of PWDs, socially responsible customers are heavily demanding the labor inclusion of this less fortunate group, and they are also demanding more suitable work environments to ensure equal working opportunities for PWDs [8]. Nonetheless, and despite entrepreneurs’ endeavors to include persons with a disability in their workforces, still, such inclusion in the workforce remains a social dilemma, especially for frontline employees [9,10]. The prime reasons for the underemployment of PWDs are the stigmas and biases toward such groups of society among employers [11]. Furthermore, the inaccessible physical environments, unavailability of assistive systems, and discriminatory prejudice and stigmas stand as barriers in the face of full social and economic inclusion of people with a disability [12].

The present research is crucial in moving toward a nation going social and providing better empowerment for socially responsible customers, entrepreneurs, and decision-makers, considering that there is an absence of rigorous laws and obligations that grant the rights of this less fortunate group. In accordance, supporting the integration of PWDs in the labor force will lead to reduced poverty and vice versa, as they will become less of a burden to their families, leading them to become active individuals in society as any other individual.

The importance of this study is threefold. First, it creates a co-word analysis that contributes to the knowledge map concerning topics and potential future research on this proposed matter. Second, it furnishes a base for knowledge advancement concerning disability in the workplace. Third, it offers theoretical, methodological, and conceptual suggestions for entrepreneurs’ initiatives to the inclusion of PWDs in their labor force alongside promoting the improvement of their labor experience.

This study aims to provide a valid and relevant contribution to all initiatives that are working toward the fulfillment of the rights of people with disabilities. It is also expected to encourage existing and new entrepreneurs to integrate PWDs into their workforce and to provide them with equal employment opportunities within their organizations. In accordance, the research objectives are as follows:

• To examine the effect of hiring people with a disability on customers’ perspectives in terms of (loyalty, perceived quality, stereotyping, brand image, and purchase intention), in Jordan.
• To understand the effect of different disability types (physical, hearing, and developmental disorders) on the relationship between hiring a person with a disability and different customers’ perspectives in Jordan.
• To provide evidence on the ability and positive impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ perspectives in order to reduce their employment exclusion in Jordan.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Customers’ Perspectives and Hiring People with a Disability

According to [13], the model for the decision-making process suggests that customers’ behaviors relate to certain factors of customers’ perceptions before or after receiving a service [14]. In other words, the decision-making process is complex, as it depends on intrinsic factors to the customer experience and is then integrated into a final decision [15].

Despite advocates indicating that everyone is capable to work, and the diverse benefits organizations can encounter through hiring people with a disability, employers are concerned about the biased attitudes of customers toward such inclusion [16]. Even though employers demonstrated positive attitudes toward disability, they are still discriminating in their hiring processes [17], as past research indicated that managers and employees composed mostly negative perceptions toward hiring PWDs [18]. Moreover, the literature found that disability type played an integral factor in the discrimination process toward hiring PWDs [19], that their attitudes are influenced by the type of disability an employee suffers, and that some jobs would be more appropriate than others for different types of disabilities [20]. However, employers who experienced disability inclusion in their workplaces admit that hiring people with a disability had an overall positive influence on their businesses [11].

Thus, the preceding was contradicted by research that showed consistently positive results of disability inclusion on customers’ attitudes. In general, the literature proves that there is a positive impact of CSR on customers’ behaviors [21]; this was also supported by other researchers, stating that hiring people with a disability is positively related to customers’ attitudes [22] despite prices being higher [23], especially when the beneficiaries form the social responsibility activities are people, instead of animals or the environment. Moreover, in a survey conducted in the USA, it was concluded that 92% of customers favored companies that hire people with a disability, as they were perceived as being more caring toward their employees [8]. This has also been confirmed, as people were willing to become patrons of such organizations [24].

2.2. Perceived Quality

Service quality is one of the most emphasized issues by businesses at the present time, and it is considered an important factor in whether the industry as a whole is sustainable [25]. Ref. [26] suggested that service quality is considered as being the gap between customers’ expectations and the service provided. It has also been conceptualized as the cognitive evaluation factor of a customer that generates a behavioral intention toward a certain brand [27]. When a service provider fails to meet customers’ expectations, it is when service failure occurs. Customers constantly evaluate the service provided; thus, they are always in search of the highest value received to make their purchase decision [28].

Service quality not only has a positive effect on customer satisfaction but can also have a positive impact on brand image and customer loyalty [29]. Ref. [30], confirmed the link between customer loyalty and service quality. Likewise, a link between brand image and service quality was also revealed. Service quality is among the most researched topics in marketing, and its relationship with CSR has been argued in past literature. While some literature suggests that when a firm acts responsibly, customers’ perceived quality is positively influenced [22]. Another considerable number of studies that researched the impact of hiring people with a disability on perceived quality indicated that there has been no significant effect on the latter [31], except for employees with visual impairments.

Service quality can be measured in multiple ways. Our research will adopt the modified SERVQUAL scale developed by [32]. The modified scale is considered to be more reliable and valid than the original one [25]. The above-mentioned elements depict how we sort out service quality. Customers can utilize each dimension to recognize service quality and at other times they will just use part of them [33]. Therefore, we formulate the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1 (H1).

There is a statistically significant impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ perceived quality at a significance level of ≤0.05.

2.3. Loyalty

Some scholars say that loyalty is formed by the act of generating a feeling of gratitude in the eye of the customer leading to establishing lasting customer loyalty for the business [34]. The creation of value is also another way to gain customers’ loyalty, where value is created beyond the physical product itself or its quality [35]. Ref. [36] presents five dimensions of value creation indicating organizational reputation as one way to create value. Moreover, trust plays an integral role in the formation of the bond between CSR and loyalty [37], and it was proved that trust plays a mediating role between the two [38]. Ref. [28] proposed that building loyalty between the company and the consumer starts with the information given by the company to start the cognitive comprehension of that brand in the mind of the customer, leading to a positive attitude which is translated into affective loyalty, where a consumer becomes committed to the brand.

Even though loyalty has been examined substantially in the marketing literature, it has received a finite amount of attention when studying consumers’ perspectives toward hiring PWDs. The literature showed contrasting results when addressing the effect of CSR on loyalty, as most studies granted a significant positive effect of CSR on customers’ loyalty [39,40], supporting earlier research suggesting a positive relationship between the two variables [34]. Other research revealed a positive effect of CSR on customer’s retention that was caused by increased loyalty for those customers [41]. Further empirical research suggested that companies should focus on communicating their CSR activities to gain more customer loyalty. Moreover, [8] proposed that hiring people with a disability will reinforce customers’ loyalty to the brand.

Others suggested a positive relationship is present with the mediating effect of trust between companies and their customers [37]. Some studies indicated that CSR neither has a positive nor negative effect on brand loyalty [42] and others concluded an insignificant relationship between loyalty and CSR. Based on the above literature, we hypothesize:

Hypothesis 2 (H2).

There is a statistically significant impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ loyalty at a significance level of ≤0.05.

2.4. Stereotyping

Justifying a certain behavior toward a group or associating certain characteristics with a specific group is known as stereotyping [43]. Similar to gender, religion, nationality, age, and ethnic stereotyping, persons with disabilities can be faced with similar prejudges attitudes. Disability is mostly viewed as a tragedy and people believe that they deserve pity. It is also believed that the able-bodied are obligated to help them, and a life with a person with a disability is a life full of constant agony and sorrow and their families are objects of charity [44]. It is also assumed that disabled people will always have a poor quality of life, which promotes the assumption that disabled people with not be able to start a family, obtain a good job, or fulfill other responsibilities. On the other hand, others believe that people with a disability are courageous, brave, inspirational, and heroic; which also puts a lot of pressure on PWDs to be always ready to make the best out of their condition [44]. Moreover, some fear people with a disability as they believe that their disability is a sign of an ill omen. People with a disability face lots of hatred and violence; they are seen as harmful, especially those with mental disabilities. The above stereotypes have been carved in the mind of society by continuously excluding people with a disability from meaningful practices in the community [44].

Past studies showed that employers focus on appearance in their front-line employees more than skills that can be taught [45]. Moreover, it was suggested that attractive people are more likely to become employed and receive higher pay [46]. Therefore, when a person is served by an employee with a visible disability, the potential negative attitude or affective reactions toward PWDs could bias their perceptions. This could be explained as the halo effect, which refers to the attitude of an independent attribute being affected by another attribute cognitively [47]. Meanwhile, a study on employers from the hospitality industry has found that companies share related concerns about people with a disability being unable to do the required work, or the need for extra unspecified accommodation expenses, as set by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA); although, such accommodations are not exceptionally costly [48]. Accordingly, the following hypothesis was developed:

Hypothesis 3 (H3).

There is a statistically significant impact of hiring people with a disability on stereotyping in customers’ behaviors at a significance level of ≤0.05.

2.5. Brand Image

Businesses are continuously concerned about being recognized for their actions; thus, it is crucial to present their image in public, which is considered an integral contributor to building a state of prosperity and is considered a strategic marketing tool [49]. Corporate brand image is identified as the positive and negative features and characteristics viewed by society about a certain brand, as it is considered one of the most important factors for gaining brand equity [50]. Moreover, when customers have a favorable brand image, the message of that brand will have greater influence compared to its competitors [51], as it is considered an important determinant in customers’ purchase behavior [52].

A brand obtaining a favorable brand Image by the public would receive a more positive position in the market, a sustainable advantage, and increased market shares [53]. Brand image was also positively linked with customer satisfaction [30]. Although, in the literature, there has been a scant number of studies that examined hiring people with a disability on brand image. It was long proven that CSR is a key factor in building a positive brand image [54], and it can also be used as a tool for differentiation. This was also supported by other literature, which stated that the effect of CSR has a positive significance on brand image [49]. Moreover, brand image was proven to have a positive relationship with corporate philanthropic activities [55]. Philanthropic actions were also proved to have a positive effect on brand image from employees’ and employers’ perspectives [18], while being served by a person with a disability was recorded to have a positive impact on company reputation [16].

Therefore, the following hypothesis was developed:

Hypothesis 4 (H4).

There is a statistically significant impact of hiring people with a disability on brand image at a significance level of ≤0.05.

2.6. Purchase Intention

Purchase intention has been identified as the customers’ behavioral attitude and willingness to purchase a service or a product [56]. A countless number of researchers studied the effect of CSR on purchase intention. The literature discussed the effect of hiring people with a disability on customers’ purchase intentions. CSR takes on many different types. One is economic CSR, in which a firm produces goods or services that provide jobs for the members of the society, leading them to earn their living and the company to gain more profit [57]. According to [58], companies are forced to engage in economic CSR activities in order to fulfill the needs of the consumer purchasing demand, which suggests that consumers are demanding the protection of their resources, which proposes that the purchasing power is in the hand of the customer.

Likewise, legal CSR activities, in which a firm abides by local laws and regulations, also led to increased customer purchase intention [58]. Another type of CSR is ethical CSR activities, where a firm abides by the moral rights of its stakeholders [59]. In the past, companies that overlooked ethical issues were faced with decreased market share. Therefore, firms’ ethical CSR activities are expected to positively influence customers’ purchase intention [57]. Finally, philanthropic CSR activities that promote the welfare and goodwill of others are expected to endorse customers’ purchase intentions [57].

This also aligns with the findings of [60], confirming that customers’ purchase intention is positively affected by corporate philanthropic actions, especially when these actions are related to customers’ value perspectives. Thus, based on the above commentary, the following hypothesis emerges:

Hypothesis 5 (H5).

There is a statistically significant impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ purchase intention at a significance level of ≤0.05.

2.7. Types of Disability

Not all disabilities are perceived the same in the eyes of a customer. In addition, it is of great importance to note that customers’ acceptance varies significantly when the disability is visible [24]. Accordingly, past research focused on studying the link between disability and physical appearance, especially since they are mutually exclusive [61]. Therefore, the impact of the type of disability plays a huge role in how disability is perceived by customers and how certain attitudes are influenced. As a rule of thumb, companies usually find it more difficult to hire people with intellectual disabilities and would rather include people with physical or sensory disabilities. They usually focus on the challenges faced when hiring a person with a disability than the added benefits.

Each type of disability needs special inclusive environmental changes in the workplace. Even though these changes were associated with minimal costs, employers are still biased toward employing workers with a disability [62]. In 2007, 30% of Walgreens employees lived with a disability. This led to a 20% increase in efficiency compared to facilities without disabilities. Moreover, it was noticed that turnover was reduced by half for people with a disability compared to those without a disability [63].

With that being said, there are various types of disabilities; some are visible and others are invisible. As for this research, we will study the moderating effect of some of the most common main types of disabilities universally, according to a list by [64]. Nonetheless, it was extremely challenging to find relevant research addressing each of the above disabilities in the context of hiring. While most previous research focused on people with a visual disability, people with a hearing disability have the highest rates of employment at 49 percent [65]. Guests usually are unable to spot this type of disability as it is considered to be invisible; thus, some studies decided not to consider its effect when conducting experimental research [24], as they suggested that people with hearing disabilities are less likely to face discrimination since their disability is unseen. People with a physical disability usually face higher rates of stereotyping, as people feel uneasy in their presence [24]. Moreover, people with less physical attractiveness are deemed to have fewer desirable social and personal characteristics [66]. Accordingly, the following hypotheses emerge:

Hypothesis 6a (H6a).

A physical disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ perceived quality at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 6b (H6b).

A physical disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ loyalty at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 6c (H6c).

A physical disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ stereotyping at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 6d (H6d).

A physical disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ brand image at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 6e (H6e).

A physical disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ purchase intention at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 7a (H7a).

Hearing impairment would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ perceived quality at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 7b (H7b).

Hearing impairment would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ loyalty at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 7c (H7c).

Hearing impairment would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ stereotyping at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 7d (H7d).

Hearing impairment would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ brand image at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 7e (H7e).

Hearing impairment would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ purchase intention at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 8a (H8a).

Down syndrome would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ perceived quality at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 8b (H8b).

Down syndrome would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ loyalty at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 8c (H8c).

Down syndrome would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ stereotyping at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 8d (H8d).

Down syndrome would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ brand image at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

Hypothesis 8e (H8e).

Down syndrome would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ purchase intention at a significance level ≤ 0.05.

3. Methodology

In accordance with past scholars and researchers, satisfaction is considered to be a central element of any marketing model [21]. It is also well-known that companies rely on their customers for profitability, and companies are actively changing depending on customers’ demands. To fill the gap in the literature, a conceptual model was adapted from [24] and was then modified to fulfill the objectives of this research.

To test the proposed model, a quantitative research method was implemented, and it depends on convenient sampling and instruments to gather organized information. An online survey questionnaire was used to collect data. The questionnaire was built using Google Forms. An online survey questionnaire was sent via email, Facebook, and other social media platforms to participants, who were then asked to answer a series of questions about their experiences with disabled hospitality workers. All participants in this study provided their free and informed consent. The 5-point Likert scale was used to assess all conducts excluding the demographic variables across the survey. Measurement for all variables was anchored by “1 = strongly disagree” and “5 = strongly agree”. A convenient sampling technique was implemented. Sufficient sample size and certain sample characteristics must be taken into consideration. Some research suggests that the sample size must be a 15:1 ratio for the number of responses to the number of model items [32]; making the required sample size for 42 indicators to be 630 participants, which means that our sample size of 820 respondents exceeds the required threshold. However, not all participations were considered due to 55 unengaged responses, which came to be 765 participants, which also exceeds the minimum required sample size. However, not all participations were considered due to 55 unengaged responses, which came to be 765 participants. Moreover, participants were Jordanians over the age of 18 years old. Furthermore, 309 were male (40.4%), while 456 were female (59.6%). A total of 409 participants were single and 356 were married. Participants’ ages ranged from 18–20 (100), 20–35 (402), 36–50 (155), 51–65 years old (83), and over 65 years (25). Regarding the educational background of the participants, 19.7% of participants obtained a high school degree, 55.7% finished university with a bachelor’s degree, 13.7% possessed a master’s degree, and 10.8% earned a Ph.D. degree. In regards to analyzing observations, Excel 2016, the statistical tool SPSS version 25, and IBM’s AMOS version 26 with plugins, were used in the data analysis procedure. The structural equation modeling (SEM) approach was adopted in this research. Cronbach’s alpha was used to confirm the consistency of the results generated by the scale [28,32]. All constructs were tested for reliability and Cronbach’s alpha result was 0.95.

3.1. Theoretical Framework

Based on the literature review presented above, many theories in the literature discussed how customers’ attitudes can be influenced by an external attribute. This section will present the theoretical model that conceptualizes such behaviors, as hiring people with a disability affects many variables. PWDs play a key role in the sustainability of the business and for the business to be considered socially responsible. The theories below will support our research model in Figure 1.

3.1.1. Theory of Planned Behavior

According to the theory of planned behavior, the social environment or a given behavior can influence customers’ attitudes and behavioral intentions. In other words, if individuals believe that their attitudes are positive, even if they are unable to control behavioral success due to poor environments, they will most likely be incapable of engaging in behavioral actions. In accordance, behavioral motivations are defined differently based on the context. Furthermore, the theory recognized both psychological and social factors that play a role in an individual’s decision-making process.

The more the benefits and costs are assessed positively by the consumer, the more he/she tends to carry out the behavior. Hence, when a customer finds a reasonable price for a reasonable benefit, he will most likely act upon this perception, as he will most likely purchase that product/service.

3.1.2. Theory of Self-Perception

The theory of self-perception suggests that humans’ actions are influenced when in contact with others who share the same features or attributes. Specifically, compassion is considered a self–other similarity perception, particularly to weak or vulnerable others. In other words, when being served by people with a disability, customers’ compassion will demand them to encounter positive attitudes toward those people or organizations that support such communities. Moreover, the theory of self-perception suggests that humans’ actions are influenced when in contact with others who share the same features or attributes as oneself; compassion is considered a self–other similarity perception (Oveis et al., 2010).

3.2. Research Model

Based on the former research discussed above, the gaps found in the literature, and supported by the mentioned proceeding theories, Figure 2 was adopted as the research model.

4. Data Analysis

4.1. Construct Reliability

SPSS was used to assess the construct reliability using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, in which its values exceeded the minimum recommended value of the cut point of 0.70, as shown in

Table 1. Construct reliability.

Construct Name	Cronbach’s Alpha
Hiring People with a Disability	0.70
Dependent Variables	0.92
Perceived Quality	0.80
Loyalty	0.85
Stereotyping	0.77
Brand Image	0.88
Purchase Intention	0.80
Types of Disabilities	0.93
Hearing Impairment	0.89
Physical Disability	0.84
Down Syndrome	0.91
All Items with Cronbach’s Alpha	0.95

, which was recorded to be 0.95.

4.2. Construct Validity

As shown in

Table 2. Construct validity.

	AVE	Q	S	L	P	B	H	PD	HD	DS
Q	0.528	0.726
S	0.631	0.735	0.794
L	0.678	0.467	0.468	0.824
P	0.728	0.472	0.450	0.776	0.853
B	0.540	0.443	0.436	0.770	0.717	0.734
H	0.448	0.510	0.453	0.637	0.558	0.713	0.670
PD	0.530	0.664	0.727	0.600	0.625	0.657	0.562	0.738
HD	0.624	0.455	0.500	0.544	0.598	0.621	0.493	0.748	0.790
DS	0.685	0.398	0.411	0.582	0.619	0.627	0.530	0.606	0.729	0.828

H = hiring, L = loyalty, Q = quality, P = purchase intention, B = brand image, S = stereotyping, HD = hearing disability, PD = physical disability, DS = Down syndrome.

, the AVE for all constructs was above the 0.50 threshold; hence, convergent validity is detected; except for hiring, which recorded a 0.449 AVE, which is considered to be borderline. The square root of the AVE was higher than the correlations between all pairs of the construct, except for hiring.

4.3. Exploratory Factor Analysis

The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed using a principal component analysis, which is a dimension-reduction technique, which identifies a small set of factors that mostly explain the information as in the large set of variables [67]. Even though we are reducing the number of variables, the accuracy of the model is not compromised, as smaller data sets are easier to visualize and explore [68]. The cumulative extracted sum of squared loadings was 71.257%, which indicates that the model explains 71.257% of the variation, while the initial run produced six factors that explained 61.523% of the variation (

Table 3. Pattern matrix.

Pattern Matrix
Items	Constructs
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
HD3	0.791
HD2	0.789
HD4	0.749
HD6	0.600
HD5	0.577
HD1	0.503
B3		−0.770
B4		−0.674
B2		−0.611
B1		−0.522
S1			0.765
S2			0.707
S3			0.610
H4				0.766
H2				0.743
H3				0.653
DS6					−0.858
DS4					−0.842
DS5					−0.793
DS1					−0.776
DS3					−0.725
P1						0.741
P2						0.721
P3						0.720
P4						0.641
PD1							0.677
PD2							0.595
PD3							0.472
Q3								−0.774
Q1								−0.721
Q2								−0.702
L3									−0.786
L2									−0.780
L1									−0.546
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.

H = hiring, L= loyalty, Q= quality, P= purchase intention, B= brand image, S= stereotyping, HD= hearing disability, PD= physical disability, DS= Down syndrome.

).

4.4. Model Testing

In order to test the hypothesis, the model was run through AMOS. The standardized estimates values alongside p-values were taken into consideration to test the significance of each effect (See

Table 4. Standardized estimates.

			Std. Estimate	p
Q	<---	H	0.144	***
L	<---	H	0.169	***
S	<---	H	0.037	0.319
P	<---	H	0.052	0.238
B	<---	H	0.338	***

*** Statistically significant at the level of significance (α = 0.01).

). Results showed that the effect of hiring people with a disability on service quality had a positive significance (β = 0.144, p < 0.05); therefore, H1 is accepted. In regards to H2, estimates were (β = 0.169, p < 0.05), indicating that the association between hiring people with a disability and customer loyalty is commonly thought to have a strong positive relationship. Accordingly, H2 was accepted. Moreover, the results for H3 were perceived. as there isno significant effect on hiring people with a disability and stereotyping (β = 0.037, p = 0.319); thus, H3 was rejected. With respect to the relationship between hiring people with a disability and purchase intention, H4 is rejected, as there was no significant effect on the latter (β = 0.052, p = 0.238). Finally, H5 is accepted, as there was a positive significant effect between hiring people with a disability and brand image (β = 0.338, p < 0.05). With this being said, brand image has the strongest relationship with hiring people with a disability thus far.

Moreover, as seen in

Table 5. Moderator effect.

	Physical Disability		Hearing Impairment		Down Syndrome
	Std. Beta	Sig.	Std. Beta	Sig.	Std. Beta	Sig.
Quality	0.087	0.030	0.156	0.000	0.191	0.000
Loyalty	0.058	0.253	0.053	0.291	−0.044	0.345
Stereotyping	0.083	0.035	0.181	0.000	0.276	0.000
Brand Image	0.179	0.000	0.149	0.000	0.164	0.000
Purchase Intention	0.254	0.000	0.189	0.000	0.243	0.000

, the effect of the interaction of each moderator was implicated in each relationship between the dependent and independent variables separately, and the results were as follows.

There was a positive significance when hiring people with a physical disability on quality and brand image, alongside purchase intention; accordingly, H6a, H6d, and H6e are accepted. Moreover, while there was no significant impact of hiring people with a disability on stereotyping in general, stereotypical activity was witnessed against people with a physical disability, as they were believed to be competent enough to perform their jobs; accordingly, H6c is accepted. Nonetheless, there was no significant impact on hiring people with a physical disability on loyalty; therefore, H6b is rejected.

Hiring people with a hearing impairment has a significant positive impact on quality, brand image, and purchase intention; accordingly, H7a, H7d, and H7e are accepted. Stereotyping, on the other hand, was significantly affected by hiring people with a hearing impairment; thus, H7c is accepted. H7b is rejected, as there was no impact of hiring service staff with a hearing impairment on loyalty.

Moreover, hiring people with Down syndrome has a significant positive effect on quality, brand image, and purchase intention; therefore, H8a, H8d, and H8e are accepted. With regards to stereotyping, there was a significant effect between the two; thus, H8c is accepted, concluding that service providers with Down syndrome are prone to be viewed as competent enough to perform their jobs. H8b is rejected, as there was no significance detected of hiring people with Down syndrome on loyalty.

A multi-group test was run using Amos to test the effect of gender on the relationship between hiring people with a disability on customers’ perspectives (see

Table 6. Multi-group analysis for gender.

Path Name	Male Beta	Female Beta	Difference in Betas	p-Value for Difference	Interpretation
H → Q	0.044	0.202	0.158	1.000	The positive relationship between quality and hiring is only significant for females
H → S	−0.328	0.029	0.358	1.000	No difference
H → L	2.099	0.749	−1.351	1.000	No difference
H → P	1.700	0.574	1.126	1.000	No difference
H → B	1.949	0.759	−1.190	1.000	No difference

). Results concluded that there was no difference between men and women when receiving a service from a person with a disability, except for quality, as the positive relationship was only significant for females.

The multi-group analysis was also run for a previous scenario where participants were served by a person with a disability and the results are shown in

Table 7. Multi-group analysis for previously being served by a person with a disability.

Path Name	YES Beta	NO Beta	Difference in Betas	p-Value for Difference	Interpretation
H → Q	−0.386	0.176	−0.562	1.000	There is no difference
H → S	−0.379	−0.114	−0.265	1.000	There is no difference
H → L	1.957	0.939	1.018	1.000	There is no difference
H → P	1.420	0.842	0.578	1.000	There is no difference
H → B	1.858	0.976	0.882	1.000	There is no difference

. Results concluded that there was no difference between experiencing receiving a service from a person with a disability or for customers to build their assumptions on an imaginary scenario as if they were to be served by a person with a disability.

Finally, the multi-group analysis was run to calculate the differences between results when having a close friend or family member with a disability (see

Table 8. Multi-group analysis for having a close friend or family member with a disability.

Path Name	YES Beta	NO Beta	Difference in Betas	p-Value for Difference	Interpretation
H → Q	−1.946	0.297	−1.793	1.000	The positive relationship between quality and hiring is only significant for people who have no family or close friends with a disability
H → S	−1.483	0.060	−1.543	1.000	There is no difference
H → L	3.538	0.884	2.655	1.000	There is no difference
H → P	3.489	0.614	2.875	1.000	There is no difference
H → B	2.777	0.911	1.866	1.000	There is no difference

). Results showed that there was no difference between relationships, except for quality, as the positive relationship between hiring people with a disability and quality was only significant for people who have no friends or family members with a disability.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

The presented research investigated the effect of hiring people with a disability on different customer perspectives in terms of perceived quality, loyalty, purchase intention, stereotyping, and brand image. The effect of three disability types (hearing impairment, physical disability, and Down syndrome) was taken into consideration on the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The presented model contributes to the existing and future entrepreneurial social intentions as a foundation for the support of employment of PWDs.

The outcomes indicated that three dependent variables (quality, loyalty, and brand image) were positively affected by a direct impact when being served by a person with a disability. Accordingly, the following hypotheses were accepted:

H1. 

There is a statistically significant impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ perceived quality at a significance level of ≤0.05.

H2. 

There is a statistically significant impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ loyalty at a significance level of ≤0.05.

H4. 

There is a statistically significant impact of hiring people with a disability on brand image at a significance level of ≤0.05.

However, the standardized coefficient (β) varied between the three relationships; where brand image is first (β = 0.338), comes loyalty (β = 0.169) is second, and quality (β = 0.144) is third. The relationship between receiving a service from a staff member with a disability and brand image is the strongest.

These results confirm past research, which suggests a positive effect when hiring people with a disability on brand image [16,18]. Many other pieces of research found a direct positive effect between CSR and brand image [54,69]. The study by [55] suggested a positive relationship between brand image and corporate philanthropic activities.

Moreover, our results were in line with most previous research, confirming that loyalty had a positive relationship with a firm’s CSR activity in general [34,38,39,40]. Particularly, ref. [8] proposed that hiring people with a disability will reinforce customers’ loyalty to the brand. On the other hand, the results of this research contradict another study by [42], which suggested that there was no relationship between the two variables. It also contradicted another study that concluded the insignificant relationship between loyalty and CSR [70].

Lastly, our results show that hiring people with a disability has a positive effect on perceived quality. With regard to previous studies examining perceived quality, some literature suggested that when a firm acts socially responsible, customers’ perceived quality is positively influenced [22,69,71,72], which aligns with our results. However, it was in conflict with other results [31] that indicated no significant effect of hiring people with a disability on perceived quality.

With respect to our results for the relationship between hiring people with a disability and stereotyping, they were in conflict with previous research that suggested negative attitudes toward people with a disability. They were viewed as less competent, were not to be trusted, and were more prone to being stigmatized [73,74]. Our findings were in line with [31], suggesting no relationship between the two. In this regard, the following hypothesis is rejected:

H3. 

There is a statistically significant impact of hiring people with a disability on stereotyping in customers’ behaviors at a significance level of ≤0.05.

On the other hand, hiring people with a disability had no impact on customers’ purchase intention, which contradicts previous research suggesting a positive relationship between the two [22,75], in addition to some other literature suggested a positive yet moderate relationship between CSR and purchase intention [76,77,78,79]. Our results also disagree with the findings of [60], confirming that customers’ purchase intention is positively affected by corporate philanthropic actions, especially when these actions are related to customers’ value perspectives. Thus, the following hypothesis is rejected:

H5. 

There is a statistically significant impact of hiring people with a disability on customers’ purchase intention at a significance level of ≤0.05.

In regards to the moderators’ effect, findings indicated a positive significance of the effect on the relationship between hiring people with a physical disability and quality, brand image, and purchase intention. Accordingly, the below hypotheses were accepted:

H6a. 

A physical disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and customers’ perceived quality at a significance level of ≤0.05.

H6d. 

A physical disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and brand image at a significance level of ≤0.05.

H6e. 

A physical disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and purchase intention at a significance level of ≤0.05.

In regard to stereotyping activity, people with a physical disability were viewed as being competent enough, and this contradicts previous research by [24], suggesting that people with a physical disability usually face higher rates of stereotyping, as people feel uneasy in their presence. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is accepted:

H6c. 

A physical disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and customers’ stereotyping at a significance level of ≤0.05.

Moreover, there was no significant impact on the relationship between hiring people with a physical disability and loyalty. Thus, this hypothesis was rejected:

H6b. 

A physical disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and customers’ loyalty at a significance level of ≤0.05.

Our results also indicated that hiring people with a hearing impairment has a significant yet positive impact on the relationship between hiring people with hearing a disability and quality, brand image, and purchase intention; thus, the following hypotheses were accepted:

H7a. 

A hearing disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and customers’ perceived quality at a significance level of ≤0.05.

H7d. 

A hearing disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and brand image at a significance level of ≤0.05.

H7e. 

A hearing disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and purchase intention at a significance level of ≤0.05.

When hiring people with a hearing disability, employees were stereotyped as being competent; this contradicts [24], which suggests that hearing impairment is considered to be an invisible disability; thus, they are less likely to face discrimination. This can be explained as respondents were mostly answering while being aware of the disability presence. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is accepted:

H7c. 

A hearing disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and customers’ stereotyping at a significance level of ≤0.05.

Nonetheless, there was no impact on the relationship between hiring people with a hearing disability and customers’ loyalty toward the brand. Accordingly, this hypothesis was rejected:

H7b. 

A hearing disability would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and customers’ loyalty at a significance level of ≤0.05.

Nonetheless, hiring people with Down syndrome has a significant positive effect on the relationship between quality, brand image, and purchase intention. In accordance, the following hypotheses were accepted:

H8a. 

Down syndrome would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and customers’ perceived quality at a significance level of ≤0.05.

H8d. 

Down syndrome would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and brand image at a significance level of ≤0.05.

H8e. 

Down syndrome would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and purchase intention at a significance level of ≤0.05.

Stereotypical activity against people with Down syndrome had a positive impact on the relationship between the two. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is accepted:

H8c. 

Down syndrome would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and customers’ stereotyping at a significance level of ≤0.05.

Nonetheless, no significance was detected in the relationship between hiring people with down syndrome and loyalty. Thus, the following hypothesis was rejected:

H8b. 

Down syndrome would moderate the impact of hiring people with a disability and customers’ loyalty at a significance level of ≤0.05.

Finally, the multigroup analysis showed no differences between results obtained from males and females except for quality, as women demonstrated higher perceived quality rates when being served by a person with a disability, which confirms previous suggestions [24]. This can be justified as women are more known to be emotionally bonded, which is explained by the theory of self-perception, suggesting that compassion is considered a self–other similarity perception, leading us to have positive images toward people who we feel more bound toward [80]. Previously receiving a service from a person with a disability had an effect on none of the variables. Moreover, perceived quality was only affected by participants who have family or a close friend with a disability.

5.1. Theoretical Implications

The constructed model is considered to be noteworthy in the existing body of literature by contributing significantly to the field of social entrepreneurship by taking into account five factors, namely quality, loyalty, stereotyping, purchase intention, and brand image. This study examined all five variables in a comprehensive model alongside the moderating effect of three disability types (hearing impairment, Down syndrome, and physical disability) in the context of the hospitality industry in the Jordanian market. This study also sheds light on knowledge gaps regarding the topic at hand, as there are a scarce number of studies that deliberate on this topic worldwide, and to the best of the authors’ knowledge, no research to date has been conducted on this topic in Jordan. Therefore, it is an elemental factor for future Jordanian research and adds to the foundation of international upcoming research. Thuswise, the existing body of literature and future research can be incapacitated by this study in the field of social entrepreneurship.

5.2. Practical Implications

As entrepreneurship is considered to be of great significance to a country’s economic growth, extensive attention to entrepreneurship has been witnessed by scientists, governments, and policymakers all over the globe. Over the years, entrepreneurship developed new concepts, some of which are crucial to the sustainability of the business. As a result, social entrepreneurship emerged, alongside socially mature customers demanding socially responsible enterprises that contribute to the welfare of others and society altogether. Therefore, this research will eventually furnish assistance to existing and future entrepreneurs in order to establish socially responsible enterprises, making them more sustainable.

The presented research is directed to spot the lack of awareness about disability and aims to support PWDs to encounter equal employment opportunities. This can be achieved by helping to open up the eyes of society and entrepreneurs in particular to avoid bias, and include people with a disability in their future manpower planning in order to reduce poverty rates amongst PWDs, making them active members of society. Nonetheless, it will help in the knowledge advancement needed for people with a disability to inquire about inclusive work environments.

5.3. Limitations and Future Research

Despite all the efforts taken to conduct this research, the findings have been seen in light of some limitations. The first one would be time constraints, as the researcher was bound to a time limit related to the regulations of the university that bounds the study to be submitted within a tight deadline. It is also important to mention that one of the main limitations of this research was existing statistics on PWDs globally and specifically in Jordan, even though the researcher made a couple of field visits to some public sectors that should have sufficient data on the proposed topic. It was confirmed that such studies were not conducted after the year of 2015, and even those were not extensive. The existing research was also scarce in this area, as the researcher had limited sources of international and national literature related to the proposed topic. Consequently, more research is needed to enhance hypothesis development, alongside new venues.

Based on the fact that the findings may not be generalized, another limitation would be the geographical limitation, as even though an online questionnaire was used, it was challenging to reach out to participants from cities in Jordan other than the capital city (Amman). Moreover, the researcher faced difficulty to reach out to a sufficient group of PWDs to participate in the questionnaire submission, as their responses were critical to the worth of this study. The study was bound to the hospitality industry and it was also impossible to address all disability types, which would also stand in the way of generalizing the results.

Nonetheless, there was an impeded assumption that participants have background knowledge about the topic and the capabilities of each disability type; in other words, it was impeded that they are capable of determining the jobs people with a disability are capable of. Future studies should create a profiling mechanism in their data collection approach in order to screen participants and eliminate those who are not qualified for more accurate data.

Moreover, future research is encouraged to employ field experiments on this topic to assess actual service encounters, thus presenting more appropriate situations for the study. This will accumulate insights into critical and underlying factors affecting each variable. Having PWDs as a study sample would help to understand the reasons for the outcomes of the presented quantitative research. Moreover, to achieve generalization, future studies can be replicated in other industries, assuring the sample spreads into different regions in Jordan, rather than having most of the sample concentrated in Amman. Finally, a cultural study of the reactions toward PWDs can provide further insights into different cultural contexts, thus providing better guidance for professional settings.

5.4. Conclusions

Following the identification of knowledge gaps, this thesis aimed to investigate the effect of hiring people with a disability on customer perspectives in Jordan by developing a conceptual framework that was adapted from [24], which was then modified to fulfill the objectives of this research. The established model tested the effect of hiring people with a disability in terms of customers’ perceived quality, loyalty, stereotyping, brand image, and purchase intention, with the moderating role of disability type (physical, hearing, and Down syndrome). Due to the lack of stringent rules and requirements that protect the rights of this less fortunate group, the current research is critical in moving the country toward socialization and improving the empowerment of socially conscious customers, entrepreneurs, and decision-makers. As a result, enabling people with disabilities (PWDs) to participate in the labor force will reduce poverty; this is because PWDs will become less of a financial burden on their families, and as a result, they will be able to participate as actively in society as any other individual. Therefore, this study seeks to validate and inform disability rights initiatives. It should also encourage entrepreneurs to hire PWDs and give them equal opportunities. Additionally, recruiting PWDs can boost the number of loyal consumers, which will have a positive effect on cash flow and financial success [81]. In addition, the outcomes indicated that three dependent variables (quality, loyalty, and brand image) were positively affected by a direct impact when being served by a person with a disability. Furthermore, the study found that the relationship of receiving a service from a staff member with a disability positively affected brand image. Hiring people with a disability can improve a company’s ethical value [82,83].

Furthermore, hiring people with a disability will reinforce customers’ loyalty to the brand. Additionally, hiring people with a disability has a positive effect on perceived quality. Hiring people with Down syndrome significantly influences the relationship between quality and brand image alongside purchase intention.

The remaining variables were not significantly influenced by hiring people with a disability. This research model is implemented in Jordan for the first time; thus, it can be used as a reference for future research. Moreover, the findings suggest that hiring people with a disability is not harmful to a business as some might think. Negative results could be explained by a lack of awareness in terms of the disability.