Career Planning Indicators of Successful TVET Entrepreneurs

Abstract

The absence of career planning is closely linked to low income, severe work environments, lack of health facilities, low life expectancy, and unemployment risks. (1) Background: career planning is the basis of individual career development. The aim of this article is to identify the career planning indicators of high-income entrepreneurs who are graduates with a technical and vocational education and training [TVET] background. (2) Methods: this study, which used a modified Delphi technique, was conducted using two rounds of surveys among 10 TVET graduates and entrepreneurs with high incomes in order to obtain the career planning indicators on how they achieved a high income. All of them have a revenue of above RM 5000 a month, which is considered to be a high-income status according to Bank Negara Malaysia’s (BNM) Payment System and Financial Stability Report 2018. (3) Results: the findings have shown two indicators to get a high consensus, which are focus and self-efficacy in career. In fact, assigning a specific career objective and striving to achieve high salary are crucial and must be within entrepreneurs’ skillset (realistic). (4) Conclusions: the objective can be modified to imply the self-efficacy of the students in optimizing career plans that are suitable to the personality, beliefs, and the self-motivation of the entrepreneur.

1. Introduction

Proactive career behavior and a focus on other-oriented work values promote change-supportive behavior, while passive career behavior and other-oriented or self-centered work values promote a more passive response to organizational change [1]. A career is the work done in the everyday life of a person that is based on the idea that a change of work will provide a comprehensive overview of the individual career that sees every particular change [2]. Amla [3] asserted that a career is an experience that relates to lifestyle choices, the psychological impetus for self-improvement, and has an effect on one’s mental well-being.

A career in entrepreneurship is one of the ways to earn a high income and the efforts to inculcate entrepreneurial values and elements in teaching and learning need neat restructuring and new cultural work transformation [4]. A study by Baum and Ma [5] has found that the absence of career planning is closely linked to low income, severe work environments, lack of health facilities, low life expectancy, and unemployment risks. Meanwhile, a lack of exposure to career information means that graduates experience problems in determining their future career path. Emotional intelligence indirectly influences entrepreneurial intentions because individual emotional intelligence will help them in starting their own business, such as having a positive personal assessment of being self-employed and feeling that they can become entrepreneurs [6]. According to Holland’s Theory of Career Choice [7], if career choices are not in line with one’s potential, then the possibility of a short-term work shift is high. Hence, the ability to adjust should be examined more closely to look at its relationship with career choice.

Findings from Doing Business [8] put Malaysia in the 15th position out of 190 countries, but only 122nd out of 190 countries when it comes to starting a business. In The Global Entrepreneurship Index [9], Malaysia is ranked 58 out of 190 countries. However, it got the lowest score of 9% in technology absorption, 12% in product innovation, and only 13% in high growth. This shows that although the position related to entrepreneurship in Malaysia has increased compared to other countries, awareness about starting a business, entrepreneurial knowledge, and innovation in the creation of products or services that are in line with the technological revolution are currently still low. The issue is with nurturing entrepreneurship, which makes career planning necessary. This shows that entrepreneurship awareness is still in the ‘green’ stage, and this is related to the annoyance of choosing this career path as well as having no career path map between the training and learning environment and beginning work. Thus, based on the above issues, this study is essential for identifying career planning indicators according to TVET entrepreneurs as a reference for future entrepreneurs.

1.1. Conceptual Underpinning and Hypothesis Development of Career Planning

Career planning is an attitude and behavior which improves the ability of an individual to plan their future career from childhood to adulthood. The constructs found in career planning indicators based on the Super’s Career Development Theory [10] and the Theory of Planned Behaviour [11] are shown in Figure 1.

1.2. Focus in Career Planning

Organized behavioral theories [11] outline the intentions that are determined by three elements or factors before becoming acts and attitudes toward behavior, subjective norms, and behavioral control that are outlined. Someone should be actively planning their career, trying to find as much planned career information as possible, and making discussions with influential parties like family and friends [10]. Parents have an important role in selecting education and vocational education for their children, but that rarely supposes the possibility of their children becoming an entrepreneur. Finnish academically-educated parents, however, have a positive attitude towards entrepreneurial education [12]. Thus, a student’s perception of their abilities pertain to their intent to become an entrepreneur [12]. In a study done by Nor [13], he states that each study participant profile has its own indication in their career planning objectives to set specific objectives and be rigid with the desired career choice. Some also set career objectives that are realistic with their own abilities or flexible in the current environment. They do not take long to decide on opening a business after graduation. Whereas highly skilled workers focus more on their studies and the mastery of skills in the areas studied.

1.3. Objectives in Career Planning

A clear plan is a must, because without objective planning the study will not have its own direction. A study conducted by Gorgievski et al. [14] explored entrepreneurial career intentions in which many studies revealed that intention is one of the best predictors of future behavior [15] and may also serve as a proxy for other career choices [16]. According to studies conducted by Tabiu, Pangil, and Othman [17], career planning not only enhances job satisfaction [18] and commitment [19] but also enables employees involved in adjusting performance to align the goals of their careers with the organization [20]. Based on

Table 1. Career planning profiles and indicators [13].

Profile	Indicator
Opportunist	Has a specific but flexible objective in the space and opportunities that existed at that time
Aggressive	More emphasis on realistic aspects in career planning, strives to achieve goals but remains specific and flexible
Cognitive	Has flexible objectives in career, this is because for them a good career will be obtained if they have excellent academic achievement
Conventional	The objective is realistic, considers self-esteem, and is flexible according to the current situation
Roe	Has a realistic but specific objective with career choices and does not easily change career objectives
Roe-supportive	Has a realistic and specific objective with the objectives of their career, but may sometimes be flexible if circumstances require
Systematic	The objectives of their career are specific, realistic, and flexible depending on their career planning in which they will determine the objectives of their career

Source: Nor, A. R. M. [13].

, the career planning indicator based on one’s profile characteristics is shown below.

Most experts agree that career development should be started early, and even in school [21]. In the context of organizational careers, career studies serves as a natural extension of the field of organizational behavior, with lifelong jobs idealized across the board [22,23]. Hence, entrepreneurs suggest that every career plan should have its own objective to enable the focus of career planning to be deeply refined. Therefore, career planning objectives need to be researched and done from time to time because it involves the will, need, and satisfaction to set the path. Therefore, they perceive obstacles to real goals when they realize their efforts are hindered by adverse environmental factors [e.g., financial shortages, insufficient resources, or university support system] and conversely, perceive of beneficial circumstances that will act as a threshold to maintain entrepreneurial interest and will be translated into choice [24].

1.4. Self-Efficacy in Career Planning

Career aspirations can be illustrated based on the outcome of one’s achievement and an individual’s ability to adapt to the environment [person-environment fit] [25]. However, in order to achieve results and to adapt to the current environment, sometimes one may be faced by conflicts due to several factors such as gender barriers, current economics, job prospects, and so on. Behavioral perception of a control behavior overlaps with Bandura’s [26] view of self-efficacy perceptions because each considers one’s perceptions of the ability to execute behavioral targets [27]. Self-efficacy is an individual’s assessment of its ability to do something. Things that affect efficacy considerations include the ‘hands on’ experience or imaginative skills and learning. Ability of behavior is the perception of control can be predicted regularly in the attainment of goals when control is a problem for someone [11]. The higher the behavioral control of an individual, the higher the perception of the opportunity. High level of entrepreneurial self-efficacy intention creates a firm intention in an individual’s mind to initiate entrepreneurship, and in a way, a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship arises [28]. This demonstrates the trust of a person through his or her efficacy to associate with an entrepreneurial career.

1.5. Catalytic Factors in Career Planning

Norashidah et al. [29] related that the concept of readiness can be summarized as; (1) skilled individuals; (2) able to do something without tangible effort; (3) showing the will or willingness to do something; [30] are the circumstances that have been prepared previously and have been presented as cases of Small and Medium Enterprises [SME] entrepreneurs in Malaysia. Furthermore, when referring to cognitive domains, the first and second definitions can be categorized as abilities. This means that from experiences from career paths and the experiences of TVET entrepreneurs, it is shown that family backgrounds influence entrepreneurs to engage in business. They have basic skills and knowledge in the field of business that are derived from their working experiences and their own small family businesses. It was found that participants have entrepreneurial skills i.e., ability in their respective fields in managing their business and resources. They are able to identify opportunities in the environment, thus generating creative and innovative ideas when facing competition. According to the results of studies by Tran and Von Korflesch [31] the more sufficient and productive entrepreneurship programs are, the higher the capacity and ability people have in addressing all challenges or uncertainty in relation to society’s issues and in turn, they will believe more in the positive consequences of what they do. This will then lead to them becoming more highly intent on being social entrepreneurs. Based on

Table 2. Catalytic factors in career planning based on profile.

Profile	Indicator
Opportunist	Many are influenced by social external elements such as part-time work and exemplary idols
Aggressive	The influence of internal and external elements (social) such as part-time and family work
Cognitive	Have internal and external (academic) influences such as practical, co-curricular activities, and lecturers
Conventional	The influence of more common elements from the interior and exterior
Roe	The influence of social interiors is stronger such as a family and work experience
Roe-supportive	The influence of social interiors, such as family, is quite strong but academic external influences can also affect career planning such as practical training and external courses
Systematic	The catalytic factor depends on the individual themselves based on their career planning

Source: Nor, A. R. M. [13].

, the catalytic factors in career planning have indicators based on one’s profile characteristics.

1.6. Career Planning Approach

Career planning should be a method or ‘bridge’ that can provide access to real-world careers in the academic world. The competence perspective is an inside-out perspective on the development of passion arguing that individuals’ competences and their perception of competences influence their passion development [31,32,33].

A study conducted by Alfeld et al. [34] showed that students involved with technical education and careers gain short-term and long-term benefits in academic fields, such as planning the academic courses they take. They found that students who completed both fields of study [vocational curriculum and career program] showed better results in job searches than those who only pursued only one field of study. Arbona [35] also believed that students are at risk of failing to require good career planning to enable them to prepare for the career world.

2. Materials and Methods

This study used a modified Delphi technique in listing the items agreed upon by entrepreneurs in Malaysia to formulate the career planning program for TVET entrepreneurs presented by Linstone and Turoff [36]. This technique is a procedure used to find an agreement among experts using a questionnaire without meeting face-to-face [37]. The constructs contained in the instrument are the focus of career planning, the objective of career planning, predictions of career planning, career planning approaches, and self-efficacy in career planning. To show the implementation of the modified Delphi technique in this study, the researcher determines the arrangement of items that can be mastered by the expert panel through a thorough literature review of previous studies [38,39]. Researchers can implement among several techniques to obtain related information whether through interviews, document analysis on a particular material, or writing [39]. The content validity index for the modified Delphi questionnaire instrument is 0.96, indicating that the instrument evaluated by the expert panel has high reliability. This technique was used in this study by interviewing in the first round and distributing the next questionnaire, so that the value of high agreement was obtained among experts. Data collection procedures in the modified Delphi study to obtain entrepreneur career planning involved three rounds, as shown in Figure 2.

The study involved 10 high-income entrepreneurs comprising graduates as participants. All of them have a revenue of RM 5000 and above per month, which is considered to have earned a high-income status according to Bank Negara Malaysia’s [40] Payment System and Financial Stability Report 2018. The criteria used in the selection of research experts in this phase are those who have experience related to the issues discussed, are able to contribute views and ideas, and are able to evaluate and make decisions to reach consensus. In this study, the population consists of students from training institutions who graduated from 2011 to 2014 and took technical majors in their respective institutions, who have become entrepreneurs, are experienced and trained in the field of entrepreneurship after graduation. According to Wiersma and Jurs [38] the number of samples in the range of 10–30 people is sufficient for the Delphi method. While Delbecq et al. [40] have suggested that if the background of the Delphi sample is homogeneous, then 10 to 15 people are sufficient to be used as a study sample.

This section is divided by subheadings. It should provide a concise and precise description of the experimental results, their interpretation, as well as the experimental conclusions that can be drawn.

2.1. Round 1

At the first stage, the researcher gathered information by conducting a literature review on past studies that have been applied to education both locally and internationally. This survey was conducted to identify indicators that are relevant to the career path of TVET graduates. Furthermore, based on the findings of the existing literature review, the researcher has constructed items for each element characteristic to form questionnaires used in the second and third sessions of the modified Delphi study. The most important thing in the first stage is identifying experts who will assist in the development of a career path model for entrepreneurs. In this study, items were formed from a major construct that contained five elements as shown in Figure 3.

2.2. Round 2

The questionnaire in the first round was distributed in the second round of the modified Delphi study. In this round, the experts were required to state their level of consent to each item presented using a five-point Likert scale. For experts to examine and respond to the instrument, they were given a period of one to two weeks to explore the instrument. After receiving feedback from the experts, all the data were analyzed, and the results were used to build the questionnaire for the third round of the modified Delphi study. Item improvements were also made after obtaining expert feedback.

2.3. Round 3

The questionnaire produced in the second round was used in the third round. The process in this round is the same as the second round, in which the expert was required to state their level of approval of each item presented using a five-point Likert scale. The duration given to interact with this instrument was one to two weeks. Feedback from experts was analyzed to formulate career planning indicators.

Data collected from the questionnaire in each round was analyzed using the Statistic Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The results of the analysis are presented in the form of descriptive statistics, the percentage score, the mean score, the median score and the range of quartile (ROQ) to represent the decision of the experts concerned. Descriptive statistics are used to describe variables in phenomena, and they need to be elaborated logically in certain ways. The analysis using ROQ is used to see the expert panel’s agreement and disagreement in each round. It allows for the interpretation of the consensus of each item to be achieved. ROQ analysis typically uses three modified point scores as shown in

Table 3. Three point modified scale by Peck, R. and J.L. Devore [43].

Level of Consensus	Modified Scale	Result
High	0–1	Accepted
Moderate	1.01–1.99	Accepted
No Consensus	2.0 above	Rejected

. Normally, the Delphi lap can be terminated after reaching the median score, the highest mod, and the ROQ score between 0 and 1 [41]. According to Minghat [42], if descriptive statistics are centrally measured, the percent score can be used to obtain expert panel views on questionnaire items. The mean score is used to illustrate the priority order of items. While the median score is also used to identify the statements required to form a questionnaire for each round of the Delphi study.

All data collected were analyzed using the ROQ method. There are two important aspects in the modified Delphi study, where computation of ROQ whose values compiled with values Q1, Q2, and Q3, and are usually shown in the form (Q3-Q1). The Q1 value represents the first quartile value and the Q3 values represent the third quartile. Hence, ROQ is used to generate modified Delphi for the purpose of translating linguistic variables to modifiable numbers [44]. The level of agreement is shown in Table 3. The ROQ calculation method is as follows:

= Quartile 3 − Quartile 1

  = Q3 − Q1, where Q1 = n/4,

          Q3 = 3n/4

The number of consent levels or consensus levels for the modified Delphi scale are in the numbers 0, 1, and 2. ROQ 0 to 1 shows a high level of agreement and gives a high interpretation of the agreement between the respondents. For a scale beyond the scale of 2, it is considered to be rejected because of the low level of agreement and the loose data. Based on Peck and Devore [43], when the value of the ROQ exceeds the value of 2 means that there is no agreement among experts on the item.

3. Results

This analytical data description of career planning is divided into 5 constructs [i] focus on career planning, [ii] objectives of career planning, [iii] catalytic of career planning, [iv] career planning approaches, and [v] self-efficacy in career planning. In the second round of the study, a total of 10 TVET graduate entrepreneurs conducted research on items that had been formed and had different attitudes. The analysis is carried out in two rounds [round two and round three]. In the second round, items that receive a lower RoQ are purified again.

Based on

Table 4. Focus on career planning indicators analysis.

No	Indicator/Item	Round Two				Round Three
		M	Med	ROQ	Consensus	M	Med	ROQ	Consensus
	Focus of Career Planning
1	The focus on entrepreneurship should have been since the beginning of study at the institution	4.4	5	1.25	Moderate	4.2	4	1.25	Moderate
2	Focus on entrepreneurship can also be done after graduation from the institution but requires a stronger effort	4.2	4	1	High	4.2	4	1	High
3	Focus on entrepreneurial care should be a priority in career planning	4.5	5	1	High	4.5	4.5	1	High
4	The focus on entrepreneurship makes me more inspired to become an entrepreneur	4.7	5	1	High	4.3	4	1	High
5	Focus on study should be prioritized in career planning at the institution	3.8	4	2.25	Low	4	4	0	High
6	Focusing on studies helps improve my academic achievement	4.4	4.5	1	High	4.4	4.5	1	High
7	Focusing on a special career can be done after graduation	3.8	4	2	Low	3.4	3	1.5	Moderate
8	Focusing on studies can improve my skills and expertise in the field of study	4.2	4.5	1.25	Moderate	3.9	4	1.25	Moderate

, of the eight items, there were two items that had a “low” consensus level and two items which had a “moderate” consensus level. The remaining four items had a “high” consensus level [ROQ = 1]. Item justifications for “low” and “moderate” consensus level are: Indicator No. 1 [Moderate agreement] which states that the focus on entrepreneurship should have been included since the beginning of study at the institution. Some entrepreneurs say a focus on entrepreneurship can be done after learning, but some entrepreneurs say a focus on entrepreneurship has been applied by entrepreneurs who are background entrepreneurs. Indicator No. 5 [Low agreement]: a focus on studying career planning should be prioritized in institutions. Most entrepreneurs think career planning needs to be done along with learning because entrepreneurs should always plan their career in order to know the extent of a person’s ability. Most of these TVET entrepreneurs do not agree with each other. Indicator No. 7 [Low agreement]: focusing on a special career can be done after graduation. Here, the agreement was low because they thought that it was too late to plan a career after graduation. Career planning should be undertaken from time to time to create and seize opportunities. Indicator No. 8 [Moderate agreement]: focusing on studies can improve skills and expertise in the field of study. Some entrepreneurs are quite likely to disagree because some approve of these indicators, but some argue that skills can be improved from time to time with no focus on just one skill.

Based on

Table 5. Objectives in career planning indicators analysis.

No	Indicator/Item	Round Two				Round Three
		M	Med	RoQ	Consensus	M	Med	RoQ	Consensus
	Objective in Career Planning
9	Set specific career objectives (career types) in career planning and strive to achieve them	4.4	5	1	High	4.4	5	1	High
10	Organize long-term career planning (from study time until graduation)	4	4	2	Low	3.9	4	2	Low eliminated
11	Career planning objectives are logical and in line with one’s abilities (realistic)	4.5	4.5	1	High	4.5	4.5	1	High
12	Have desire while setting career objectives such as wanting to earn a high salary	4.4	4.5	1	High	4.4	5	1	High
13	A person’s career planning objectives can be modified (flexible) according to the current situation	4.2	4	1	High	4.2	4	1	High

, the findings (total items = 5) show that one item was eliminated [item 10] due to having a low consensus level for both rounds, while four more items were retained due to having a high consensus level. Objective planning in this study refers to how the objectives in the planning are to be achieved in the career planning process. The entrepreneurs agreed that planning objectives can be modified according to one’s current situation and setting specific career objectives can be done last because they think one’s environment causes a person to adapt to the current situation.

The findings in

Table 6. Self-efficacy in career planning indicators analysis.

No	Indicator/Item	Round Two				Round Three
		M	Med	ROQ	Consensus	M	Med	ROQ	Consensus
	Self-efficacy in Career Planning
14	Optimize career plans that are suitable to the personality of the entrepreneur	4.6	5	1	High	4.6	5	1	High
15	Confidence that the planned career is in line with the aptitude of the entrepreneur	4.4	4.5	1	High	4.4	4.5	1	High
16	Confidence that career is planned according to the value (beliefs and self-esteem) held by entrepreneurs	4.3	4	1	High	4.2	4	1	High
17	Entrepreneurs really know their strengths and weaknesses in planning their career	4.5	4.5	1	High	4.6	5	1	High
18	Confident that career planning will be able to be implemented by entrepreneurs	4.7	5	1	High	4.7	5	1	High

(total items = 5) show that all 5 items had a high level of consensus, and no items were removed. Entrepreneurs agree that prioritizing one’s need to know their own strengths and weaknesses in their own career planning is important. This is because a person’s strengths and weaknesses can only be controlled by that individual. While confidence in a planned career becomes a person’s ability after they are aware of their strengths and weaknesses.

The findings in

Table 7. Catalytic factors in career planning indicators analysis.

No	Indicator/Item	Round Two				Round Three
		M	Med	ROQ	Consensus	M	Med	ROQ	Consensus
	Catalytic Factors in Career Planning
19	Part-time work during study gives exposure to entrepreneurs in the real world of work that can affect their career planning	4.5	4.5	1	High	4.6	5	1	High
20	Practical training gives entrepreneurs the space to feel the real world of work and have influence in the planning of their career	4.8	5	0.25	High	4.8	5	0.25	High
21	Formal career guidance by institution helps entrepreneurs make career plans	4.4	4.5	1	High	4.5	5	1	High
22	Informal career guidance, such as study tours, by institutions helps students to begin career planning	3.8	4	2	Low	3.8	4	2	Low eliminated
23	Engagement in co-curricular activities improves personality and helps entrepreneurs plan careers better	3.7	4	2.25	Low	4.1	4	1.25	Moderate
24	Participation in outside courses during study at institutions, such as entrepreneurship courses, gives entrepreneurs a thorough understanding of good career planning	4.5	1	1	High	4.6	5	1	High

(total items = 6) show that one item was eliminated (item 22), because it had a low consensus level for both rounds. While five more items were retained after four items had a high consensus level and one item had a moderate consensus level. Entrepreneurs agreed that industrial training is very important, and it is a priority for someone to make it a catalyst factor. This is because real world work experience in industrial training will, in particular, influence a person towards entrepreneurship.

The findings in

Table 8. Career planning approach indicators analysis.

No	Indicator/Item	Round Two				Round Three
		M	Med	ROQ	Consensus	M	Med	ROQ	Consensus
	Career Planning Approach
25	More comfortable planning a career alone without sharing with anyone because of more privacy	2.8	2.5	2	Low	2.8	2.5	2	Low eliminated
26	Entrepreneurs plan their career based on the internet, as it is convenient and saves time	2.5	2.5	1	High	2.5	2.5	1	High
27	Entrepreneurs plan careers with close friends and family to share ideas and experiences	4.5	5	1	High	4.6	5	1	High
28	Entrepreneurs plan careers with people who specialize in careers such as counselors, lecturers, and mentors to get guidance and advice	4.3	4	1	High	4.4	4.5	1	High
29	Entrepreneurs plan careers with influential people like community leaders, politicians, and so on to gain moral support	3.6	4	1.5	Moderate	3.8	4	1.25	Moderate
30	Government agencies such as MARA, TEKUN, and others help a lot in career planning after graduation	3.2	3.5	2.5	Low	3.9	3.5	2	Low eliminated

(total items = 6) show that two items were eliminated (item 25) and [item 30] due to the low consensus level for both rounds. While four items were retained because four items had a high consensus level and one item had a moderate consensus level. Entrepreneurs agree that career planning with those closest to you is the best and most important way to follow an entrepreneurial career path. This is because comfort and openness with those closest to you greatly influences career choice and will avoid decisions that lead to stress. This is parallel to the career theory by Anne Roe [45] who also said that placing family as the most important influence in the selection of individual careers because of biological heritage, experiences related to relationships, and interactions with individuals significant in one’s life are important and can influence one’s career choice.

Career Planning Indicator

As a result of the two rounds of the modified Delphi technique shown before, each TVET graduate entrepreneur is free to decide whether to maintain their choice or change any desired option. The results of the findings in

Table 9. Result of career planning indicators by TVET entrepreneurs.

Career Planning Indicator	Item
i. Focus in Career Planning	Focus on entrepreneurship should have been included since the beginning of study at the institution
	Focus on entrepreneurship can also be done after graduation from an institution but requires a stronger effort
	Focusing on an entrepreneurship career should be a priority in the career planning of entrepreneurs
	Focus on entrepreneurship makes entrepreneurs more inspired to become entrepreneurs
	Focus on study should be prioritized in career planning at institution
	Focusing on studies helps improve the academic achievement of entrepreneurs
	Focusing on a special career can be done after graduation
	Focusing on studies can enhance the skills and expertise of entrepreneurs in the field of study
ii. Objective in Career Planning	Assigning a specific career objective (career type) must be set in career planning and one must strive to achieve it
	The objectives of career planning are logical and in line with the ability of the entrepreneurs (realistic)
	Assigning a career objective like a high paying salary
	The objectives of career planning can be modified (flexible) according to the current situation of entrepreneurs
iii. Self-efficacy in Career Planning	Optimize career plans that are suitable to the personality of the entrepreneur
	Confidence that the planned career is in line with the aptitude of the entrepreneur
	Confidence that career is planned according to the value (beliefs and self-esteem) held by entrepreneurs
	Entrepreneurs really know their strengths and weaknesses in planning their career
	Confident that career planning will be able to be implemented by entrepreneurs
iv. Catalytic Factors in Career Planning	Part-time work during study gives exposure to entrepreneurs in the real world of work that can affect their career planning
	Practical training gives entrepreneurs the space to feel the real world of work and have influence in the planning of their careers
	Formal career guidance from an institution helps entrepreneurs make career plans
	Engagement in co-curricular activities improves personality and helps entrepreneurs plan their careers better
	Participation in outside courses during study at institution, such as entrepreneurship courses, gives entrepreneurs a thorough understanding of good career planning
v. Career Planning Approach	Entrepreneurs plan their careers based on the internet, as it is convenient and saves time
	Entrepreneurs plan careers with close friends and family to sharing ideas and experiences
	Entrepreneurs plan careers with people who specialize in careers such as counselors, lecturers, and mentors to get guidance and advice
	Entrepreneurs plan career with influential people like community leaders, politicians, and so on to gain moral support

are the items that have been agreed upon by all the entrepreneurs.

Career planning is the basis of individual career development and it shows that career planning is a necessity during study [11]. This is in line with Super’s Career Development Theory [46] which emphasizes the importance of career planning for every individual and insists that academic achievement does not guarantee that a person will have a good career if they do not have good career planning. In addition, Ajzen [11] mentioned that planned behavioral theory also states that the formation of human behavior can be determined by the determination of a person to achieve something. Indirectly, it shows that students with high entrepreneurship will be more likely to make career plans to become entrepreneurs someday and vice versa. This study shows that the education system environment in Malaysia is more academically oriented. Hence, a person is very closely associated with their examination results. It also shows that if a person gets good exam results, they have better opportunities for choosing a career. They are free to choose whatever field they wish to get into with their excellent exam results. However, good exam results do not guarantee that one is a good entrepreneur, because the field of entrepreneurship has certain indicators that are necessary to become successful entrepreneurs.

4. Discussion

The findings show that focusing on entrepreneurship can also be done after graduation from an institution, but it requires a stronger effort based on the experience of TVET graduate entrepreneurs, some of whom do not plan their careers first. This is because they have a conventional profile where they acknowledge that they just followed the rules of learning in the institution without taking other initiatives to contribute to their own career planning. This is in line with the findings of a study done by Nor [13] which states that those who have this conventional profile enjoy a sense of taste, do not want to share dreams or ambitions with anyone, and are not imaginative. They only act according to the time frame they perceive when it comes to planning or making career decisions. This is because they have a fairly low entrepreneurial career awareness but have the desire for a good future. However, they are very persistent, they persevere, and are able to work hard to get the career that they aspire to and achieve a high income. These findings were the answers to a study done by Kassim [47] which stated that each individual cannot let their careers go through natural processes and surrender to fate for outcomes. Most of their career planning and exploration is done after graduation. Hence, as demonstrated in this study, they needed to make a more diligent effort to start the move to becoming an entrepreneur, because they stated that at first they did not intend to become entrepreneurs. This is in line with the theory of behavior by Ajzen [11] which states that intentions will determine one’s actions. The findings are also parallel to a study conducted by Holland [7], which shows that a conventional person’s need for career planning is high because their career choice does not coincide with their own potential. This identifies how environment affects choice, but ultimately the locus of control and the determining factor is the individual [48,49]. Therefore, they are able to plan their career because the institution where they are studying helps to provide career paths, especially entrepreneurship in their study system. This finding is in line with the recommendations of St-Jean and Mathieu [50] which encompass the perspective of career counseling practices, thus mentoring is made an effective medium in helping potential entrepreneurs with their career choices.

In addition, items that focus on entrepreneurial care as a priority in career planning obtained high consensus. The findings of the study found that they had a systematic profile in every action and made sure that early planning included planning a future career as an entrepreneur. Every plan needs to be realized successfully even if it takes longer. This is because some opportunities do not appear by chance and need to be designed in to be achieved. Hence, there needs to be focus on entrepreneurship as part of real career planning. Although there is an income increase for those who have more years of schooling, such evolution might not just be the result of obtaining higher levels of education.

Next, items that get high consensus are those that focus on entrepreneurship which makes them more inspired to become entrepreneurs. This positive character allows them to be able to visualize their own vision in their dream career. Their forward-thinking patterns give them a twist compared to other individuals in planning their career, where the problem is seen as creating opportunities rather than being a barrier to success. They are flexible and have a far-reaching view of entrepreneurship and are always inspired, which makes them wise in planning to become entrepreneurs. According to [51,52], entrepreneurs must have five striking personality traits, which include passion, resilience, a strong sense of “self,” flexibility, and vision. In line with Guzman and Choi [53], the ability of students to adapt is more important than workmanship and marketability in achieving alignment with work.

However, the items that get high consensus in career planning focus are focused on studying to help improve academic achievement. The findings of this study show that a person who has a cognitive profile will place intelligence and mastery in the areas of study as a success factor in future careers. For them, the focus on mastery in the field of study are the most important thing in career planning. This is because they think that the more skillful and efficient they are in their studies, the easier it will be for them to get a job. They are focused and consistent with the current task, assessment, teaching, and learning at the institution. In fact, the impact of academic achievement is very influential in achieving the future career of a student. Hence, it is not strange for academic achievement to cause a person to have more options in their career, especially in entrepreneurship.

The analysis of the survey findings in relation to a focus on career planning of the TVET entrepreneurs obviously showed that focus on entrepreneurship in career planning should be carried out from the beginning of their studies at the institution. This finding supports previous studies which have found that someone’s focus is more focused on becoming an entrepreneur and their actions and approaches will revolve around preparing oneself to become an entrepreneur. The current findings are also parallel to recent results indicating that career focus is one important element in career planning because future career focus shows that a person is so committed in his or her future career planning, which means their steps in career planning are directed towards achieving future career goals. Additionally, entrepreneurial career focus reflects a person’s full concentration on becoming an entrepreneur in the future. This finding provides an answer to Kassim [47], which shows that not everyone can choose their career through natural processes and give up to fate to allow for whatever will happen. Most of the plans and explorations of their careers were done after graduation. Therefore, in this study, they needed more diligent efforts to start the move to become entrepreneurs because they stated that at first they did not intend to become entrepreneurs. This is in line with Ajzen’s [11] behavioral theory that intention will determine one’s actions. This finding also gives an answer to Holland [7], suggesting that a person who is conventional in their career planning’s likelihood to work for a short time is high because their career choices do not coincide with their own potential. Thus, they can plan their careers since the institutions they are studying at help to provide career paths, especially entrepreneurship, in their education system. This finding is also in line with a study done by Amla [3] that shows that entrepreneurial awareness in Malaysia is still at a new level and this is related to the fun of choosing a path career as well as the absence of a career path map between training and the learning environment and the nature of the job.

Next, the study revealed that assigning specific, logical, flexible career objectives must be set in career planning, one must strive to achieve them, and they should be in line with the real ability of the entrepreneur and the current situation. Taken together, these findings, for Sharf [54], show that a well-defined career plan is a must because without objectively planning their study, they will not have their own direction. In the findings of the study of Nor [13], it was shown that each profile of the respondents had their own indicators in their career planning objectives to achieve specific objectives and were rigid with the desired career choice. This is because specific objectives will provide clear direction in planning while realistic objectives reduce stress on individuals, and they will set targets within their own capabilities. This study also suggests that every career plan should have its own objectives to enable the focus of career planning to be refined in depth. The current findings are also parallel to recent results indicating that some also see realistic and specific career objectives with their own flexible capabilities in the current environment, while Haratsis et al. [55] explained that the style and the objectives of individual career planning are very influential in determining their career direction. Thus, the objectives of career planning are flexible, have their own vision, are set specifically, meet logic, are realistic both in terms of strengths and weaknesses, and have a long-term career plan.

The results of the analysis also found that individuals who want to pursue entrepreneurship should have self-efficacy in career planning in order to optimize career plans that are suitable to their personality, confidence that the planned career is in line with their aptitude, confidence that career is planned according to the values [belief and self-esteem] they hold, they really know their strengths and weaknesses, and are confident it can be implemented. Self-efficacy in career planning is emphasized for every entrepreneur, as most of the respondents [entrepreneurs] have self-efficacy in entrepreneurship since they are students. Entrepreneurial self-efficacy is used to highlight career choice intentions [56] and self-efficacy has an effect on determining the direction of a person’s career. Self-efficacy is described as an indispensable element in career planning because the implementation of what is planned requires strength and self-determination [57]. As entrepreneurs start engaging more with their surroundings and initiate new positive emotion-supported activities. As a result of emotional support, they slowly develop more intense feelings and passion for their entrepreneurial ventures because perceived emotional support enhances entrepreneurial passion [33]. The behavior of perception of control has a view that overlaps with the views of Bandura [26] on the perception of self-efficacy with perceptions of ability to execute behavioral targets [11]. Self-efficacy is an individual’s assessment of their ability to do something. Things that affect efficacy considerations include ‘hands-on’ experiences or imaginative skills and learning [26]. The perception of control can regularly predict the attainment of goals, as control is a problem for some [11]. A distinctive set of underpinning traits, behaviors, and competencies have been conceived as leadership and entrepreneurship [58]. Stephan and Pathak [58] regressed this type of entrepreneurial activity [particularly at an early stage of entrepreneurial activity [59] on different cultural factors, in which leadership was identified as a particular characteristic that drives an individual’s decision to become an entrepreneur. This demonstrates the trust of a person through his or her efficacy in associating with an entrepreneurial career. The results from this study show how someone who is not interested in becoming a ‘forced’ entrepreneur becomes an entrepreneur because they do not get a job that is equivalent to their qualifications. This means entrepreneurs need to come from high interest and passion to realize the path of entrepreneurial work. This demonstrates the ability of a person through his or her own efficacy to associate with entrepreneurial care even though they are from a technical field. This situation is in line with Ajzen and Fishben [59] who stipulate that behavioral attitudes towards behavior, subjective norms, and behavioral control perceptions are a spontaneous indicator of the intention of a behavior that sends a signal for a person to act.

The research on the catalytic factors in career planning findings show that part-time work during study, practical training, formal career guidance, engagement in co-curricular activities, and participating in entrepreneurship courses during study provide good career planning. In addition, the catalytic factors in career planning such the indicator in belief toward a normative referent of hope constitutes a belief in the expectations of an organization, parents, family, teacher, lecturer, or friends [60] as shown in Ridha, Burhanuddin and Wahyu [61]. This is because all these factors are capable of raising or lowering the spirit of the individual in trying to achieve what they aspire to. Entrepreneurship lecturers improve the effectiveness of entrepreneurial education in influencing student entrepreneurial intentions and behavior, as there is a possibility that lecturer’s entrepreneurship attitudes and behaviors will raise the entrepreneurial intention and behaviors because many students see their lecturers as role models and also want to be like them [62]. However, Cognitive Social Theory [57] stated that career planning has a lot of influences either internally or externally such as personal goals, social environments, and so on. It requires individual judgment to determine their tendency in determining the direction of their career planning. Results from this study have gathered that most TVET entrepreneurs said that they were motivated by part-time work during their studies which expose them to the real world of work and influenced their career planning towards entrepreneurship. As a result, they have been exposed to factors that triggered them to become successful entrepreneurs such as family, neighbors, teachers, peers, lecturers, and former employers either from primary, secondary, university, or real-world employment. Furthermore, the current findings are also parallel to the recent results indicating that individuals find entrepreneurship to be a more realistic career choice because they find their peers in their social network to be role models [63] and entrepreneurship can also be inspired by successful entrepreneurs who are constantly in the media [64,65]. This means that not only do people have the incentive to pursue entrepreneurship, but the environment inspires one to make entrepreneurship a career.

Finally, for the career planning approach, the results of the findings show that to be an entrepreneur, one should know how to use the internet to explore, plan a career with close friends and family, plan a career with people who specialize in the area, and plan a career with influential people. Nor [13] stated that the career planning approach can be divided into two, namely self-imagination and discussion. On the other hand, Ajzen [11] stated that it refers to one’s perception of social pressure to carry out a behavior or related behaviors. These findings supported previous studies which showed that entrepreneurs should build their networks strategically, looking for partners who can provide high-quality relationships through emotional support and diverse perspectives. They should also look for social relationships that provide an environment for learning, experimentation, and support [66]. The approach of career planning as a perception of social norms is the measurement of social support behavior with other important people, such as family, friends, mentors, and other role models. Family contexts and motivation represent two aspects that, in the entrepreneurship literature, are also considered to be determinants of intention [67] because in the family context, numerous studies suggest that students with a history of entrepreneurial relatives may be influenced in their career intentions [68]. Results from this study have shown that this is because some entrepreneurs inherit the empire of an entrepreneurship career from their family. They are exposed to the business environment and entrepreneurship by their family and are just waiting for the right time to continue the family heritage. Hence, each individual must plan his/her career closely in accordance with his/her individual personality to ensure good results in the future. This study also shows the role of social media and digital media that become a trigger factor for a person to become an entrepreneur as well as earn a high income. In addition, the values, culture, and traditions of a person is important in the acceptance of a particular career as entrepreneurs. Furthermore, factors that are driven by stability come either from salary or skill. This does not apply to entrepreneurs where self-appearances are not fixed. However, it is difficult to prove when considering the perceptions of a happier society with a more stable career like working in the government sector.

5. Conclusions

From the study, five career planning indicators are found to be important and need to be addressed transparently for an entrepreneur to achieve a high income. It can be concluded that a focus on entrepreneurship should be emphasized by the institution from the beginning of their studies. It can also be undertaken after graduation, however this requires a stronger effort. It should also be made a priority and it makes the individual more inspired to become an entrepreneur. Institutions should prioritize career planning in their curriculum and enhance the skills and expertise in entrepreneurship in their TVET fields of study. In fact, assigning a specific career objective and striving to achieve a high salary is crucial and must be within the realm of the entrepreneur’s abilities [realistic]. These objectives can be modified [flexible] according to the current situation of the entrepreneur. It is left to the self-efficacy of the students to optimize career plans that are suitable to the personality, belief, and self that is held by the individual. Obviously part-time work during study, practical training, formal career guidance, and co-curricular activities are part of the catalyst factors that give exposure to entrepreneurship in the real world of work, which can affect career planning. Usually, the entrepreneurs plan their career based on the internet, as it is convenient and saves time, or with close friends and family in order to share ideas and experiences. It is also often done with people who specialize in careers such as counsellors, lecturers, and mentors in order to get guidance and advice, or with influential people like community leaders, politicians, and so on to gain moral support. In conclusion, entrepreneurs also need to have high confidence in implementing career planning that is in line with their capabilities, beliefs, and self-esteem. Furthermore, an entrepreneur needs to know their strengths and weaknesses in planning their career.

The implications of this study will help graduates to become successful entrepreneurs and to provide awareness that one should have a good career plan. This indicator is important because one’s career begins with a plan that comes from diverse sources as well as a person’s life journey. We need to focus on designing careers from the outset to make someone more inspired to become an entrepreneur. Focusing on a career in entrepreneurship should be a priority in entrepreneurship career planning. However, focus on the field of study can also enhance the skills and expertise of entrepreneurs in business. The diversity of profiles for individuals also creates several potential entrepreneurs with various challenges that are able to achieve high income.

Therefore, the researchers propose that institutions should review the above career planning elements for improvement and as a guide to encourage more students to be involved in entrepreneurship. This study clearly demonstrates that a high and attainable aspect of career planning indicators in TVET curriculum can really work as a tool for meaningful improvement in delivering education and possibly will increase the likelihood that students will become entrepreneurs.