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Article

Waste Not, Want Not: Sustainable Use of Anti-Stripping-Treated Waste Ceramic in Superpave Asphalt Mixtures

by
Mazen J. Al-Kheetan
1,2
1
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Mutah University, Mutah, Karak 61710, Jordan
2
Materials Science and Energy Lab, MSEL, Mutah University, Mutah, Karak 61710, Jordan
Sustainability 2023, 15(9), 7579; https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097579
Submission received: 12 April 2023 / Revised: 27 April 2023 / Accepted: 2 May 2023 / Published: 5 May 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Waste and Recycling)
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Abstract

:
This research studied the sustainable utilization of waste ceramic in asphalt mixtures by substituting fine aggregate with treated and untreated waste ceramic produced from construction and demolition activities. To improve its adhesion to the asphalt binder and lower the moisture susceptibility of Superpave asphalt mixes, the waste ceramic was treated with a silane anti-stripping agent. The Marshall quotient (MQ), Marshall stability (MS), indirect tensile strength (ITS), retained Marshall stability (RMS), and tensile strength ratio (TSR) were used to assess the mechanical performance and moisture susceptibility of all mixes. The changes in the chemical composition, synergy, physical state, and microstructure of the studied composites were also investigated using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results revealed that substituting fine aggregate with 50% silane-treated waste ceramics reduced permanent deformation by 46%. Moreover, integrating silane-treated ceramics reduced asphalt mixture moisture susceptibility, with an RMS value of 87.7% obtained for asphalt containing 75% treated ceramic particles. The application of a silane anti-stripping agent resulted in high adhesion between the ceramic particles and bitumen as well as the production of fewer air voids in the mixes due to the formation of strong CH aromatic linkages, as well as Si-O and Si-O-Si bonds. The possibility of employing waste ceramics in asphalt mixes as a sustainable alternative to virgin aggregates while decreasing environmental impacts and improving resource efficiency is highlighted in this paper.

1. Introduction

The construction sector is dealing with a substantial waste problem caused by construction and demolition operations. This waste, referred to as construction and demolition waste (CDW), accounts for a sizable share of the worldwide waste produced and includes various materials such as wood, plastics, metals, ceramics, bricks, and concrete [1,2,3]. In 2018, the globe generated around 2 billion tons of solid waste, with CDW accounting for nearly 30% of that amount [4]. In the United States alone, CDW makes up approximately one-fourth of the total waste generated, which is sent to landfill [2]. Moreover, disposing of CDW poses significant ecological threats such as limited landfill space, air and water pollution, and escalated CO2 emissions [5]. Various environmentally friendly disposal approaches have been developed to combat these issues, including the recycling of CDW and reusing it in other activities [3,6,7]. Using ceramic tiles produced from CDW in construction activities is a highly effective approach for CDW recycling, particularly when integrated within asphalt mixtures [8,9]. The ceramic tiles, after being crushed, can serve as an aggregate in asphalt mixtures, thereby promoting the sustainability of road construction and decreasing the amount of waste being dumped in landfills [9,10,11].
Several studies have explored the potential of incorporating waste ceramic into pavement construction, with promising results. Cabalar et al. [11] used waste ceramic tile grains as a substitute for subgrade soil materials and mineral aggregates in asphalt mixtures. Muniandy et al. [9] replaced granite aggregates in asphalt mixtures with fine grains of waste ceramic at different replacement ratios that reached 80% of the weight of the granite. Their results indicated that optimum performance could be achieved when replacing granite with 20% waste ceramic, where the mixture’s stability was enhanced by 25%. Silvestre et al. [12] also investigated the practicality of incorporating ceramic tile waste in binder course mixtures. Conventional limestone was replaced with recycled ceramic aggregate (RCA) in two particle sizes: fine fractions of 0–4 mm and coarse particles of 4–11 mm. The results confirmed that the RCA enhanced the mixture’s resistance to plastic deformation and tensile stress and increased the mixture’s susceptibility to moisture. It was found that up to 30% RCA substitution was sufficient to satisfy the binder course requirements. Moreover, the integration of ceramic in asphalt mixtures was found to enhance their performance under high temperature owing to the ceramic’s low thermal conductivity [13,14,15]. Feng et al. [16] investigated the influence of ceramic waste aggregate (CWA) collected from a sanitary industry on the performance and thermal conductivity of the wearing course of asphalt mixtures. The coarse basalt aggregates in various asphalt mixtures were partially replaced with 4.7 mm and 9.5 mm CWA, and the results indicated that CWA addition reduced the mixtures’ thermal conductivity and rutting. However, it was noticed that CWA adversely affected the moisture susceptibility of the mixtures, especially at 80% substitution. Moisture damage is the most complex problem that causes several types of pavement failure: stripping, potholes, raveling, fatigue cracks, and deformation. It is mainly caused by repeated water infiltration into asphalt mixtures, resulting in the dislodgement of the aggregates from the asphalt binder [17]. Accordingly, incorporating anti-stripping agents into asphalt mixtures can help to effectively resist moisture damage by enhancing the adherence of asphalt to the aggregates’ surface and reducing asphalt’s wettability [18,19]. A silane coupling agent (SCA) is an effective anti-stripping additive that promotes the interfacial adhesion between asphalt cement and aggregates by developing hydrogen bonds on the aggregates’ surface [18]. It also reduces the hydrophilicity of aggregates in asphalt mixtures by raising the contact angle of the aggregates’ surface [20]. Moreover, employing an SCA in conventional asphalt mixtures has proven efficacious in improving their performance, mitigating their moisture susceptibility, and enhancing the rheological performance of asphalt [20,21,22,23,24,25]. However, no prior studies have specifically discussed the integration of waste ceramic into asphalt mixtures after treating it with an SCA or any other anti-stripping agent.
Accordingly, the aim of this study was to explore the mechanical performance and moisture susceptibility of Superpave asphalt mixes that contain silane-treated and untreated waste ceramics, which substituted fine aggregates in the mixtures at various weight percentages. This research also explored the interaction mechanism and interfacial bonding between waste ceramic and bitumen to gain a deeper understanding of the changes in the chemical composition and physical state of the tested mixtures. Figure 1 shows an illustration of the experimental work conducted in this research. By examining the incorporation of waste ceramic with a silane anti-stripping agent, this research provides valuable insights into developing more sustainable and durable pavement construction practices.

2. Material Characterization and Testing

2.1. Raw Materials

All the used asphalt mixtures comprised (1) bitumen of a 60/70 grade, sourced from the Jordan petroleum refinery company, Mafraq, Jordan; (2) limestone aggregate supplied by a quarry in Karak, Jordan; (3) and waste ceramic aggregates, which were disposed of as defective products by the manufacturing company. The limestone aggregates were divided into two size fractions, coarse fractions that passed through a 1.0” sieve and were retained on sieve No. 4 (25.0 to 4.75 mm) and fine fractions that passed sieve No.4 and through sieve No. 200 (4.75 to <0.075 mm). The waste ceramic aggregates (waste tiles with 5–7 mm thickness) were crushed using a laboratory jaw-crusher and sieved to obtain fine particle sizes that passed through sieve No. 4 (<4.75 mm), including the filler portion that passed through sieve No. 2 00 (75 μm). Figure 2 illustrates the preparation process of the waste ceramic.
Moreover, two forms of waste ceramic were prepared: treated with silane and untreated. Silane treatment was carried out by soaking the waste ceramic in vinyl tris (2-methoxyethoxy) silane liquid for 48 h, followed by drying for 72 h at room temperature of about 25 °C prior to batching. The physical characteristics of the aggregate and waste ceramic are presented in Table 1, which indicates that they met the required specifications for bituminous paving mixtures of heavy traffic volume, as outlined in the Jordanian specifications [26]. The physical characteristics of the bitumen used are shown in Table 2, which conformed to the requirements of ASTM D6373 and ASTM D946 [27,28,29,30]. This asphalt binder type is mainly used in road construction in Jordan and is equivalent to the “Performance-Grade” asphalt (PG 64-16).

2.2. Asphalt Mix Design

The utilization of Superpave mixtures has been found to exhibit superior performance over Marshall mixtures in Jordan, even at varying loadings and different environmental conditions [29,31]. Thus, this research study adopted the Superpave mix design method AASHTO R35 [32] for mix design and sample preparations. Three initial trial aggregate blends with a 19 mm nominal maximum aggregate size were selected for evaluation, and their gradations using the 0.45-power chart are shown in Figure 3.
According to the AASHTO R35 standard testing method, the selected gyrations for the Superpave gyratory compactor (SGC) were N i n i . = 8 , N d e s . = 100 , a n d   N m a x . = 160 , which are suitable for an estimated traffic volume of 3.0 to 30 million ESALs [32]. These gyrations are typically applied to multilane highways, such as those in Jordan.
Following the Superpave volumetric design procedure, the initial trial asphalt content (Pbi) was determined to be 4.9% (by weight of total mix) for all blends. The average bulk specific gravity ( G m b ) of compacted asphalt mixtures at 100 gyrations and the theoretical maximum specific gravity ( G m m ) of loose asphalt mixtures were determined for each blend to calculate their relative density at the designated initial and design numbers of gyrations. The estimated volumetric properties were then calculated for each blend to achieve the desired 4.0% air voids, as shown in Table 3.
The results indicated that Blends B and C met the Superpave volumetric criteria, while Blend A did not meet the VMA and D.P conditions. Therefore, mixture B was chosen as the aggregate structure for all asphalt mixtures in this study. The average volumetric properties of asphalt concrete samples prepared at 4.4%, 4.9%, 5.4%, and 5.9% asphalt contents were then determined, as shown in Figure 4. An amount of 4.8% (by total mix weight) was determined as an appropriate bitumen content for mixtures with air voids of 4.0%. The other Superpave design criteria of VMA, VFA, %Gmm at Nini, and D.P were also checked at the design asphalt content. The maximum relative density (%Gmm at Nmax.) and moisture sensitivity of the designed mixture also satisfied the Superpave design criteria. The average %Gmm at Nmax. of two replicate samples compacted at 160 gyrations was 96.73%. A tensile strength ratio (TRS) of 83.1% was determined for compacted samples at 7% air voids by following the AASHTO T283 standard method [33]. This approach of Superpave asphalt mix design has been followed in some previous studies, such as by Jweihan et al. [31] and Asi [29].
The asphalt mix design of 4.8% asphalt content was employed in this research as a control mix (CM) with limestone aggregates. The optimum asphalt contents (OACs) of the other mixtures substituted with different percentages of treated and untreated waste fine ceramics were determined, as shown in Figure 5. It was noted that as the untreated waste ceramic percentages increased in the asphalt mixtures, the optimum asphalt contents also increased due to the higher absorption capability of ceramic. However, asphalt mixtures incorporating silane-treated ceramics showed slightly lower optimum asphalt contents compared with the control mix (CM), which could be accredited to the silane coupling agent’s hydrophobic effect that reduced the treated particles’ permeability and absorption in the combined aggregate matrix [34].

2.3. Specimens and Testing Procedure

Nine asphalt mix compositions were prepared, namely CM, UCW-25, UCW-50, UCW-75, UCW-100, TCW-25, TCW-50, TCW-75, and TCW-100. The asphalt mixtures were individually batched and mixed at their optimum asphalt content (OAC) using a small laboratory planetary mixer to ensure accuracy. The mixed samples were then conditioned at 152 °C compaction temperature for 2 h, as the AASHTO R30 standard recommends [35], to allow sufficient binder absorption. The SGC was used to compact the 4.0 × 2.5-inch samples at a 4.0% air voids content, as suggested by the AASHTO T312 [36]. Figure 6 shows the preparation procedure and the testing of samples.
The mechanical performance and moisture sensitivity of the prepared mixtures were assessed by calculating their retained Marshall stability (RMS), Marshall quotient (MQ), indirect tensile strength (ITS), and tensile strength ratio (TSR). Six samples of each composition were split into two groups. The first group of three samples (unconditioned) was soaked in water for 30 min at 60 °C to be tested under the standard Marshall test ASTM D6927 [37]. The other three samples of each mix (conditioned) were soaked in water for 24 h at the same temperature before testing for Marshall stability and flow. The Marshall quotient, which is the ratio of Marshall stability to flow, was then determined. A high MQ value indicates a stiff asphalt mix with high resistance to shear stresses and permanent deformation [38]. The retained Marshall stability, which evaluates the moisture susceptibility of mixtures, was calculated as the ratio of the average stability of conditioned samples to the average stability of unconditioned samples [21,39,40]. Jordan’s MPWH specification requires a 25% maximum loss of Marshall stability for the heavy-traffic wearing layer, which is equivalent to an RMS value > 75% [26].
The indirect tensile strength (ITS) and the tensile strength ratio (TSR) were determined for all mixtures following the AASHTO T283 recommendations [33]. The ITS test was performed using a standard Marshall loading machine. A compressive load was applied at a constant rate of 51 mm (2 in)/minute in the parallel direction to the vertical diameter plane of the test sample until it collapsed by splitting. The ITS and TSR values were determined by testing six samples from each mix composition: three conditioned (wet) and three unconditioned (dry).
The conditioned samples were saturated using a vacuum at 80% of their air voids and tightly wrapped with a waterproof plastic film. Then, they were subjected to a freeze-thaw cycle consisting of 16 h of freezing at −18 °C and 24 h of water immersion at 60 °C. Finally, they were wrapped and conditioned in a water bath for 1 h at 25 °C before conducting the ITS test. The dry samples were maintained in waterproof plastic bags and conditioned in a water bath at 25 °C for 2 h before performing the ITS test. The tensile strength ratio (TSR) was determined to assess the asphalt mixtures’ moisture sensitivity, which is the ratio of the average ITS of the conditioned samples to the average ITS of the unconditioned samples. Superpave design specifications recommend a minimum of 80% TSR for asphalt mixtures, where a lower value indicates an asphalt mix prone to stripping and damage after construction [41].
The bonding between the asphalt binder and waste ceramic aggregates (treated and untreated) as well as the morphology of asphalt mixtures were evaluated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). To conduct this analysis, small specimens (10 mm3) of the asphalt mixtures were extracted from the samples, gold-coated, and subsequently examined using a Thermo Scientific Phenom XL desktop SEM (Waltham, MA, USA).
Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) was used to evaluate the impact of incorporating waste ceramic, both treated and untreated, on the chemical and structural composition of asphalt mixtures. A PerkinElmer spectrum two FT-IR instrument equipped with an ATR accessory was used in this test with an analysis range of 4000 cm−1 to 600 cm−1.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Marshall Quotient (MQ) and Retained Marshall Stability (RMS)

The MQ results of the unconditioned asphalt mix compositions are illustrated in Figure 7. As mentioned previously, the MQ measures the resistance of asphalt mixtures to rutting and permanent deformation. It can be recognized from Figure 7 that the addition of ceramic particles, whether treated or untreated, improved the resistance of mixtures to rutting compared with the control, where the highest MQ values for the treated and untreated ceramic mixtures were obtained at a 50% replacement ratio (8 KN/mm and 6.8 KN/mm for TCW-50 and UCW-50 mixtures, respectively). This improvement could be ascribed to the angular shape of the used ceramic particles, which improved the interlocking and the stiffness of the mix. Interestingly, asphalt mixtures containing treated ceramic particles performed better than those containing untreated ceramic particles. This was due to the silane coupling agent providing an extra adhesive bond between the ceramic particles and the bitumen.
Figure 8 presents the average Marshall stability values of both the conditioned and unconditioned mixtures. The results show that the Marshall stability of the conditioned samples decreased when increasing the percentage of untreated waste ceramic aggregates in the mixture. This refers to the high absorption of ceramic particles, which reduces the percentage of effective binder covering the particles, leading to an increase in water-induced bitumen displacement and a general loss in the mechanical performance of the mixture [42]. In contrast, asphalt mixtures containing treated ceramic aggregates showed better stability in both conditions compared with the control mix (CM). Moreover, the optimal replacement percentage with treated ceramics was found to be 75% (TCW-75), where the highest stability values of 18.1 kN and 15.9 kN were obtained for the unconditioned and conditioned samples, respectively.
The effect of incorporating untreated and treated waste ceramic particles on the retained Marshall stability (RMS) of all the mixtures is illustrated in Figure 9. It is evident that the RMS of the asphalt mixtures decreased with the increasing replacement ratio of virgin aggregates with untreated ceramic. The RMS value of the UCW-50 mix was marginally below the required limit of 75%, while the UCW-75 and UCW-100 mixtures recorded 68.3% and 65.5% RMS values, respectively, indicating their susceptibility to moisture damage. In contrast, all treated mixtures exhibited better moisture resistance than the control mix. The highest RMS value of approximately 87.7% was obtained for the asphalt mix containing 75% treated ceramic particles (TWC-75), suggesting that incorporating treated ceramic particles in asphalt mixtures can enhance their moisture resistance.

3.2. Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) and Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR)

ITS results of both conditioned and unconditioned samples for all the mixture compositions are shown in Figure 10. It was observed that there was no substantial change in the ITS values for the UCW-25 mix compared with the control mix (CM). However, as the percentage of untreated waste ceramic in the asphalt mixtures increased, both conditioned and unconditioned ITS values decreased. This refers to the moisture diffusion through particles into the aggregate–binder interface, which negatively affects the adhesion between the mineral aggregates and the binder [43,44]. This manifestation was significant in the untreated ceramic batches as a result of their high absorption rate and the easy intrusion of water in the conditioned samples. Moreover, in the unconditioned and untreated ceramic batches, the glazed part of ceramic particles reduced the effectiveness of the binder covering the particles, resulting in bitumen displacement due to water diffusion and a loss in the mixture’s strength [42]. As the percentage of treated waste ceramic increased, the ITS values for both conditions increased, which indicated to the influence of silane in reducing the diffusion of moisture into the aggregate-binder interface. The best improvement in ITS values was observed for the TCW-75 mix.
The TSR results shown in Figure 11 reveal that both the UCW-75 and UCW-100 mixtures had TSR values below the minimum limit of 80%. This indicates that both mixtures would be more susceptible to moisture damage than the CM, UCW-25, and UCW-50 mixtures. The application of silane treatment improved the TSR for the TCW-25, TCW-50, and TCW-75 asphalt mixtures, which had almost similar values. However, the TSR value for the TCW-100 mix did not satisfy the 80% standard limit, making it more prone to stripping. This could be due to the high acicular content of ceramic materials (ceramic glaze) that hinders adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates [16].

3.3. Morphological Characterization

Figure 12 presents the microstructure of a control mixture, a mixture with untreated waste ceramic, and a mixture with silane-treated waste ceramic. As depicted in Figure 12a, the control mixture displays a highly dense structure with few air voids, indicating good bonding between the bitumen and the limestone. In contrast, when substituting fine aggregate with untreated waste ceramic (Figure 12b), the resulting asphalt mixture revealed inadequate bonding between the waste ceramic particles and the binder, with limited asphalt binder coverage, leading to disintegrated ceramic particles. This mixture exhibited a higher degree of porosity with isolated pockets of air voids and larger and more irregularly shaped pores than the control. This may have weakened the mixture’s strength and decreased its durability. Moreover, the high glaze content in ceramic particles may have contributed to reducing the adhesion between the ceramic particles and the binder.
Interestingly, incorporating silane-treated ceramic particles into asphalt mixtures resulted in a highly dense structure with few air voids and good bonding between the ceramic particles and the asphalt binder, as demonstrated in Figure 12c. The coating of silane on ceramic particles enhanced the adhesion between them and the asphalt binder through silicate bonds, thus boosting the Marshall stability of the mixture, as described in Section 3.1 [18,45,46].

3.4. Chemical Characterization

The synergic effect of incorporating waste ceramic (untreated and treated) in asphalt mixtures was evaluated through ATR-FTIR analysis. As shown in Figure 13, some characteristic peaks can be observed in the tested mixtures: 2922 cm−1 produced by the aliphatic CH2 bond [47,48]; 2360 cm−1 representing antisymmetric stretching of the CO2 bond [49]; 1418 cm−1 and 1459 cm−1 generated by the CH bond [50,51]; 1032 cm−1 referring to Si-O-Si bonds [18]; 1015 cm−1 and 933 cm−1 stimulated by the S=O bond (sulfoxide group) [52,53,54]; 872 cm−1 generated by the C-H bond [47]; and 795 cm−1, 776 cm−1, and 774 cm−1 referring to Si-O bonds [55].
It is evident from Figure 13 that the intensity of CH2 and CH bonds, which are in charge of the development of alkanes and naphthenes in asphalt [56], increased when utilizing waste ceramic in mixtures, particularly in the case of treated ceramic. This suggests that the inclusion of silane-treated ceramic particles may have resulted in the formation of stronger C-H bonds between ceramic particles and bitumen, contributing to the improved bonding between the two materials. Additionally, the absorption of Si-O and Si-O-Si bonds was observed to significantly increase after the incorporation of treated ceramic particles into the mixture, which refers to the coupling of silane with asphalt. The coupling reaction creates a polymer film on the ceramic particles that enhances the intensity of these bonds, thereby contributing to higher tensile strength and stability of the mixture with treated waste ceramic compared with the control [18].
Remarkably, one peak emerged at 872 cm−1 in the mixture with treated ceramic particles, which refers to the creation of stronger aromatic benzene rings [56]. This finding signifies the higher ductility of this mixture compared with that of the other two mixtures, making it more resistant to deformation. Moreover, the intensity of the S=O bond (sulfoxide group) was higher in the control and the mixture with untreated ceramic particles, which confirms their susceptibility to moisture damage and aging compared with the mix with treated ceramic. Furthermore, the existence of CO2 (2360 cm−1 peak) in all mixtures is considered insignificant due to its diffusion during mixing [56].

4. Conclusions

This study investigated the mechanical endurance and moisture susceptibility of Superpave mixes incorporating waste ceramic tiles. Fine aggregates of size < 0.075 mm to 4.75 mm were replaced with waste ceramic in two forms: treated with a silane anti-stripping agent and untreated. The substitution was performed at different percentages of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%. In addition, all mixtures were divided into two groups: one conditioned with water for 24 h and the other unconditioned. SEM and ATR-FTIR analyses were performed to investigate the micro-properties of all the mixes and the interaction mechanism between the ceramic particles and bitumen. The study reveals some key findings:
  • The MQ values revealed that incorporating waste ceramic aggregates in asphalt mixtures enhances their permanent deformation resistance. The high angularity of ceramic particles contributes to this improvement, with asphalt mixtures with treated ceramics displaying better performance than those with untreated ceramics, particularly for the TCW-50 mix.
  • Using silane-treated waste ceramics in asphalt mixtures enhances their performance regarding Marshall stability and indirect tensile strength (for both conditions), with the best performance observed for asphalt mixtures with 75% treated waste ceramic (TCW-75 mix).
  • The RMS results recommend using less than 50% untreated waste ceramic aggregates in asphalt mixtures. Nonetheless, all mixtures incorporating silane-treated waste ceramic exhibited better moisture resistance than the other mixtures, with the highest value recorded for the TWC-75 mix, approximately 87.7%.
  • The TSR test results confirm that the most suitable replacement percentages for the untreated and silane-treated ceramic aggregates in the Superpave asphalt mixtures are 50% and 75%, respectively.
  • In mixtures with untreated ceramic aggregates, inadequate bonding between waste ceramic particles and the binder, coupled with limited asphalt binder coverage, was observed. However, incorporating silane-treated ceramic aggregates into asphalt mixtures resulted in a highly dense structure with few air voids and excellent bonding between ceramic particles and the asphalt binder.

Funding

This work was supported by the Deanship of Academic Research, Mutah University, Karak, Jordan (grant No. 428/2021).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgments

The author wish to thank Yazeed Jweihan for his help in the experimental work in the laboratory. Also, the author would like to thank Ehsan Ghasawneh, Bashar Jaafreh, Wal’a Njadeen, Heba Hawawsheh, and Salm Agawat for their help in sieving the aggregates and capturing the photos of the experimental setup and materials preparation (Figure 2 and Figure 6). The funding of this research by the Deanship of Academic Research at Mutah University (grant No. 428/2021) is highly appreciated.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Research framework.
Figure 1. Research framework.
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Figure 2. Preparation of waste ceramic aggregates.
Figure 2. Preparation of waste ceramic aggregates.
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Figure 3. Gradations of the trial aggregate blends.
Figure 3. Gradations of the trial aggregate blends.
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Figure 4. Asphalt mix design data.
Figure 4. Asphalt mix design data.
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Figure 5. Optimum asphalt content of all mixtures.
Figure 5. Optimum asphalt content of all mixtures.
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Figure 6. Sample preparation and testing.
Figure 6. Sample preparation and testing.
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Figure 7. Average Marshall quotient of all mixtures.
Figure 7. Average Marshall quotient of all mixtures.
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Figure 8. Average Marshall stability of asphalt mixtures.
Figure 8. Average Marshall stability of asphalt mixtures.
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Figure 9. Retained Marshall stability of all mixtures.
Figure 9. Retained Marshall stability of all mixtures.
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Figure 10. Average indirect tensile strength of all mixtures.
Figure 10. Average indirect tensile strength of all mixtures.
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Figure 11. Tensile strength ratio of all mixtures.
Figure 11. Tensile strength ratio of all mixtures.
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Figure 12. Morphological analysis of asphalt mixtures: (a) control mixture; (b) with untreated waste ceramic aggregates; and (c) with treated waste ceramic aggregates.
Figure 12. Morphological analysis of asphalt mixtures: (a) control mixture; (b) with untreated waste ceramic aggregates; and (c) with treated waste ceramic aggregates.
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Figure 13. ATR-FTIR analysis of tested mixtures.
Figure 13. ATR-FTIR analysis of tested mixtures.
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Table
Table 1. Physical characteristics of aggregates and waste ceramic.
Table 1. Physical characteristics of aggregates and waste ceramic.
PropertyResultCriterion
Bulk specific gravity of coarse aggregates2.635na
Bulk specific gravity of fine aggregates2.557na
Bulk specific gravity of ceramic2.501na
Coarse aggregates’ absorption (%)1.9%na
Fine aggregates’ absorption (%)2.7%na
Ceramic absorption (%)4.9%na
Coarse aggregates’ abrasion loss (500 revolutions),%27.2%≤35%
Coarse aggregates’ ratio of wear loss (100/500)%22.3%≤25%
Angularity of coarse aggregates (%)100%100%
Angularity of fine aggregates (%)67%≥45%
Sand equivalent62≥45
Coarse aggregates’ flat/elongated particles0.6%≤10%
Coarse aggregates’ soundness by sodium sulfate (%)1.4%≤9%
Table
Table 2. Physical characteristics of the bitumen used.
Table 2. Physical characteristics of the bitumen used.
PropertyResultASTM D946 Requirements for 60/70 Penetration AsphaltASTM D6373 Criterion
Min.Max.
Penetration (0.1 mm)66.56070na
Specific gravity at 25 °C1.021.011.06na
Flash point (°C)310232na230 °C min.
Ductility at 25 °C, cm120100nana
Softening point (°C)504856na
Heating loss (%)0.3na0.80.8 max.
Penetration of residue, % of original64.354nana
Rotational viscosity at 135 °C, Pa.s0.468nana3.0 Pa.s max.
Rotational viscosity at 165 °C, Pa.s0.142nanana
Table
Table 3. Estimated volumetric properties of each blend.
Table 3. Estimated volumetric properties of each blend.
BlendEstimated AC%VMA%CriterionVFA%Criterion%Gmm@NiniCriterionD.PCriterion
A4.412.0213 min.66.7265–7586.03≤89.01.430.6–1.2
B4.913.4313 min.70.2165–7587.49≤89.01.030.6–1.2
C5.013.0513 min.69.3565–7586.70≤89.01.090.6–1.2
Note: VMA = voids in mineral aggregate; VFA = voids filled with asphalt; %Gmm@Nini = relative density at the initial number of gyrations; D.P = dust proportions.
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Al-Kheetan, M.J. Waste Not, Want Not: Sustainable Use of Anti-Stripping-Treated Waste Ceramic in Superpave Asphalt Mixtures. Sustainability 2023, 15, 7579. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097579

AMA Style

Al-Kheetan MJ. Waste Not, Want Not: Sustainable Use of Anti-Stripping-Treated Waste Ceramic in Superpave Asphalt Mixtures. Sustainability. 2023; 15(9):7579. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097579

Chicago/Turabian Style

Al-Kheetan, Mazen J. 2023. "Waste Not, Want Not: Sustainable Use of Anti-Stripping-Treated Waste Ceramic in Superpave Asphalt Mixtures" Sustainability 15, no. 9: 7579. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097579

APA Style

Al-Kheetan, M. J. (2023). Waste Not, Want Not: Sustainable Use of Anti-Stripping-Treated Waste Ceramic in Superpave Asphalt Mixtures. Sustainability, 15(9), 7579. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097579

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