Mapping Renewable Energy among Antarctic Research Stations

Abstract

This paper presents an overview of current electricity generation and consumption patterns in the Antarctic. Based on both previously published and newly collected data, the paper describes the current status of renewable-energy use at research stations in the Antarctic. A more detailed view of electricity systems is also presented, demonstrating how different types of resources may be used and combined. The paper will serve as a guide to various renewable-energy generation technologies, highlighting well-established praxis, lessons learned, and potential ideas for improvement. Several renewable electricity generation technologies that have proven effective for use in the Antarctic environment are described. as well as those that are currently in use. Finally, the paper summarizes the major lessons learned to support future projects and close the knowledge gap. The use of renewable-energy sources has the potential to reduce research stations’ greenhouse gas emissions, making research in Antarctica more sustainable. The availability of high-quality energy is crucial for survival and to allow scientists to conduct meaningful research at research stations under harsh Antarctic conditions.

1. Introduction

The Antarctic is one of the last frontiers on Earth, and habitation and research in the region are challenging and dangerous owing to its harsh environmental conditions [1,2]. The provision of sufficient infrastructure to researchers engaged in seasonal or year-round research in the Antarctic is essential. Energy is a crucial element of supportive infrastructure, needed to support space heating—required in living areas to prevent sensitive areas from freezing—electricity, water treatment, and fresh-water generation [3,4].

Clean-energy generation is particularly important in Antarctica, where scientists based at several research stations perform experiments with the aim of studying the region’s environment. If, for example, a diesel generator were to emit greenhouse gases locally, it would likely impact measurement outcomes, since locally emitted greenhouse gases are not representative of the wider area [4]. It is crucial, therefore, that research stations generate clean energy to enable scientists to conduct precise measurements. Moreover, clean energy supports the protection of the fragile environment and helps maintain natural equilibrium [3]. The fossil fuels typically used at research stations require complex and expensive shipping, making them particularly costly in the Antarctic context [5]. The use of fossil fuel can lead to dangerous situations, such as fuel spills that are difficult to extinguish in the event of fire. On 25 February 2012, a fuel leak caused a devastating fire at the Brazilian Comandante Ferrat Antarctica Station [4].

Interest in alternative energy sources in Antarctica has increased since the beginning of the 1990s [1,6]. In 1991, a wind turbine was installed at the German Neumayer Station [5]. One year later, in 1992, NASA and the US Antarctic Program tested a photovoltaic (PV) installation for a field camp [7]. Since then, the use of renewables has gradually increased. Beginning in the 2000s, a larger movement in the renewable-energy sector has been implemented in Antarctica [8]. Nowadays, newly built stations, such as Princess Elisabeth Station, are attempting to rely primarily on renewables [9]. The same may be said of major renovation projects or updates, which often integrate renewables into the existing infrastructure [1,6,10].

Reason for the Study

The present study maps the current use of renewable energy at research stations in Antarctica, providing an overview of the renewable-energy sources that are already in use or have been tested in the region. We identified a knowledge gap in the area of knowledge-sharing in relation to energy use in Antarctica’s research stations. The study analyzes past experiences of the use and development of renewable energy in Antarctica and elucidates the current status of renewable use in Antarctica to investigate how renewable energy might be integrated into energy systems for Antarctica. Thus, the study evaluated the lessons learned and identified best practices from past projects. The study’s summary also indicates the locations at which renewables are used. After mapping the energy sources used, the paper elaborates on the experience of harvesting renewable-energy sources.

2. Methodology

The research methodology was straightforward, combining several standard approaches. The study was based primary and secondary data, as shown in Figure 1. The secondary data were collected by means of a scoping and snowballing literature review, which represented the current state of knowledge [11]. The literature review started in a scoping way to generate an initial overview of energy use in Antarctica [12]. The papers that the scoping literature review identified as most valuable, such as those of Tin et al. (2010), Boccaletti et al. (2014), and Wolf (2015), were used as a starting point for a snowballing literature review [13]. If the data collected through the literature review were inconsistent or had information gaps, it was necessary to gather new information. New data were collected by surveying experts via email. The experts were representatives from various research stations, working in the field of energy and energy-related logistics. The newly collected primary data yielded new insights [14]. The survey response rate was a critical aspect of the data collection process. Unfortunately, in some cases, no response was returned, while in other cases, not all the necessary information was provided. This lack of information may have resulted in the omission of some cases from the study.

3. Mapping the Current Energy Situation

Antarctica is the only non-inhabited continent on Earth [2]. However, several traces of temporary human habitation dating back to the 19th century have been found there [15]. Today, research stations constitute the only human traces on Antarctica, as no military stations may be found there, in accordance with the Antarctic Treaty, leading some to dub Antarctica the “land of research” [3,16]. This study identified 81 research stations, which may be classified into two categories: year-round and seasonally operated stations. Fossil fuels constitute the continent’s predominant energy source. As Figure 2 illustrates, 37 research stations currently use renewables, but the data suggest that the proportion of renewable energy used is often low. Over time, however, different renewable-energy sources have been tested and integrated into research stations’ energy supply. Figure 3 highlights key milestones in the use of renewable energy in Antarctica.

Even those research stations that use a relatively high proportion of renewable energy use diesel generators as backup power sources. The combination of one or more renewable-energy sources with a diesel generator is known as a hybrid system [17]. In Antarctica, the renewable-energy sources used in hybrid systems are wind or solar power, both of which are non-dispatchable. The use of non-dispatchable energy sources may be problematic, owing to potential rapid shifts in energy output in response to weather fluctuations [18]. These rapid changes may cause fluctuations in power supply with respect to voltage and frequency when the proportion of renewable energy used is high [19]. When the share of renewables used is low, the diesel generator can stabilize voltage and frequency in the grid [20].

Grid-forming devices are typically used to even out fluctuations in systems with a high percentage of renewables, where grid-forming devices are needed. For example, at Princess Elisabeth Station, which has a high penetration of renewables (as Figure 3 illustrates), a battery system is used to stabilize the electricity grid [9]. The provision of high-quality electrical batteries can help even out discrepancies in supply and demand. The battery can help to shift electricity from times where more electricity is generated than used to a time of electricity shortage. The battery’s size determines the amount of energy that can be shifted to address shortages. Batteries have low self-discharge, ranging from 0.05 to 5% per day, depending on type [21]. Energy storage is essential in attaining high renewable usage, given that weather conditions sometimes do not allow high shares of renewables to be harvested. Batteries are capable of storing energy for a relatively short period, ranging from several hours to a few days [22,23]. As a form of intermittent energy storage in a high-penetration system, a battery may be sufficient for a seasonal research station.

Wind and solar power may be used as energy sources and may be particularly critical for year-round stations where wind power is available during the winter, depending on the energy system’s setup. Hydrogen may be an option for long-term energy storage. The Argentinian Esperanza Station in Antarctica tested a wind–hydrogen system for 18 months from 2009 to 2011 and found that the hydrogen side worked well for the project’s duration, with just some indications of issues relating to gas purity [16].

Energy Consumption

For an islanded energy system with non-dispatchable energy sources, it is important to analyze demand to facilitate high usage of the available energy. This analysis should focus on large energy consumers. The literature and inquiries show that large consumers are related to processes where heat is generated, such as a water supply [24,25]. To optimize the use of the generated non-dispatchable energy, it is necessary to evaluate whether major energy consumers may be used as flexible loads in the case of high energy generation from non-dispatchable sources. If the major consumers can be used as flexible loads, they may replace the dump load if energy generation exceeds demand [24]. The generated energy is converted to another energy form and stored. For example, surplus energy may be used to melt ice or snow to produce fresh water for later use, or a hot-tap water-storage tank may be overheated (according to specifications) as a means of storing energy. All these methods depend on how much extra energy can be stored. It is important to find flexible consumers to allow the system to operate as efficiently as possible. Overall, it can be seen that during the Antarctic winter the energy demand is highest, even when the population of a station is the lowest. The energy demand for Jang Bogo Station and King Sejong Station is shown in Figure 4 as primary fuel demand.

4. Available Renewable-Energy Sources

The use of wind energy in Antarctica can be challenging, due to the extreme climatic conditions; the annual mean temperature can be as low as −50 °C on the inland plateau [5]. The lowest temperature on Earth, measured at −89.2 °C, was recorded at Vostok Station in July 1983 [5,26]. The wind can reach particularly high speeds in coastal areas, and the highest wind speed in Antarctica—327 km/h—was measured at Dumont d’Urville Station in July 1972 [26]. On the inland plateau, the wind is relatively mild, and the highest wind speed at the South Pole was 93 km/h in September 2011 [26]. Global horizontal solar radiation peaked in December, reaching 300 W/m² [24]. Comparison with South Korea (Seoul) shows an annual average global horizontal radiation of approximately 3.9 kWh/m², with an annual average global horizontal radiation of 2.87 kWh/m² in Antarctica (SANAE IV Station) [24,27]. This demonstrates that solar potential is an exciting option, despite its seasonal availability. According to some observations, wind and solar power may be used as wholly complementary energy sources [1]. When the sun is absent, there is typically wind, and vice versa, as Section 6 elaborates in detail.

4.1. PV

4.1.1. Introduction

Solar power harvesting in Antarctica started in the early 1990s, when NASA and the US Antarctic Program tested PV at a field camp to generate electricity [7]. Since then, the collected data have revealed that the installed capacity has increased to over 220 kWp nowadays. The current largest PV installation identified in this study is at the Italian Mario Zucchelli Station, with an installed capacity of 62 kWp [28].

4.1.2. Solar Conditions

Solar power does not always appear applicable in high latitudes, due to seasonality. However, harsh, cold conditions also positively affect electricity generation with PV cells. Low temperatures can increase the efficiency of PV cells [4,29,30]. The power output increases by 0.35–0.5% per Kelvin, compared to the standard testing temperature [31]. Moreover, snow reflects solar radiation, which increases the yield of electricity generation [1]. Observations from weather stations indicate that PV installations can contribute significantly to the electricity mix during the Antarctic summer, as Figure 5 illustrates. From October till the end of February, the solar potential is significant, which makes solar energy particularly interesting in terms of seasonal use.

4.1.3. Technical Problems and Solutions

The harsh environmental conditions can also exert a negative impact on PV infrastructure. Wind may cause snow to accumulate in front of the PV panel and eventually cover it [3,6,31]. PV panels are often mounted on walls to avoid snow accumulation and coverage. Walls are suitable because, in high latitudes, a high angle is preferred so that the solar radiation hits the panel from an optimal angle [31]. Moreover, the steep angle allows the snow to glide down. PV panels mounted on walls can be elevated from the ground to reduce the impact of near-surface flying parts. At Gondwana Station, little precipitation was previously observed and the dry snow was quick to blow away. As such, snow coverage was less problematic [32]. Owing to climate change, however, Gondwana Station now experiences more wet snow or rain, which clings to the PV panels, which are mounted nearly horizontally on a roof [32]. Nevertheless, strong gusts can blast ice or gravel against the PV panel, shattering the protective glass [3]. Such shattering will lead to faster degradation of the PV panel, which reduces the panel’s yield.

At Jang Bogo Station during winter, an additional protective cover for the PV panels was used [33]. However, the protective cover did not withstand the impact of stones, and no additional winter protection was pursued [33]. Thicker and stronger panels that were less likely to shatter were used to replace the broken PV panels [33]. One possible solution to this might be the use of some additional protective glass coating to reinforce the glass. However, further research and development are needed in this regard.

At the seasonal Gregor Johann Mendel Station, the damage to the PV panel occurred during the wintertime. This may have been the result of snow accumulation and several phase transitions between water and ice, which may have led to high pressure [34].

During the summertime, Antarctica has long daylight hours, often coinciding with periods of high activity at research stations. To ensure a more uniform electricity generation with PV throughout the day, a PV arrangement with different orientations, ranging from east-facing to north-facing to west-facing PV arrays, may be used [1,35]. With three different orientations, each PV array peaks at a different time, allowing the generation of electricity over more hours per day. This arrangement, in combination with a small battery, makes it easier to achieve a high PV. The battery is used for peak shaving and for stabilizing voltage and frequency, like a spinning reserve [21]. The research indicates that PV works well as an energy source for Antarctica’s research stations.

4.2. Wind

4.2.1. Introduction

Wind-energy harvesting in Antarctica may have the potential to reduce fossil-fuel consumption considerably and alleviate dependence on fuel deliveries. One of the first wind turbines installed in Antarctica was the 20 kW wind turbine that was placed at Neumayer Station in 1991 [5]. The first large-scale wind turbine, with 300 kW, was installed at Mawson Station in 2003 [8]. Wind-energy use is becoming increasingly prevalent at Antarctica’s research stations. The present study identified more than ten research stations that have been using wind to generate electricity. The installed wind capacity, as identified by the study, is nearly 1500 kW of installed capacity. Their respective experiences of using wind energy differed, however, and will be elaborated on later.

4.2.2. Wind Conditions

Wind conditions in Antarctica are generally suitable for wind turbines. Sometimes, however, strong winds with high-speed gusts in combination with extremely low temperatures can be critical for wind turbines [16]. Some wind observations indicate that the wind in interior Antarctica is more constant on the coast, as in the case of the inland Concordia Base and the coastal Mawson Station [3]. The Japanese Syowa Base has recorded lower winter (July) wind speeds [25]. At the Brazilian Comandante Ferraz Station, it was observed that greater winds occur in late winter/springtime (June until October) [4]. In addition to the high wind speeds, the air density is higher due to the low temperatures [19]. According to the US Department of Energy, at −37 °C, an increased efficiency of 20% compared to temperate areas can be observed [19]. A simulation of the potential output of two different wind turbines is represented in Figure 6. The graph indicates that the generation is lowest during the Antarctic summer; the peaks are in spring and fall.

4.2.3. Technical Options in Use

Two main types of wind turbine may be found, both of which are used in Antarctica: horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWTs) and vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs). VAWTs are typically used on a smaller scale, with a capacity below 100 kW [10]. HAWTs can be found in Antarctica in various sizes, from 1 kW up to several hundred kW.

HAWTs can be divided into those with a gear and those that are gearless. For cold-climate applications, gearless HAWTs are preferable, owing to their fewer parts, given that lubrication of the gearbox is problematic at extremely low temperatures [3,37]. This complexity may be exacerbated, depending on the HAWT’s size. Small HAWTs often have a passive yaw control, and the wind turbine is positioned into the wind, due to its geometry of the gondola or its exterior [36]. Larger HAWTs may have an active yaw control, whereby the yaw drives steer the nacelle into the wind [38].

Additional complexity may be added through pitch control, which positions the turbine’s blades [18,39,40]. A VAWT typically has just the rotor as a moving part, which reduces the complexity. VAWTs have several variations relating to different rotor designs. These can be grouped as lift and drag. The Savonius rotor design is a drag type, which has the capability to initiate the rotation from a still standing position, due to the force applied by the wind. The Savonius rotor is more solid, resulting in higher wind resistance. Several blade designs are available for the lift type, such as the Darrieus rotor, H-Darrieus, and the helical shape. The Darrieus blade design requires some external impulse to commence rotation. To overcome this, the VAWT often uses a combined Darrieus and Savonius rotor design. All VAWTs have an advantage in that they are able to handle omnidirectional wind and require no yaw control [40]. As

Table 1. A comparison of vertical axial wind turbines and horizontal axial wind turbines. The table highlights the differences between the two technologies.

Parameter	VAWTs	HAWTs
cut-in wind speed	low [10]	higher [36]
efficiency	low [34,37]	high [37]
work under omnidirectional wind	good [37]	bad [37]
sound	quiet [37]	louder [37]
visibility for birds	Good	bad
flickering impact	depending on the blade design	yes

illustrates, VAWTs have a low starting speed, but their operation at high wind speeds is inefficient [37].

4.2.4. Construction Limitations

In addition to the technical difficulties associated with operating a wind turbine under the Antarctic’s harsh climatic conditions, technical limitations may also arise in relation to a construction project’s infrastructure. Construction projects in Antarctica must be well planned down to the last detail. All materials and tools needed for construction must be delivered or already in place [9]. If a single part or tool is missing—including parts as small as single bolts or screws—the entire construction project must be suspended until the next delivery arrives, which typically entails a delay of one year. Another potential limitation that must be considered when designing wind turbines for use in Antarctica is the construction machinery that is available. The type of crane that is available can limit the height of a wind turbine or the weight of its segments [3]. The wind turbine’s parts must fit on the local transportation infrastructure, such as sleds, which limits the segments’ dimensions, and odd sizes might be difficult to transport over long distances across ice [41].

4.2.5. Technical Problems and Solutions

The harsh climatic conditions with shallow temperatures harm oil and hydraulic seals and gearboxes [3]. The seals and gearboxes thus require close attention, generating high maintenance costs. Direct-driven wind turbines are preferred to reduce the impact of maintaining seals and gearboxes, as seen in Scott Base and Mawson [8,42,43]. Another issue related to cold weather conditions can be ice formation on the rotor blades [20,39]. Several solutions are available to prevent icing of the blades.

Anti-icing and de-icing solutions can be categorized into passive and active ice prevention. Passive ice prevention uses coatings or colors. For example, a Teflon coating will reduce the blade’s adhesiveness, making it more difficult for the ice to stick to the rotor blade [39]. Another passive method is to color the rotor blade black so that it will absorb the solar radiation required to heat it [44]. This has proven highly successful in the Arctic, but sunlight is required to heat the blades at very high latitudes. This method may be critical, given the long period of no daylight, which is suitable for low icing conditions. Without sunlight, however, the principle will not work.

Active icing-prevention methods include thermal, pneumatic, or impulse de-icing [39,45]. The active method requires some energy to measure, control, and operate the de-icing system, which can take approximately 2% to 12% of the nominative power [45]. Thermal de-icing uses electricity to heat the rotor blades and melt off the ice [39]. The process requires a small fraction of the generated electricity. It is essential that the blades be kept ice-free to ensure the turbine’s performance. Alternation of the blade profile would diminish the turbine’s efficiency [39,46].

Another issue related to icing is that its formation can block the mechanical parts’ cooling outlets, which might lead to overheating and/or malfunctions [39,45]. Another possibility is that the drift snow enters the nacelle through the cooling openings. In the case of the wind turbine at Neumayer Station III in 2011, an accumulation of melting snow led to a short circuit at the generator [47]. The problem was solved by the installation of an external air-to-air cooling system [47]. Icing can also lead to an imbalance in the rotor, causing vibrations that negatively impact the wind turbine’s durability under extremely cold conditions [45]. When ice is loosened from the blades, it may be hazardous to people in the vicinity if pieces of ice are catapulted off [45]. Icing can be a problem for all moving parts, including the yaw control, which suffered from ice formation at Neumayer Station III in 2012 [47].

Several problems thus arise in relation to snow and ice; indeed, the cold conditions generally exert a significant impact on the material properties. HAWT blades often encounter vibrations. This should be addressed during the design process by keeping the vibrations within the blade away from its natural frequency for the range of operation [47]. During the design phase, the blades’ natural frequency can be influenced by their length and weight. If the vibration within the blades reaches the blade’s natural frequency during operation, it may result in fractures or even the blade’s total collapse.

Vibrations and oscillating movements are a problem for VAWTs under strong wind conditions and have been observed at several of Antarctica’s wind turbine installations. In the case of the first wind turbine at the Mario Zucchelli Station (1998–2000), heavy vibrations loosened the anchoring system during a winter storm and led to the collapse of the wind turbine [10,48]. Despite lessons learned from prior experiences, a fresh attempt to install wind turbines was undertaken. In the time from 2016 to 2021, three 11.5 kW wind turbines were successfully installed [10]. Johann Gregor Mendel Station had similar issues with vibrations that also caused the wind turbines to collapse [49]. The VAWT at Syowa Station has experienced similar vibration problems, ultimately causing the wind turbine blades’ arms to fail due to metal fatigue [50]. Various VAWTs have been tested at the Johann Gregor Mendel Station in recent years. The wind turbine design implemented moving blades to capture the wind; however, the turbine’s yaw control struggled to respond to rapid changes in wind direction with rapid wind speed changes and strong wind gust conditions [34]. The problem caused vibrations at the joint where the vertical axis and the support column meet [49].

5. Energy Security

Energy security is vital for research stations in the Antarctic. Energy is required to support essential needs, such as heating, fresh-water supply, and electricity, which are critical for survival under harsh environmental conditions [1]. High-tech equipment is required to facilitate research, which necessitates a constant supply of high-quality electricity. Electricity quality entails that the voltage and frequency fluctuations should be within a defined tolerance range [51]. The provision of high-quality electricity falls under short-term energy security [52]. Short-term energy security describes the grid’s responsiveness to rapid change in either energy generation or energy consumption [19,52]. The responsiveness is critical in islanded energy grids, such as remote research stations.

This paper identified wind and PV as potential renewable-energy sources; both sources are non-dispatchable—that is, they cannot be regulated in terms of their performance [18]. In the case of low penetration of non-dispatchable energy sources in an islanded grid, the diesel generator can stabilize voltage and frequency [19]. In the case of high penetration with non-dispatchable energy sources, more sophisticated equipment is required to maintain voltage and frequency within the boundaries. Short-term energy security is essential for supporting experiments and research infrastructure.

Mid-term energy security, which focuses on a time horizon of several months to a year, is critical for survival [52]. The fuel-delivery process occurs within this timeframe. Without fuel, it can be critical to supply a remote research station in Antarctica with energy, underscoring the importance of the fuel-delivery process. If the share of renewables is sufficiently large, it may be possible to supply adequate energy to meet basic needs using renewables, provided grid-forming devices are operational.

6. Overall Energy Solutions

The diversification of primary energy sources can increase energy security on the primary-energy side [53]. As such, a mix of different primary-energy sources is beneficial because if one source becomes unavailable, other options are available. As previously described, the most mature technologies available for use in Antarctica are diesel, wind, and solar power, which can eventually be combined with a storage technology, such as battery storage or more experimental hydrogen storage. In addition to the diversification of energy sources, reliance is increased by the redundancy in electricity generation caused by the use of several generators per technology [54]. For example, if a single turbine breaks down on a small wind farm with ten wind turbines, nine wind turbines are still operational.

To ensure a good fuel economy, it is important to allow the diesel generator to run at optimal efficiency [55]. Fuel will be wasted if the diesel generator is operated above or below optimal efficiency; a diesel–battery hybrid system can help to lower the fuel consumption [56]. Until it becomes impossible to keep the energy demand constant at that point, a different strategy is required. In most cases, the generators have some spear capacity, so the point of optimal efficiency is slightly above the average demand [57]. A diesel–battery hybrid system allows the diesel generator to consistently operate at the point of optimal efficiency; the surplus energy can be stored in a battery so that it may be used in the case of a peak demand. Furthermore, if the battery is full, the generator can be shifted to a smaller generator with the battery’s support, or the battery alone can power the entire system. Such a hybrid system can help reduce fossil-fuel consumption. If additional renewable-energy sources are available, the diesel generator can be shut down for even longer.

With a hybrid system that uses a large proportion of renewable-energy sources, it is possible to achieve a high percentage of renewables within the overall energy mix and to use the fuel as efficiently as possible [19]. The examples for PV in Section 4.1.2 and for wind in Section 4.2.2 indicated that both recourses have considerable potential. Examination of both graphs reveals that the peaks and valleys are complementary. In summer, when there is significant solar potential, the wind is typically low. During the winter and fall, when the wind potential is high, the PV potential is low.

One problem relating to a high proportion of renewables is that the renewables can generate more electricity than is demanded and more than the battery system can handle. In the case of such a surplus, either some generators must be shut down and the generated electricity dumped to stabilize the grid or the demand must be adjusted [19]. Determining which energy consumers have the highest energy demands is a critical step in making the necessary adjustments. As stated earlier, the highest energy consumers are often heating-related, such as space heating, tap-water heating, and snow melting [24,25]. The advantage is that space heating and tap-water heating can also be used to store energy—for example, buffer tanks may overheat where there is a surplus of electricity. It may be possible to operate snow-melting equipment in the case of excess electricity [24]. Other non-time-dependent consumers may be integrated into such a cascading system. The cascading system aims to use electricity in its most valuable form—that is, first, the direct use of electricity, followed by storage and later conversion of electricity into another useful form, such as heat.

Another energy-management method was tested at the Czech Johann Gregor Mendel Station to adjust the energy demand through the restrictive operation of appliances to match the supply generated by renewables [1]. The experiment concluded that it is possible to save fuel due to the restrictive use of energy according to its availability. Nevertheless, personal comfort at the station was reduced—for example, due to a temporary lower air temperature caused by a prolonged electricity shortage [1]. Moreover, it is challenging to teach research stations’ inhabitants, who have quick turnovers, how to use energy optimally and how they might adopt it into daily life at the station.

Energy saving is crucial for islanded energy systems in Antarctica and elsewhere, since the energy that is not used need not be generated [32]. This point is also true for other islanded energy systems. The case of Longyearbyen in the Arctic demonstrates that increasing the efficiency of components (e.g., replacing step speed pumps or ventilators with linear pumps and ventilators) or subsystems (e.g., smart controls that switch lights off when no one is present) can reduce energy demand [58]. If a lasting decrease in energy demand can be achieved, smaller amounts of renewable-energy sources’ installed capacity will be required. For example, Gondwana Station operates a snow-melting system that uses waste heat rather than the more energy-intense seawater desalinating facility [32].

Table 2. This table provides an overview of problems that have occurred in the literature review. Furthermore, the table highlights possible solutions for other cases.

Problem	Solution	Description
Wind
Lubricants become thicker	Fewer moving parts (e.g., direct driven wind turbine)	Owing to the low temperatures, lubricants such as oil or hydraulic fluid have a higher viscosity. This may result in a situation whereby not all moving parts are lubricated, which can result in a breakdown. A design that requires fewer moving parts can avoid this.
Icing of blades	Color, Teflon	Ice formation on the blades can change the aerodynamics and reduce the turbine’s efficiency. Various passive or active anti-icing methods are available. Passive methods require no external power, but they are less efficient. Therefore, they are recommended for reducing the likelihood that icing will occur.
	Heating, pneumatic, impulse	Ice formation on the blades can alter their aerodynamics and reduce the turbine’s efficiency. Various passive or active anti-icing methods are available. Active methods require external power but are more efficient. As such, they are recommended for situations wherein icing is expected to occur frequently.
Ice blocking ventilation	Design, heating	Snow can block ventilation openings and lead to an overheating of the system. Optimal design and positioning of the opening can reduce the risk. A heating system can furthermore help to clear he ventilation openings.
Vibrations	Problem-specific design	Vibrations may be the result of several factors, such as design problems, high wind speed, or sudden changes in wind speed and directions.
PV
Snow accumulation	Placing mounting	Depending on how the panels are mounted snow accumulation may be reduced—for example, by elevating the panels from the ground.
Ice and snow on the panel	Mounting angle, nano coating	In high latitudes, a steeper angle can promote greater efficiency as well as allowing the snow to slide downwards. Nano coatings are a new, developing technology for reducing the adhesiveness to mitigate the accumulation of ice and snow on the panel.
Shattered protective glass	Robust protective glass, nano coating	PV panels with a robust protective glass should be selected. Nano coatings are a still-developing technology intended to strengthen the protective glass.

summarizes the different technical solutions related to the use of renewable energy for Antarctica research stations.

7. Conclusions

This paper elaborated on the potential use of renewable-energy sources in Antarctica. To showcase the opportunities to avail of renewable energy in Antarctica, the research examined the current status of renewable use and demonstrated that various renewables are used to support energy generation. In particular, the study demonstrated the use of wind and solar energy. The study’s examination of these resources highlighted their significant potential. Wind and solar energy are unpredictable and subject to seasonal variations. Seasonal variations must be considered for energy concepts—as this paper has demonstrated, they may be used complementarily. A constant and secure supply of energy is needed to support life under such harsh environmental conditions, with temperatures as low as −50 °C.

The research reported herein highlighted that renewable-energy sources may be used to supplement Antarctica’s research stations and reduce their fuel consumption. The current status, as articulated in this paper, is promising but challenging. The research identified challenges of the past. Well-developed solutions exist for some of these challenges; for others, solutions remain to be found or further developed.

Further research on the potential use of renewables is needed, and this will necessitate a detailed set of available natural resources in terms of solar radiation and wind data. The actual measurements of the energy sources are essential for estimating the likelihood that fossil fuels will be replaced. The aforementioned information is required to calculate the cost competitiveness of renewable energy for use in inland Antarctica.

In conclusion, this paper demonstrated that renewables can help to reduce the amount of fossil fuels needed to provide energy to inland Antarctica’s research stations. Nevertheless, further site-specific evaluations are necessary to determine which sources can be harvested in an economically feasible way and which technologies can be used. The results presented herein can support the evaluation and design process for new or renewed power systems, and further technological improvements can foster the enhanced deployment of renewable energy in Antarctica.