1.1. Background
Filling the atmosphere with greenhouse gases causes heat to be trapped [
1]. The Earth can combat these gases through natural processes, such as photosynthesis. However, when the level of these gases exceeds the safe level, more heat is retained, thus, causing climate change [
2]. The heating caused by residences, which is caused by electricity consumption in residences, is sourced from natural gas consumption that is produced in industry [
3]. In addition, electricity consumption in the industry includes natural gas consumption in commercial establishments and official institutions [
4], electricity consumption in commercial establishments and institutions, and lighting in streets and social areas. Transportation issues and CO
2 emissions resulting from the municipality’s activities affect the formation of the carbon footprint [
5]. When determining the carbon footprint, the amount of greenhouse gases produced as a measure of the damage caused to the environment by human activities is taken into account [
6]. The amount of greenhouse gases is calculated in units of carbon dioxide. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) examines carbon footprint in two different categories: primary, which is expressed as direct carbon footprint, and secondary, which is expressed as indirect carbon footprint. The primary carbon footprint is formed due to energy consumption and transportation activities. Primary carbon footprint is defined as the CO
2 emissions resulting from consumed fossil fuels. Secondary carbon footprint is defined as the CO
2 emissions that occur within the life cycle of all products used, from production to degradation process [
7,
8].
States that aim to reduce the greenhouse gases that cause climate change can choose to do their part within their means, proceed in the light of joint decisions, or they can ignore this issue entirely [
9]. However, every step taken regarding climate change, whether behavior by way of action or behavior by way of omission, entails responsibility toward all humanity and future generations. This is because taking or not taking a step has positive or negative consequences for everyone. Therefore, when considering the effects of climate change, it can be said that this is an important problem that requires extremely important cooperation [
10].
1.2. Local Climate Policies
The emergence of a sanctioning power on the effects of climate change—one that combats climate change, as well as encourages cooperation, the determination of responsibilities, the determination of obligations, and what to do in the steps to be taken—should be determined according to certain legal rules. As a result, many issues have arisen for public institutions and organizations, private institutions, and private sectors [
11]. The Environmental Law No. 2872, dated 9 August 1983 [
12]; the Municipality Law No. 5393, dated 3 July 2005 [
13]; and the Metropolitan Municipality Law No. 5216, dated 10 July 2004 [
14] are the pieces of legislation that have imposed the most comprehensive duties on local governments. The obligations brought by the European Green Deal (EGD) [
15], which aims to become the first climate-neutral continent in 2050, and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [
16], which are addressed under 17 main headings of the United Nations (UN) to ensure the common welfare of humanity in the world by 2030, are for local governments. They help to determine the tasks in the fight against climate change in the international arena.
The source of the problem is the economic system, with all its forms of production and consumption [
17]. For this reason, policies to combat climate change are intertwined with many decisions and choices to be made in the field of economy, especially energy. It is known that traditional habits in energy production and consumption cause negative effects on the environment and natural resources on local, regional, and global scales. In this respect, popularizing responsible production and consumption is becoming even more important today [
18]. Local governments are often in the best position to identify the gaps in access to affordable energy for vulnerable groups in society. Local governments can contribute to energy efficiency by contributing to reducing public energy expenditures by investing in green buildings and the supply of green energy sources, as well as by adding sustainability-related criteria to procurement practices [
19].
In addition to “smart city” applications in cities, local transportation and urban planning policies can also be effective in eliminating energy efficiency and carbon emission problems. Participatory urban planning is more important than ever to reduce carbon emissions in cities. For this reason, as in every state, the responsibilities of municipalities and their practices in reducing the carbon footprint of the Republic of Türkiye should be separately considered and evaluated [
20,
21]. “SM” in Adana Province can be cited as an example of a local government that is active in climate policies.
The feasibility of a global policy is closely linked to regional, local, and national policy processes. Therefore, climate policies are formed as a result of a multi-layered policy process from the international level to the local level [
22]. For this reason, addressing the issue only in a global abstraction may disrupt the applicability of the policies produced.
As municipalities, metropolitan municipalities, and municipal unions, local governments must determine local policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, combat the effects of highly effective climate change, and develop low-carbon city policies. In this context, considering models and projections, determining local targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions comes to the fore. Internationally, it is becoming increasingly important for local governments to take greenhouse gas reduction measures in the fight against climate change, to control greenhouse gas sources from buildings to transportation, and to work on local targets for adaptation. In the coming periods, the action plans created by local governments and the greenhouse gas reduction targets they will set may become more decisive [
23].
The Kyoto Protocol until 2020 and the Paris Agreement after 2020 appear as two implementation tools of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [
24]. The first mechanism defined in the Paris Agreement [
25] is the cooperation approach that allows the combination of emissions trading systems. The second is a new mechanism that will replace the Kyoto Flexibility Mechanisms [
26] and “contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and support sustainable development”. The third is the non-market mechanism, which expects a unified, integrated, and balanced non-market approach. The Republic of Türkiye ratified the UNFCCC in 2004 and the Kyoto Protocol in 2009. According to the provisions of Article 4 and Article 6 of the UNFCCC, “public participation” is one of the most important principles of effective environmental management. The word “public” here refers to stakeholders at the local, national, and international level. According to the UN Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio Declaration) [
27], Agenda 21, and the Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters [
28], stakeholder participation is a right. The right in question refers to the right to access information, to participate in decision-making mechanisms, and to resort to judicial methods. The Rio Declaration and the Aarhus Convention discuss these three rights in detail. This participation ensures good governance, prevents human rights violations, and guarantees transparency, integrity, and sustainable development.
Public participation assumes an important role in advancing the transformation towards climate neutrality. Strong public and social engagement on climate action should be both encouraged and facilitated through an inclusive and accessible process at all levels, including national, regional, and local government. It must establish relationships with all segments of society to ensure action and empower the public to create a climate-neutral and resilient society against climate change. Establishing the basis of this relationship and determining its standards, rules, and boundaries will depend on the legal process. By establishing a multi-level climate and energy dialogue through national legal regulations, integrated national energy and climate plans will be discussed within the framework of this dialogue [
29].
It forms the framework of action plans for local governments that create a city that is resilient to climate change, adaptable, safe, sustainable, affordable, and able to access renewable energy, accelerating the decarbonization of its territories, and allowing the public to access safe, sustainable, and affordable energy. For this reason, it is important to enact legal regulations and implement these regulations in the applicability and functionality of local governments’ action plans [
30].
1.3. Literature Review
The Mediterranean Basin stands out as one of the world’s most vulnerable regions to the impacts of global climate change. A temperature rise of 2 °C in this area is poised to bring about various consequences, including unanticipated weather events, heightened occurrences of heat waves, a surge in both the frequency and severity of forest fires, prolonged periods of drought leading to biodiversity decline, a drop in tourism earnings, reduced agricultural productivity, and an exacerbation of drought conditions [
31,
32,
33,
34]. According to the Türkiye’s Future Project Final Report carried out by WWF-Türkiye, the main effects of climate change are as follows [
35]:
The temperature rise is expected to be constrained until the conclusion of the 2030s, with a swift escalation anticipated thereafter;
While variations exist based on seasons and regions, it is projected that the temperature will rise by approximately 4 °C during winter and 6 °C during summer, relative to the period between 1960 and 1990;
Although winter precipitation is diminishing across Türkiye, there is a notable rise in precipitation expected specifically in the eastern portion of Northern Anatolia.
The 2011 Climate Change National Action Plan projected a 2.5 °C–4 °C increase in Türkiye’s annual average temperature in the upcoming years. Specifically, the rise is anticipated to be 4 °C in the Aegean and Eastern Anatolia Regions and 5 °C in the inner regions. This suggests that Türkiye is on course for a climate characterized by higher temperatures, reduced precipitation, and increased uncertainty [
36]. The Action Plan warns of significant negative impacts, including diminished water resources, heightened risk of forest fires, prolonged drought, desertification, and associated ecological degradation. Despite Türkiye’s industrialization efforts in the 20th century, the country claims no historical responsibility for the surge in greenhouse gases. It pledges to contribute within the framework of the “common but differentiated responsibilities” principle, aligning with each nation’s share in greenhouse gas emissions.
The majority of Türkiye’s overall ecological impact is attributed to the carbon footprint, accounting for 46%. The most substantial increase in the carbon footprint occurred from 1961 to 2007 [
37]. Türkiye experienced a significant surge in greenhouse gas emissions, rising by 115% from 1990 to 2010, reaching a total of 401.9 million tons. This propelled Türkiye to a leading position globally in the rate of increase in greenhouse gas emissions. During the same period, per capita greenhouse gas emissions rose from 3.39 tons to 5.52 tons. In 2010, a substantial 71% of Türkiye’s greenhouse gas emissions originated from the energy sector. The country’s policies in energy, urbanization, transportation, and industry serve as indicators of its efforts to address global climate change. Despite becoming a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2004 and signing the Kyoto Protocol in 2009, Türkiye has not established specific reduction targets for greenhouse gas emissions [
38]. Furthermore, it did not assume any responsibilities during the Second Obligation Period of Kyoto, which commenced in January 2013. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change encourages member states to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, collaborate on research and technology, and safeguard greenhouse gas sinks such as forests, oceans, and lakes. Despite these international agreements, Türkiye’s climate policy has yet to adequately address the pressing urgency of the climate change issue, and effective measures have not been consistently pursued since the 1990s [
39].
The Paris Agreement, a pivotal component of the climate change strategy post-2020, was endorsed during the 21st Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC in Paris in 2015. At COP 21, all countries globally committed, for the first time after 2020, to reducing their greenhouse gas emissions. Effectively taking effect on 4 November 2016, the agreement required ratification by at least 55 parties, representing 55% of global greenhouse gas emissions by 5 October 2016. Remarkably, the Paris Agreement became operational in less than a year after its adoption. The primary objective of the agreement is to limit the long-term increase in global temperatures caused by human-induced greenhouse gas emissions to less than two degrees Celsius compared to the pre-industrialization era. It underscores the significance of striving for a 1.5 °C target. Moreover, the Paris Agreement affirms that countries must contribute to the battle against climate change in line with the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities and relative capabilities” [
40].
The Paris Agreement stands out from the UNFCCC by introducing a system reliant on contributions from all nations. It operates on the premise of distinguishing between developed and developing countries in the climate change battle, emphasizing that every country bears responsibility according to the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities and relative capabilities”. The classification of developed and developing nations lacks specific criteria or differentiation. Within the context of combating climate change, the Agreement establishes a framework to outline procedures for national contributions, covering aspects such as mitigation, adaptation, loss/damage, financing, technology development and transfer, capacity development, transparency, and situation assessment. Its primary focus is on providing financial aid, technology transfer, and capacity building to developing countries, especially the least developed countries and small island states. The goal is to enhance the adaptation and resilience capacities of nations vulnerable to climate change’s adverse effects and bolster their capacities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Concerning emission reduction, the Agreement mandates developed nations to uphold absolute emission reduction targets. Simultaneously, it encourages developing nations to incrementally increase their emission reduction goals and adopt new, expanded targets encompassing their entire economies over time, considering diverse national conditions. The practical implementation of these objectives centers on nationally determined contributions (NDCs), representing countries’ goals in the fight against climate change. On 20 September 2015, our country announced its “Intended National Contribution” declaration, anticipating a reduction by 2030, deviating from an increase by up to 21%.
On 22 April 2016, Türkiye, alongside representatives from 175 other countries, formally signed the Paris Agreement during a high-level signing ceremony in New York. In our National Declaration, it was underscored that Türkiye endorsed the Agreement as a developing nation. The approval of the Paris Agreement was granted through a Presidential Decree on 7 October 2021, concluding the domestic legal approval process. The documentation for ratification, along with our national declaration, was submitted to the UN Secretariat on 11 October 2021. Additionally, our country has committed to achieving a net-zero emission target by the year 2053.
1.4. Research Aims
Sarıçam is a district of the Adana province of Türkiye. The socio-economic structure of the district is shaped depending on various factors. The population of Sarıçam generally has a young and dynamic structure. The average age and education level of the population are some of the important factors affecting the socio-economic structure of the district. The economy of the district is based on agriculture, industry, trade, and service sectors. Agriculture, especially fruit and vegetable production, can form an important part of the district’s economy. In addition, production activities take place in various sectors in industrial zones and organized industrial zones. Employment in Sarıçam is generally provided in agriculture, industry, and service sectors. The agricultural sector is an important source of employment, especially in rural areas. The industrial sector creates employment with the presence of factories and production facilities in the district. Education and health services have an important place in Sarıçam. There are schools and health institutions in the district, and these institutions contribute to the socio-economic situation of the district’s people. Transportation is provided by the D400 Highway in the south, the TEM Highway in the north, and the Kozan Connection Road passing through the district center. Transportation is also provided by the railway and Incirlik NATO Base located in the south.
Figure 1 shows the localization of the SM building.
Their increasing economic power and the central role they play in climate change have brought cities and city governments to the center of the political struggle in the context of combating climate change and creating low-carbon economies. During the 1990s, first “voluntary local governments” and then, since 2005, the concepts of “strategic urbanism” made world cities, especially in Europe and the USA, and international coalitions of local governments, almost as active players in climate negotiations as governments. It can easily be said that local governments in Türkiye were largely distant from these developments until recently. However, this situation is changing. The main purpose of calculating and reporting greenhouse gas inventories is to pave the way for low-carbon urban development by implementing reduction strategies. The will that emerged on this issue, as emphasized in various sections of the report, has now surpassed national reduction strategies and relatively higher targets have begun to be set.
This study includes the greenhouse gas inventory calculation, which is the first step of the “Climate Change Action Plan” study. The inventory is created based on a reference year (2022), naturally an indispensable element of any mitigation action plan. Sarıçam municipality’s Climate Change Action Plan preparation will be the main output of this study. The Climate Change Action Plan first requires determining the institutional emissions of Sarıçam municipality. In this regard, corporate emissions were first documented and determined by international standards, and the carbon footprint inventory was created. This inventory will also provide a useful basis for recording emissions and monitoring reductions against established targets.
For this reason, SM is selected as the pilot institution, and greenhouse gas inventory calculation is carried out in this study. SM plans to create a basis for reduction efforts by keeping greenhouse gas emissions under control with the calculations made within the scope of this study. The main contributions of this paper are presented in the following points:
By analyzing emissions comprehensively, the study will uncover potential areas for emission reduction, enabling targeted sustainability efforts;
The study will increase awareness among internal stakeholders about the environmental impact of organizational activities, fostering a culture of sustainability;
The study will provide clear insight into the organization’s resource consumption, emissions, and energy usage, promoting transparency and accountability;
Findings from the study will lay the groundwork for the development of a structured plan to manage greenhouse gas emissions effectively;
The study will reinforce SM’s commitment to sustainability, aligning actions with its overarching sustainability goals.