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Article

Preventing through Sustainability Education: Training and the Perception of Floods among School Children

by
Álvaro-Francisco Morote
1,* and
Jorge Olcina
2
1
Department of Experimental and Social Sciences Education, Faculty of Teaching Training, University of Valencia, Avda. Tarongers 4, 46022 Valencia, Spain
2
Department of Regional Geographical Analysis and Physical Geography, University of Alicante, Carretera de Sant Vicent del Raspeig, s/n, 03080 Alicante, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(11), 4678; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16114678
Submission received: 2 May 2024 / Revised: 24 May 2024 / Accepted: 29 May 2024 / Published: 30 May 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability Teaching in the Face of the Global Challenges of the 21st Century)
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Abstract

:
The global warming process is altering the atmospheric dynamics at mid-latitudes, fostering an increase in the frequency of extreme events. Of these events, floods are those that cause the greatest loss of human life and economic damage in Spain. Education is a key element in preventing these hazards. The objective of this study is to analyze the training, knowledge, and perception that school children (Primary and Secondary education, Baccalaureate) in the Region of Valencia (Spain) have of floods. The research was based on a questionnaire that was administered in different schools and in which 926 students participated. The main results show that only 36.1% have received training in these phenomena, and more than half (54.2%) do not know whether floods are explained in the textbooks. With respect to the perception of these risks, half of the respondents indicate that climate change is increasing the damage caused by floods, and 57.6% believe that it will accelerate them in the future. The study advances the knowledge necessary to establish learning contents and guidelines at the basic levels of education on natural hazards and disaster prevention.

1. Introduction

Extreme atmospheric phenomena have increased in recent years on a global scale, as have their associated socio-economic effects [1]. Among them, those related to intense rains with flooding effects (tropical cyclones, severe storms, “cold drops”), droughts resulting in famines in arid and semi-arid regions, and extreme heat episodes are the most prominent in terms of their frequency and impact in the affected territories [2]. This constitutes an important challenge and problem for humanity, according to the Sixth Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [3]. Torrential rains will be more frequent and intense in the coming years, combined with periods of drought, aggravated by an overall increase in the planet’s temperature [4]. This is highly evident in the Mediterranean region (study area) and is considered one of the territories most vulnerable to climate change [5]. As explained by Cutillas et al. [6], this implies that these extreme phenomena will increase in accordance with the scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions in the medium and long term, obliging the territories potentially affected to prepare for the consequences in order to reduce the impacts.
In the Iberian Peninsula, this process is the cause of the increase in torrential rains that have been recorded in recent years [7] and the more frequent floods with socio-economic consequences [1]. In the whole of Spain, the Mediterranean region is the principal “at-risk region” by nature [4]. Moreover, we should not forget the human factor and activity carried out in flood prone areas that increase this risk and the damage (mortal victims and economic damage) [1].
According to the latest available data on a global scale, in 2021, the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters [8] recorded a total of 432 catastrophic events, a considerably higher figure than the average of 357 for the period 2001–2020. For the case of floods, these phenomena represent 51.6% (n = 223) of the total, as opposed to an average of 163 (46.9%) in the period 2001–2020. In 2021, a total of 4143 people died in floods across the world. Floods are the disasters that cause the greatest loss of human lives (39.4% of all natural disasters). Particularly noteworthy are India (1.282 deaths), China (352 deaths), and Afghanistan (260 deaths) for the highest number of victims. With respect to economic damage, in 2021 this amounted to a total of 74.4 billion US dollars (29.5% of the total), with Germany (40 billion dollars) and China (15.5 billion dollars) being the countries with the greatest losses. Therefore, the under-developed and/or developing countries are those most exposed to suffering deaths, while the developed countries are more exposed to economic losses.
On the Spanish Mediterranean coast, in recent history, there have been events of great impact that have caused high economic losses and human deaths. The events that occurred, for example, in October 1879 (“Santa Teresa Flood”) in the Segura River basin stand out, causing 1000 fatalities; the Turia flood in the city of Valencia in October 1957 with 81 deaths; the flood in the Vallés basin (Barcelona) in September 1962 with 692 fatalities; and the flood in the Júcar river basin (Valencia), in October of 1982, which caused the Tous dam to break and caused 30 fatalities.
According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs [9], floods constituted the atmospheric phenomenon that caused the most material damage and fatal victims (374 deaths in the period 1995–2021). In recent years, particularly noteworthy are the episodes of October 2018 in San Llorenç des Cardassar (Mallorca), with 12 fatalities; September 2019 in the Vega Baja del Segura (six deaths); or the “DANA” (High-Level Isolated Depression) of September 2023 in the center of the peninsula (five deaths); or January 2020 in many towns on the coast of Catalonia as a result of the storm “Gloria”, which caused 13 fatalities. These are events of great socioeconomic impact that have marked the lives of the affected populations and determined the development of plans and the execution of flood defense works, which are not always effective.
According to Morote and Olcina [10], a large number of these deaths could have been avoided with better training, perception, and knowledge of the territory. These authors indicate that “undertaking a correct teaching of this phenomenon in schools is vitally important, not only due to its repercussions but also because the current curriculum establishes it…” (p. 266). Toma et al. [11] or Yildiz et al. [12] explain that the advance in education and teaching in hazards has increased the socio-territorial resilience to these phenomena. Furthermore, Morote and Olcina [13] indicate that “the passing of laws on climate change (state and autonomous regions) and educational reform, which include specific sections on “Education and training on climate change,” opens up new possibilities for teaching about risks and climate change at school educational levels” (p. 214) and that “education plays a fundamental role in this context for generating more informed citizens who are better prepared to adapt to extreme processes that will become more frequent” (p. 214).
This interest is reflected in the publication of academic studies in the education field. Different studies have been carried out in different territorial contexts. For example, North America [14,15,16,17,18], Europe [11,19,20,21,22,23,24], Asia and Oceania [25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36], South America [37,38], and Africa [39].
For the Spanish case, teaching about floods has traditionally been conducted in the Natural Science subject [40,41], and the studies that have been carried out in the Social Sciences (object of study) are scarce and recent [42].
In the field of geography teaching in Spain, three themes can be identified: (1) analysis of how these phenomena are taught in the school textbooks [43]; (2) studies on social representations [44]; and (3) studies on didactic proposals [13].
The aim of this study is to analyze the training, knowledge, and perception that school children (Primary and Secondary education, Baccalaureate) in the Region of Valencia (Spain) have of floods.
As a starting hypothesis, it is established that the students have a limited level of training in this topic, as it is barely addressed in the classrooms, and that their perception is that these phenomena would be influenced and aggravated in terms of their intensity and frequency by climate change. In their perception of these phenomena, human beings would have little influence on the increased risk. Furthermore, this study seeks to verify whether there are differences between the school stages, with the Baccalaureate students expected to be those with a higher level of training and knowledge of how these phenomena function.

2. Methods

2.1. Research Design

This study is correlational and explanatory research (not experimental) [45], based on the use of a mixed questionnaire [46,47]. With respect to the time dimension, the design is transversal, as the information obtained has been compiled at different moments (between the academic years 2022–2023 and 2023–2024), grouping the data in accordance with the groups in which students have participated (Primary Education, Secondary Education, Baccalaureate).

2.2. Context and Participants

The selection of the participants was carried out through non-probabilistic and convenience sampling [48]. The participants in this study were students from 14 education centers of Primary Education (3rd cycle: courses 5º and 6º; 10–12 years old), Secondary Education (1º, 2º, 3º and 4º of ESO; 13–16 years old) and Baccalaureate students (1º and 2º of Baccalaureate, 17–18 years old) of the Region of Valencia (Spain).
The total number of students enrolled in these years was 1002. In order to obtain a representative sample, taking into account the total number of students registered, a confidence interval of 99%, and a margin of error of 5%, a minimum of 401 participants were required. Finally, the total number of students who participated was 926, which was enough for a representative sample (see Table 1).

2.3. Research Instrument

In relation to the research instrument, a mixed questionnaire (quantitative-qualitative) was created and validated by 8 experts with knowledge of the contents addressed in this research and experience in teaching at the school and university levels. The process used for this validation was the Expert Panel method.
The questionnaire contains 18 items that are related to the socio-educational climate change in the students (items 1–3), the school training received on floods (items 4–6), the perception of flood risks (items 7–9), experiences of these natural disasters (items 10–16) and the incidence of climate change and human beings on these phenomena (items 17–18). For this research, taking into account the proposed objectives, the items in Table 2 have been analyzed.
In relation to the research instrument, in order to evaluate the validity of the construct, first a statistical analysis was conducted of the ordinal variables. Of these variables, it was found that there was an acceptable standard deviation (SD) of 0 > 1. After making this verification, the construct (items analyzed in this study) was subjected to a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) validity test to assess whether the factorial analysis of the instrument can be considered as being appropriate. This test generated a positive value of 0.520, which, according to other factor reliability studies, is considered to be an acceptable level [49]. Furthermore, being a mixed questionnaire, and as recommended in these cases, the Friedman chi-squared test (Friedman’s X2) has been carried out. It generates a positive value of p = 0.001 (<0.05), which indicates that there is no discrepancy between the variables, so the variables would be dependent on one another [50,51]. This confirms the reliability and validity of the research, as in the case of other studies in the educational research field [52], particularly Social Science Didactics [53].

2.4. Procedure

With respect to the research procedure, the questionnaire was administered in an intermediate session with a response time of 20 min during the first semester of each academic year. The study was carried out in accordance with the directives of the Helsinki Declaration (Declaration of the World Medical Association), guaranteeing the ethical and philosophical commitment and unwavering respect for human dignity, privacy, physical and moral integrity, and the protection of personal data in the use of the survey throughout the research.
The privacy regulations were fulfilled, considering the personal data protection code (Organic Law 3/2018) and also those of anonymity and informed consent [53,54]. Also, the objectives of the study and its importance in relation to better socio-territorial resilience to face flood risks have been reported.

2.5. Data Analysis

With regard to the data analysis procedure, the SPSS v.28 program was used to conduct a statistical-inferential analysis (non-parametric testing) of frequencies and percentages. In order to analyze the nominal items (not dichotomous) and student’s groups (Primary Education, Secondary Education, Baccalaureate) the Chi-squared test (χ2) was conducted in order to detect a linear relationship between these items, following the procedure of other studies [46]. Also, the Kruskal–Wallis H test has been carried out to correlate the results of items 17 and 18 (standardized Likert Scale responses) of more than 2 independent responses with the student groups.
Furthermore, it should be noted that the responses to the open-answer question of Item 6 were coded, generating a frequency analysis, as we can observe in Figure 1. This coding was conducted by identifying content patterns and categorizing of the available information. To do this, the keywords were counted, the frequency (f) of the most recurrent responses was recorded, and the percentages of the textual fragments of the concomitant items were registered (R%). The software MAXQDA (v. 2020) was used for the analysis due to its capacity for coding, classification, and information saturation. This qualitative study generates results that converge with those obtained in the quantitative analysis of the questionnaire used, as indicated above. Finally, with respect to the open responses, the text includes some by way of example with the reference “P.E.” for students of Primary Education, “S.E.” for students of Secondary Education, and “B.E.” for those of Baccalaureate.

3. Results

3.1. Knowledge of the Phenomenon of Floods

This section analyzes the results linked to the training and knowledge of the phenomenon of floods (Items 4, 5, and 6). With respect to Item 4 (“Have you been taught what floods are?”), as we can observe in Table 3, the responses are distributed between those who have received training and those who have not. When analyzing these results, it can be observed that the Baccalaureate students claim to have received more training than the rest (46.6%; n = 82).
In order to verify whether there is a statistically significant association between the school stage of the student (Primary, Secondary education, Baccalaureate) and the training received, the Chi-squared test was performed. This test shows a statistically significant association (Pearson’s Chi-squared = 67.485; p = 0.001). Therefore, they are associated significantly (p < 0.05), and the two variables are dependent on one another. In other words, the training received on the phenomenon of floods depends on the school stage.
Next, the questionnaire asked the students whether the Social Science textbooks that they used in class explained the phenomenon of floods (Item 5). In this case, more than half of the students answered that they did not know (54.2%; n = 502), with the negative responses (27.6%; n = 256) being higher than the affirmative responses (18.1%; n = 168). With respect to the latter, the Baccalaureate students answered more positively than the rest (33.0%; n = 58) (Table 4). Pearson’s chi-squared test shows a statistically significant association (Pearson’s Chi-squared = 82.271; p = 0.001). Therefore, these two variables (school stage and explanation of floods in textbooks) are significantly associated (p < 0.05), indicating that the two variables are dependent on one another.
Item 6 seeks to determine whether the school students know what a DANA is. Only 33.3% (n = 308) answered this question affirmatively. The Secondary Education (41.0%; n = 186) and Baccalaureate (38.6%; n = 68) students affirm to know more about this phenomenon. Furthermore, it should be pointed out that 81.1% (n = 240) of the Primary Education students do not know what it means.
In order to verify whether there is a statistically significant association between the school stage and the meaning of DANA, the Chi-Squared test was conducted again. This test shows a statistically significant association (Pearson’s Chi-squared = 651.971; p = 0.001).
With respect to those who answered that they know what a DANA is, only 6.8% (n = 63) of the answers are really correct. These are related to the “cold drop” or the very definition of DANA (“High-Level Isolated Depression”). It should be noted that these answers were mainly given by Secondary Education and Baccalaureate students (Figure 1). For example: “In Valencia, they call it the cold drop. I think that it happens in autumn. It rains a lot and the beach floods” (S.E. n.3); “it is an atmospheric depression at high levels” (S.E. n.47); “also called cold drop, it is an isolated pocket of cold air” (B.E. n.113); “a mass of cold air in the peninsula or also hot called the cold drop” (B.E. n.158).
Other partially correct answers (because a heavy rain does not have to be associated with a cold drop) (19.7%; n = 182) were related to “heavy rains and strong storms”: “It is a very strong and long storm” (S.E. n.262); “it is a very strong storm” (B.E. n.28); “torrential rains, bad weather”) (B.E. n.85).
The incorrect answers were, for example, those related to “cold weather situations” (2.7%; n = 25) or “hurricanes and tornadoes” (2.8%; n = 26). With respect to the latter, the following can be highlighted: “It is a storm with heavy rains and the possibility of a hurricane” (S.E. n.203); “it is a hurricane” (S.E. n.409).
In order to verify whether there is a statistically significant association between the school stage and the answers given about DANAs, the Chi-Squared test was conducted again. This test shows a statistically significant association (Pearson’s Chi-squared = 102.398; p = 0.001). Therefore, they are associated significantly (p< 0.05), and the two variables are dependent on one another.

3.2. What the Students Perceive

After analyzing the knowledge and training of the school students on floods, this section examines their perception of the phenomenon. The results obtained for Item 7 (“Do more floods occur today than before?”) reveal that more than half of them do not know about this fact (57.2%; n = 530), which suggests that there is an imprecise perception of the phenomenon.
In order to determine whether there is a statistically significant association with respect to the above, the Chi-Squared test was carried out. This test confirms a statistically significant association (Pearson’s Chi-squared = 5.856; p = 0.209) (Table 5).
Next, the responses to Item 8 were analyzed to verify whether the way it rains has changed, in the opinion of the students. Overall, the responses of “it rains less than before but with more intensity” (59.6%; n = 552) are prominent and coincide with the findings of the scientific community [3].
When these data are analyzed in accordance with the school stage, differences can be observed (see Figure 2). The Secondary Education (61.7%) and Baccalaureate (73.9%) students responded more with this option, compared to 18.0% of the Primary Education group. The Primary Education students stand out more than the rest in their answers to: “it rains the same as before but with more intensity” (19.6%) and “the way it rains has not changed” (20.3%). In order to statistically verify these differences, the Chi-Squared test was carried out again. This test shows a statistically significant association (Pearson’s Chi-squared = 225.880; p = 0.001). Therefore, they are associated significantly (p < 0.05), and the two variables are dependent on one another.
With respect to Item 9 (“Why do floods cause increasingly more damage?”), the responses of the students along the lines of “Because climate change is causing it” (49.9%; n = 462) were most frequent and, in second place, those who do not know the origin of the increase in this damage (27.4; n = 254) (Figure 3). As we can observe in this figure, there are differences, as the Baccalaureate students chose the option of climate change to explain the origin (60.2%; n = 106). Moreover, it should be pointed out that the origin of floods due to human action is conspicuous by its absence (“Because the houses are constructed in floodable areas”) with only 9.7% of the answers (n = 90).
To verify whether there is a statistically significant association between the school stage and the origin of the increase in this damage, the Chi-Squared test was conducted. This test confirms an association (Pearson’s Chi-squared = 38.095; p = 0.001).

3.3. What Does the Future Hold? Incidence of Climate Change

Finally, the items related to the future perspectives of the phenomenon of floods with respect to climate change were analyzed (Item 17) and the human action to mitigate its effects (Item 18). The results obtained for Item 17 (“Will climate change worsen the flood problem in the future?”) reveal that more than half of the responses have values of “4” and “5” on a Likert Scale (the sum of these values amounts to 57.6%; n = 534) (Table 6). This shows that, according to the opinion of the students, in the coming years, climate change will be a key factor in increased flood risk (also coinciding with the answer for Item 9).
In order to determine whether there are statistically significant differences between the school stage and this perception, the Kruskal–Wallis H test was carried out. This test indicates that there are statistically significant differences (Kruskal–Wallis H = 23.360; p = 0.001) (Table 6). Therefore, the variables are dependent on each other.
With respect to Item 18, (“Are human beings doing everything they possibly can to reduce floods?”), the answers of the students are not optimistic. Almost half of the responses correspond to the values 1 and 2 on a Likert Scale (44.7%; n = 414) (Table 7). Again, the Kruskal–Wallis H test was conducted to verify whether there are statistically significant differences between the school stages. This test indicates that there are statistically significant differences (Kruskal–Wallis H = 14.689; p = 0.001). Therefore, the variables are dependent on each other.

4. Discussion

This work advances knowledge on the training and perception of school children regarding one of the most important effects of climate change to consider in the future (floods). It also contributes to increasing and covering the scientific gap existing in this topic in the case of Social Science teaching in Spain, which will help us understand and address the current state of this phenomenon in school geography classes.
The first hypothesis of this study established that “students have a limited level of training in this topic, as the contents are practically not addressed in the classrooms.” This hypothesis is fulfilled, and it has been checked that there are statistically significant differences between the school stages (Primary, Secondary education, Baccalaureate). This research shows that only 36.1% have received training on these contents at school. It also shows that only 33.3% claim to know the meaning of DANA (in the case of Primary Education, 81.1% do not know the meaning). It has been determined that the correct answers to this question account for only 6.8% of the total.
In Turkey, Yildiz et al. [12] examined how the experience of floods shapes the perceptions of children and their level of preparation. Based on a survey in which children between the ages of 11 and 14 participated from six schools in the town of Golcuk before and after a flood that occurred on 27 May 2018, it was found that there were no statistically significant differences in the perception of flood risk among children before and after this event. However, the importance that children gave the preparation increased after this flood in 2018. These authors conclude that the level of preparation for floods by the children surveyed indicates that Turkish children do not have sufficient knowledge of effective flood preparation activities; there is an urgent need to better prepare them for floods.
Improving the training of the students, but also the teachers, in these phenomena must be a priority for adapting to climate change. However, the teachers should also be trained in this subject. Based on the results of a survey among trainee Primary and Secondary Education teachers, Morote et al. [4] show that half of them consider that they have an average level of preparation to teach these contents in the classroom.
In the case where the teachers explain these contents, they usually use the school textbook. However, as analyzed by Morote et al. [43], the explanation of these phenomena is not always well directed, and the excessively catastrophic message with little scientific rigor is over-used. For example, the role of humans as aggravators of risk processes (occupation of courses, etc.) and even the reduction in swells are usually ignored. In the current study, it should be remembered that more than half of the students did not know whether floods were explained in the textbooks.
Children’s flood risk perceptions, which include their awareness and behaviors, can be cultivated through disaster education, which is crucial for improving disaster resilience and adaptation to climate extremes [55]. This has also been analyzed by Munthali et al. [31] in order to explore the knowledge on the preparation for emergencies and the associated socio-demographic characteristics of the people in the flood-prone areas of Chibavi and Chiputula in the city of Mzuzu, in northern Malawi (Africa). Through the administration of a survey in which 241 people participated, the authors found that 61.4% lacked any knowledge on how to act in a flood. Furthermore, the results revealed that there was a significant association (p = 0.044) between the level of education and the knowledge on the preparation for emergencies. Munthali et al. [31] conclude that it is necessary to establish clear plans to teach communities and families about emergency flood preparation to guarantee a common understanding of this phenomenon, which will improve the collaboration between the members of the community and avoid unnecessary deaths. Therefore, the teaching of floods from an early age is vital for the influence that it has on families [10].
The explanation in the classroom of issues related to natural risks is necessary for the training of safer societies that are more resilient to climate change [29]. In the case of Rumania, Toma et al. [11] indicate that people are not aware of the risks that these phenomena cause and that they are not sufficiently prepared to address these hazards. Undoubtedly, the training of the youngest cohorts in risk management is highly necessary [33]. In Sampang (Indonesia), these authors find that education plays a relevant role in raising awareness among the youngest cohorts about floods and that an efficient way to improve their resilience is to provide the students with knowledge on disasters and prevention techniques.
For the United Kingdom, Williams and McEwen [24] show that young people are rarely considered in risk management policies, the action that should be taken, and how the population should be prepared to address these phenomena. These authors have verified that the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that children have about local and international flood risk are drawn from different sources and are particularly influenced by the role of families.
Authors such as Boudet et al. [56] and Lawson et al. [57] insist on the importance that families have in raising awareness among the youngest segment of the population, as they can become inter-generational agents of change. Azmi et al. [27] conducted a study for Kuala Lumpur based on the participation of 337 Primary Education students and found that the students acquired a significant level of knowledge on floods and how to act in the event of these phenomena. Conversely, Williams et al. [23] reveal that small children have considerable potential to act as agents of change, bringing home advice and adaptation measures explained at school.
In relation to the preparation of these contents in the school context, in Spain, it is true that the new curricula resulting from the new educational law (LOMLOE, 2020) have added and improved certain aspects vinculated with natural risks and climate change. This is something that was already reflected in the previous educational law (LOMCE, 2013), but has now been reinforced. Without a doubt, this regulatory support, which is also reflected in the new school textbooks, will help in the coming years to improve the training of students and teachers.
The second hypothesis of the study sought to verify the idea that the “perception that these phenomena would be influenced and aggravated, in both intensity and frequency, by climate change. In their perception of these phenomena, human beings would have little influence on the increased risk”. This second hypothesis is also fulfilled. This study has shown that students believe that climate change is the main cause of these phenomena (49.9%) and that they will get worse in the future due to global warming (57.6%).
It is paradoxical to observe that the students relate the problem of floods to climate change, but they do not perceive that human beings are responsible for the ever-increasing territorial, socio-economic, and environmental effects. This raises the need to improve the contents on natural risks and climate change taught in the classroom, focusing on the significant participation of human beings in these two closely related processes [7].
Other research, such as that conducted by Sánchez-Almodóvar et al. [44], reveals that 81.6% of Secondary Education students consider that extreme climate events occur more frequently due to climate change. With respect to the consequences of this phenomenon, these authors explain that the principal effects cited by the students are: the increase in sea level (62.4%), the change in the ecosystems (26.1%), and the melting of the glaciers (6.9%). Meanwhile, in Italy, Antronico et al. [19] analyze the awareness, perception, and preparation of young Italians (13–20 years old) with respect to natural risks (including floods), finding that the majority of them are aware of climate change and the increase in torrential rains.
These data can be compared with those obtained by Shah et al. [35] for Pakistan. Based on a sample of 100 students from 20 Primary Education schools exposed to floods (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province). These authors show that, in terms of their perception, in general, 40.0% believed that these risks would destroy the houses of the residents (including their own), 39.0% indicated that they would damage large buildings and 31.0% believed that the people close by would be more exposed.
The teaching of natural risks should enable students to interpret and understand the different variables (natural and human) that interact in the territory in order to show society the complexity of its causes and effects and provide simple explanations for individual and collective mitigation and adaptation measures [36]. However, as we have verified here, the human factor as an agent that increases risk is testimonial, when it should have a considerable weight, together with the phenomenon of climate change. Furthermore, we should point out the worrying statistic that indicates the lack of hope of the young population regarding the reaction capacity of human beings to mitigate and address floods (the values of 1—completely disagree and 2—disagree—represent 44.7%).

5. Conclusions

Floods are the atmospherically caused natural hazards that generate the most mortal victims throughout the world and in Spain. Recently, there has been an increase in episodes related to changes in atmospheric circulation, which is causing the current process of climate change and a considerable increase in economic damage. The improvement to the meteorological forecast and hydrological warning systems in developed countries has enabled the number of mortal victims to be reduced. This has not been the case in less advanced countries, where the loss of human life and economic damage caused by floods are increasing due to the increase in exposure to a rising hazard. To teach these contents, it will be interesting to use different web viewers on flood maps (PATRICOVA, for example), to know the closest territory of the students affected by these phenomena through field trips, etc., where they live.
The actions to reduce this risk comprise a broad series of options, including structural civil works actions, rational planning of the territory, which should be based on a detailed mapping of the risk areas, and emergency management, which implies the development of civil protection protocols. Unfortunately, education of the risk has not received the attention that it should in an advanced society. This is reflected in the results obtained in this study, which verified that the majority of school children are not trained in these issues. In addition, the treatment of floods in textbooks is doubtful, as previously confirmed by other authors [43], and teachers have received little training in teaching these contents, which they are required to explain according to the current curriculum (LOMLOE) [58].
Until recently, the lack of specific educational programs (themes, projects) has led to the existence of social stereotypes, which students at different educational levels acquire in their social, family, and geographical environment. These stereotypes are not always correct and can lead to erroneous interpretations of flood processes. Therefore, research in risk education is fundamental, particularly in the current context of global warming, which is causing increases in the frequency and intensity of these events [36].
As a limitation to the study, it should be noted that here the students’ perceptions and opinions are analyzed. In other words, we do not know how floods are explained or transmitted in the classroom or the use that is made of the school textbooks. A future research challenge would be: (1) to conduct interviews with the teachers; (2) analyze the current textbooks; (3) research the classroom experiences in the schools that are not so widely disseminated in academic studies; and (4) do a longitudinal study with the data collection from the current questionnaire to observe changes over time and assess the long-term impact of educational interventions on students’ understanding and preparedness.
The development of these types of analytical studies of the teaching reality in sustainability and natural risk topics is highly important to improve the teaching methods and curricula contents. These materials are directly related to the Social Sciences and, specifically, the geography discipline, due to their close relationship with the topic of natural risk and climate change. It is an issue that the current LOMLOE curriculum identifies as a need in teaching, but the data of the study conducted show the lack of approaches of this kind. There is an urgent need, therefore, to improve the training of the teachers of this material, particularly Secondary and Baccalaureate teachers, who are not trained in geography but must teach these topics to future citizens [1].

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Á.-F.M. and J.O.; methodology, Á.-F.M. and J.O.; formal analysis, Á.-F.M. and J.O.; investigation, Á.-F.M. and J.O.; resources, Á.-F.M. and J.O.; data curation, Á.-F.M. and J.O.; writing—original draft preparation, Á.-F.M. and J.O.; writing—review and editing, Á.-F.M. and J.O.; Visualization, Á.-F.M. and J.O.; supervision, Á.-F.M. and J.O.; project administration, Á.-F.M. and J.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research has been carried out within the framework of the I+D+I project “INCLUCOM-Modelos curriculares y competencias histórico-geográficas del profesorado para la construcción de identidades inclusivas” (“Curricula models and historical and geographical competences of teachers for the construction of inclusive identities”) (PID2021-122519OB-I00), financed by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ and by “ERDF A way of making Europe.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interests.

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Figure 1. Responses of students on their knowledge about DANAs (Item 6). Source: results of the questionnaire. Coding of the answers to Item 6: 1 (“Very heavy rain and storms”); 2 (“Hurricanes, tornadoes, strong winds”); 3 (“Cold drop”, High-level Isolated Depression); 4 (“Cold weather situations”); 5 (“Other”). Own elaboration.
Figure 1. Responses of students on their knowledge about DANAs (Item 6). Source: results of the questionnaire. Coding of the answers to Item 6: 1 (“Very heavy rain and storms”); 2 (“Hurricanes, tornadoes, strong winds”); 3 (“Cold drop”, High-level Isolated Depression); 4 (“Cold weather situations”); 5 (“Other”). Own elaboration.
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Figure 2. Changes in the way it rains (Item 8). Source: questionnaire results. Answers to Item 8: 0 (“Do not know/No answer”); 1 (“It rains less than before but with more intensity”); 2 (“It rains more than before and with more intensity”); 3 (“It rains the same as before but with greater intensity”); 4 (“The way it rains has not changed”). Own elaboration.
Figure 2. Changes in the way it rains (Item 8). Source: questionnaire results. Answers to Item 8: 0 (“Do not know/No answer”); 1 (“It rains less than before but with more intensity”); 2 (“It rains more than before and with more intensity”); 3 (“It rains the same as before but with greater intensity”); 4 (“The way it rains has not changed”). Own elaboration.
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Figure 3. “Why do floods cause increasingly more damage?” (Item 9). Source: questionnaire results. Answers to item 9: 0 (“Do not know/No answer”); 1 (“Because it rains a lot”); 2 (“Because the water in the rivers circulates more rapidly”); 3 (“Because the houses are constructed in floodable areas”); 4 (“Because climate change is causing it”). Own elaboration.
Figure 3. “Why do floods cause increasingly more damage?” (Item 9). Source: questionnaire results. Answers to item 9: 0 (“Do not know/No answer”); 1 (“Because it rains a lot”); 2 (“Because the water in the rivers circulates more rapidly”); 3 (“Because the houses are constructed in floodable areas”); 4 (“Because climate change is causing it”). Own elaboration.
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Table 1. School students who participated in the research.
Table 1. School students who participated in the research.
Enrolled (n)Participants (n)Average AgeGender
FM
Primary Education32029610.760.1% (n = 178)39.9% (n = 118)
Secondary education49045413.648.5% (n = 220)51.5% (n = 234)
Baccalaureate19317616.851.1% (n = 90)48.9% (n = 86)
Total100292613.352.7% (n = 488)47.3% (n = 438)
Source: own elaboration.
Table 2. Items of the questionnaire analyzed.
Table 2. Items of the questionnaire analyzed.
Item (n.)Type of Response
-
Item 4. “Have you been taught what floods are?”
-
Closed response: Yes/No/Do not know/No answer
-
Item 5. “Do the Social Science textbooks explain what a flood is?”
-
Closed response: Yes/No/Do not know/No answer
-
Item 6. “What is a DANA?”
-
Open answer
-
Item 7. “Do more floods occur today than before?”
-
Closed response: Yes/No/Do not know/No answer
-
Item 8. “Now…”
-
Closed response: 0. Do not know/No answer/1. It rains less than before but with more intensity/2. It rains more than before and with more intensity/3. It rains the same as before but with more intensity/4. The way it rains has not changed.
-
Item 9. “Why do floods cause increasingly more damage?”
-
Closed response: 0. Do not know/No answer/1. Because it rains a lot/2. Because the water in the rivers circulates more rapidly/3. Because the houses are constructed in floodable areas/4. Because climate change is causing it/5. Other…
-
Item 17. “Will climate change worsen the flood problem in the future?”
-
Standardized response (Likert Scale; 1–5). “1” corresponds to “Completely disagree” and “5” to “Completely agree”.
-
Item 18. Do human beings do everything they possibly can to reduce floods?
-
Standardized response (Likert Scale; 1–5). “1” corresponds to “Completely disagree” and “5” to “Completely agree”.
Source: own elaboration.
Table 3. “Have you been taught what floods are?” (Item 4).
Table 3. “Have you been taught what floods are?” (Item 4).
Primary EducationSecondary EducationBaccalaureateTotalValue
χ2p
Non721986833867.4850.001
%24.3%43.6%38.6%36.5%
Yesn9615682334
%32.4%34.4%46.6%36.1%
Do not know/No answern12810026254
%43.2%22.0%14.8%27.4%
Totaln296454176926
%100.0%100.0%100.0%100.0%
Source: results of the questionnaire. χ2 = Chi-squared; p = asymptotic significance (bilateral). Own elaboration.
Table 4. Item 5. “Do the Social Science textbooks explain what a flood is?”.
Table 4. Item 5. “Do the Social Science textbooks explain what a flood is?”.
Primary EducationSecondary EducationBaccalaureateTotalValue
χ2p
Non1281082025682.2710.001
%43.2%23.8%11.4%27.6%
Yesn407058168
%13.5%15.4%33.0%18.1%
Do not know/No answern12827698502
%43.2%60.8%55.7%54.2%
Totaln296454176926
%100.0%100.0%100.0%100.0%
Source: results of the questionnaire. χ2 = Chi-squared; p = asymptotic significance (bilateral). Own elaboration.
Table 5. “Do more floods occur today than before?” (Item 7).
Table 5. “Do more floods occur today than before?” (Item 7).
Primary EducationSecondary EducationBaccalaureateTotalValue
χ2p
Non5670241505.8560.209
%18.9%15.4%13.6%16.2%
Yesn8611842246
%29.1%26.0%23.9%26.6%
Do not know/No answern154266110530
%52.0%58.6%62.5%57.2%
Totaln296454176926
%100.0%100.0%100.0%100.0%
Source: results of the questionnaire. χ2 = Chi-squared; p = asymptotic significance (bilateral). Own elaboration.
Table 6. “Will climate change worsen the flood problem in the future?” (Item 17).
Table 6. “Will climate change worsen the flood problem in the future?” (Item 17).
Primary EducationSecondary EducationBaccalaureateTotalValue
Hp
1n162003623.3600.001
%5.4%4.4%0.0%3.9%
2n2216442
%7.4%3.5%2.3%4.5%
3n11216042314
%37.8%35.2%23.9%33.9%
4n7614274292
%25.7%31.3%42.0%31.5%
5n7011656242
%23.6%25.6%31.8%26.1%
Totaln296454176926
%100.0%100.0%100.0%100.0%
Source: questionnaire results. Standardized response (Likert Scale; 1–5). “1” corresponds to “Completely disagree” and “5” to “Completely agree”. H = Kruskal–Wallis; p = asymptotic significance (bilateral). Own elaboration.
Table 7. “Are human beings doing everything they possibly can to reduce floods?” (Item 18).
Table 7. “Are human beings doing everything they possibly can to reduce floods?” (Item 18).
Primary EducationSecondary EducationBaccalaureateTotalValue
Hp
1n4032209214.6890.001
%13.5%7.0%11.4%9.9%
2n7416880322
%25.0%37.0%45.5%34.8%
3n10417652332
%35.1%38.8%29.5%35.9%
4n30481694
%10.1%10.6%9.1%10.2%
5n4830886
%16.2%6.6%4.5%9.3%
Totaln296454176926
%100.0%100.0%100.0%100.0%
Source: questionnaire results. Standardized response (Likert Scale; 1–5). “1” corresponds to “Completely disagree” and “5” to “Completely agree”. H = Kruskal–Wallis; p = asymptotic significance (bilateral). Own elaboration.
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Morote, Á.-F.; Olcina, J. Preventing through Sustainability Education: Training and the Perception of Floods among School Children. Sustainability 2024, 16, 4678. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16114678

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Morote Á-F, Olcina J. Preventing through Sustainability Education: Training and the Perception of Floods among School Children. Sustainability. 2024; 16(11):4678. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16114678

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Morote, Álvaro-Francisco, and Jorge Olcina. 2024. "Preventing through Sustainability Education: Training and the Perception of Floods among School Children" Sustainability 16, no. 11: 4678. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16114678

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