Impacts of Environmental Knowledge, Motives, and Behavior on Ecotourism

Abstract

Trip cost indirectly reflects the perceived value (PV) related to a tourist destination, which can be influenced by knowledge, motivation, and behavior. This research investigated the relationship between PV and pro-environmental behavior (PEB). Moreover, the influence of environmental knowledge and motives on PEB was ascertained. Hikkaduwa National Park, Sri Lanka, was considered as a case study, and 235 visitors were interviewed for data collection. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was developed based on the proposed hypotheses. The average individual cost of traveling of local tourists is USD 4.7, which reflects the PV. The results revealed that motivation directly and indirectly impacts PV, and PEB positively influences PV. Environmental knowledge does not positively influence either PEB or PV. Motivating individuals to participate in environment-related activities is important for encouraging PEB and positively impacting value perception. As PEB influences PV in ecotourism areas, eco-friendly individuals will visit these areas as they value them more. Anthropogenic impacts are minimized if the visitors are environmentally friendly. Accordingly, this study highlights the desirability of promoting ecotourism and PEB for the environmental sustainability of marine habitats. The management of ecotourism destinations can develop strategies to use PEB to ensure the long-term survival of these areas.

1. Introduction

Ecotourism is a well-known area of tourism practiced globally and is defined as “responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education” [1]. It concerns uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. It is originally considered a form of nature-based tourism, representing some similar ecotourism aspects [2,3]. Sustainable tourism lasts in a particular environment for an infinite period of time, without degrading the environment [4]. Ecotourism is considered a specialized category of sustainable tourism development strategies [5]. Ecotourism areas are mostly fragile ecosystems, in which a small external impact could result in catastrophic ecosystem changes [6]. Human impacts’ constant and widespread presence leads to similar consequences [7]. Therefore, minimizing physical, social, behavioral, and psychological impacts is considered part of the principles of ecotourism. Although ecotourism focuses on the sustainable utilization of the natural environment, every visitor to ecotourism areas may not necessarily show environmentally friendly behavior [8].

Pro-environmental behavior (PEB) is behavior that consciously seeks to minimize the negative impacts of one’s actions on the natural and built world [9,10]. As the outcome of PEB aligns with the ecotourism principle of impact minimization, practicing PEB may be an appropriate way to enhance participation in ecotourism. PEB, values, attitudes, and beliefs are considered a mechanism for environmental conservation [11,12,13,14], and they are especially important as strategies to protect the environment in tourist destinations [14,15,16]. Attracting environmentally friendly visitors to national parks is beneficial in terms of management and conservation goals [17]. If environmentally friendly tourists have the propensity to engage in ecotourism, environmentally conscious tourists will be attracted more to ecotourism areas, thus reducing anthropogenic impacts. This tendency could be used to protect those areas’ natural environment. In addition, ecotourism aids in environmental conservation and local economic development in developing countries. It is a sustainable development mechanism, especially in developing countries [18,19].

PEB has drawn considerable attention from the research community over the past decade [20,21], mostly focusing on community groups like farmers, residents, consumers, and visitors to parks [21,22]. Most of those studies were based on a subjective evaluation of their behavior [23]. The influence of domestic PEB on value perception, especially related to an ecotourism site in the developing world, has rarely been studied to the best of our knowledge. The value related to a particular purchasing process can be perceived prior to, during, and after the purchase. PV varies depending on the moments of perception due to its dynamic nature. Also, considering the tourist destinations, PV differs according to the different stages of the purchasing process [24,25]. Therefore, the influence of tourists’ PEB on PV is worthy of attention.

In response, this research aims to explore the relationship between PV and its subjectively evaluated PEB. The mediation effect of environmental knowledge and motives on PEB is also investigated. The individual transport cost and time cost are considered as the proxy for PV for the destination while a series of questions are used to evaluate their environmental knowledge, motives, and behavior. Furthermore, our study uses the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) method to develop a structural equation model (SEM).

The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 briefly discusses the relevant background. Section 3 first discusses the study area and data collection followed by the development of the empirical model. Section 4 elaborates on the results, and a discussion of the results is provided in Section 5. Finally, Section 6 provides concluding remarks.

2. Theoretical Background

Marine protected areas are managed through a combination of regulatory tools and market-based mechanisms. Regulatory tools include spatial tools (e.g., zoning plans), temporal tools (e.g., seasonal closures), and permits. Managing visitation by the implementation of entry and user fees is also a commonly used strategy. However, such mechanisms are not always successful due to the extra burden of monitoring (with the presence of multiple access points) and the affordability (equity) issues of visitors, especially in the context of developing countries. Nevertheless, non-price instruments such as education and promoting environmental behavior could be used as alternative management strategies [26,27,28].

2.1. The Relationship of Environmental Knowledge and Motives with Environmental Behavior

Environmental knowledge is explained as the knowledge and awareness of environmental problems and possible solutions [29]. It can be differentiated as objective and subjective knowledge [30] or as systemic, action-related, or effectiveness knowledge [31].

PEB of an individual is determined by both general and behavior-specific factors [32]. Knowledge and awareness about environmental issues have an impact on PEB [33]. Latif et al. [34] found that PEB is influenced by environmental knowledge through the mediating effect of environmental values, using SEM. Pothitou et al. [35] revealed that residents with positive environmental values and greater environmental knowledge demonstrate household energy-saving activities, considering the results of Spearman’s rank correlations. The influence of environmental knowledge on sustainable consumption behavior was also identified by Saari et al. [36]. The influence of environmental behavior on saving water in the presence of environmental knowledge was also found using SEM [37]. Lavuri [38] used SEM to reveal that environmental knowledge and environmental concerns are the strongest determinants of green purchasing intention, which leads to green purchasing behavior. Chan et al. [39] also revealed the influence of environmental knowledge and awareness on ecological behavior using SEM. On the contrary, Paço and Lavrador [40] put forward the argument that there is no correlation between environmental knowledge and energy consumption. Furthermore, Ye et al. [41] identified three pathways from PEB to willingness to participate in subsequent PEB, revealing the mediating effect of knowledge using SEM. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H1. 

Environmental knowledge has a positive influence on environmental behavior.

Motivation plays a major role in influencing the behavior of individuals [22]. Pro-environmental motivation is considered important in determining environmental behavior [42]. Cheng et al. [43] revealed that sustainable environmental motivations lead to PEB, using SEM. Gkargkavouzi et al. [22] identified that barriers to PEB mediate the impact of knowledge and motivation on the intention to adopt PEB, using structural equation models. Best and Thapa [44] investigated the motives for implementing environmental management in the accommodation sector with the use of Logistic Regression. The impact of pro-environmental motivation on promoting green travel mode choices has also been investigated by employing Multinomial Logistic Regression analysis [42]. The motivation of residents for biodiversity conservation was studied by Chen and Jim [45] using the Contingent Valuation Method. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H2. 

Motivation has a positive influence on environmental behavior.

2.2. The Relationship of Environmental Behavior, Environmental Knowledge, and Motivation with Perceived Value

Different factors affect the PV of tourist destinations based on the stage of purchasing [25]. Therefore, it is considered important to identify the influential factors of PV. The influence of PV on ecotourism has been identified as an influential factor of PEB by previous studies. Chiu et al. [12] used PLS-SEM to show that PV, satisfaction, and activity involvement related to the eco-travel experience promote environmentally responsible behavior of tourists at the eco-site. Ren et al. [46] used SEM to reveal that environmental attitudes and PEB in ecotourism destinations in China are influenced by environmental PV. Chiu et al. [47] also identified the positive influence of PV on environmentally responsible behavior in ecotourism, using SEM. Furthermore, Yang et al. [48] revealed that PV positively influences post-tour PEB and revisit intentions of ecotourists visiting the Huangshan World Natural and Cultural Heritage Site. Furthermore, Murphy et al. [49] employed PLS-SEM to investigate positive experiences with elements of the destination’s macro-environments, and revealed that service infrastructure positively affected perceptions of trip value. As revealed by Oviedo-García et al. [50], the PV of an ecotourism site fully mediates the influence of ecotourism knowledge on ecotourist satisfaction. They also used PLS-SEM. The positive impact of perceived quality on PV was revealed by Kaushal et al. [51] using SEM. Moreover, PLS-SEM was also used to identify that perceived environmental impacts, perceived economic impacts, and perceived economic benefits influence the support for sustainable tourism [52,53]. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3. 

Environmental behavior has a positive influence on PV.

Environmental knowledge significantly influences the environmental PV related to ecotourism destinations [46]. Knowledge of ecotourism has been identified as an influential factor of PV of ecotourist sites [50,54], using PLS-SEM. In contrast, Tkaczynski et al. [55] used a multivariate ordinary least square regression to reveal that whale watchers’ knowledge of protecting the environment does not influence PV. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H4. 

Environmental knowledge positively influences PV.

Motivation has a positive influence on the perceived value of a destination experience [56]. Motivation and the value perceptions related to ecotourism are positively interconnected [57]. Lo and Lee [58] emphasized the importance of understanding the role of motivation and PV related to volunteer tourism. Yeh and Jeng [59] revealed that motivation and PV are influential factors of the satisfaction of tourists visiting wineries, using SEM. Vasiljević et al. [60] studied visitor motivation and PV related to periurban parks, using exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. Moreover, Moons et al. [61] investigated the motivations behind the willingness to pay for ecotourism. They used multi-group structural equation modeling. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H5. 

Motivation positively influences PV.

Moreover, research studies combining ecotourism, PEB, and PV of visitors are rare. Exceptionally, few studies were able to reveal that PEB is influenced by the PV related to ecotourism [12,46,47,48]. However, the influence of PEB on PV remains unexplored, especially when combined with ecotourism while focusing on domestic PEB, which the current study sought to investigate.

Influential factors of environmental behavior have been examined using different theoretical models. Causal variables that influence environmental behavior are mostly attitudinal factors, contextual forces, personal capacities, and habits and routines of individuals [62]. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Goal Framing Theory (GFT), and the Value–Belief–Norm (VBN) theory are among the most accepted theories of environmental behavior [63]. TPB assumes that individuals make rational decisions and choose options that they discern have higher benefits and fewer costs [22], while GFT introduced three goals, namely hedonic, gain, and normative, which determine the PEB [64]. The VBN model assumes that individuals adopt a pro-environmental attitude if they think that there is a moral obligation to protect themselves, society, or the ecosystem [63]. These theories have been used in a variety of contexts such as visitor behavior in natural settings [65], environmental pollution [66], PEB among hotel guests [67], and PEB among the student community [68]. Attention has already been paid to the use of combinations of such theories [69].

2.3. Empirical Model

The conceptual model, including latent constructs (environmental knowledge, motivation, environmental behavior and PV) is given as follows (Figure 1).

The indicators used were global warming (EK_GW), ocean depletion (EK_OD), and sea level rising (EK_SLR) for environmental knowledge (EK); recycling and proper disposal of garbage (EB_RG), composting (EB_C), energy-saving actions (EB_ES), and consumption of organic produce (EB_COP) for environmental behavior; being a member of an environmental society (SOC) for motivation (MOT); and trip cost (TC) for the perceived value (PV) construct.

Based on the Baron and Kenny approach of mediation analysis [70,71,72], it is hypothesized that EK and MOT have a direct effect on PV (direct effect). Both EK and MOT also have an effect on PV through EB (indirect effect), where EB acts as the mediator (Equations (1) and (2)).

$$EB={ \mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{EB}\_\mathrm{EK}} EK+{ \mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{EB}\_\mathrm{MOT}}MOT+{ \mathsf{\zeta }}_{\mathrm{EB}}$$

(1)

$$PV={\mathsf{\beta }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{EB}} EB+{\mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{EK} }EK+{\mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{MOT} }MOT+{\mathsf{\zeta }}_{\mathrm{PV}}$$

(2)

ζ = random disturbance term; γ = path coefficient between endogenous and exogenous variables; β = path coefficient between endogenous variables [73,74].

‘${\mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{MOT}}$’ represents the direct effect of MOT on PV, while ‘${\mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{EB}\_\mathrm{MOT} }\ast$${\mathsf{\beta }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{EB}}$’ denotes the indirect effect of MOT on PV. The direct effect of EK on PV is denoted by ${\mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{EK} }$ and the indirect effect is represented by ‘${\mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{EB}\_\mathrm{EK}} \ast$${\mathsf{\beta }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{EB}}$’. Accordingly, the total effects (t) of EK on PV and MOT on PV are expressed in [37,75] Equations (3) and (4).

$$t_{\mathrm{EK} \mathrm{on} \mathrm{PV}}={\mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{EK} }+{\mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{EB}\_\mathrm{EK}} \ast {\mathsf{\beta }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{EB}}$$

(3)

$$t_{\mathrm{MOT} \mathrm{on} \mathrm{PV}}={\mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{MOT} }+{\mathsf{\gamma }}_{\mathrm{EB}\_\mathrm{MOT}} \ast {\mathsf{\beta }}_{\mathrm{PV}\_\mathrm{EB}}$$

(4)

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Study Area

Sri Lanka, as an island country, has several marine parks, and some are rich in coral reefs. The Hikkaduwa coral reef, which is an integral part of Hikkaduwa city in Southern Sri Lanka, is an important nature-based tourist attraction for both locals and foreigners. It is located within the boundaries of Hikkaduwa National Park (HNP), which is the first nominated marine national park in Sri Lanka with a coral reef (Figure 2).

This is a typical fringing coral reef with 60 species of hard coral and over 170 species of reef fish, providing a remarkable educational experience to the visitors [76]. In addition, it plays an important role in protecting the coast from sea erosion [77]. This is a major ecotourist attraction in Sri Lanka, having more than 25,000 visitors annually (before the COVID-19 pandemic) [78]. Observation and appreciation of nature are the major tourist activities available at HNP. Tourists arrive at HNP mainly for coral viewing as well as for snorkeling and diving. Moreover, HNP attempts to maintain the impacts on the physical and social environment at a minimal level. Coral reefs are of utmost importance in developing countries in terms of providing a livelihood (i.e., fisheries and tourism) for the coastal zone residents [79,80]. However, the sustainability of the coral reef ecosystem should also be ensured [81,82].

This coral reef was severely affected by an invasive alga and bleached in 1998, due to the El-Niño effect. Unplanned tourism in that area accelerated the degradation [76]. Currently, the ecosystem is subjected to various disturbances including the discharge of fuel and waste oil from glass-bottomed boats; damages caused by anchors, chains, and direct contact with the coral reef by boats; the collection of corals, shells, ornamental fish, and lobsters; the discharge of untreated or semi-treated effluents and sewage from hotels and restaurants; polluted freshwater runoff from canals; and discharge of waste by visitors. Most of these problems can be minimized by attracting eco-friendly tourists and promoting PEB. Hikkaduwa is an ideal place to explore the research question under these circumstances.

3.2. Data Collection

A field survey was conducted in 2019 (April to June) to collect data. On-site sampling was used, ensuring that site users were included in the sample [83]. This study gathered data on the travel expenditure of individual visitors from their origins. Domestic tourism contributes to employment, regional and rural development, and income equality issues in a country, enhancing economic development [84]. It is essential for the sustainability of the tourism industry in a developing country [85]. Therefore, only the local visitors were chosen as the survey respondents. The timespan of the survey was chosen to coincide with the most preferred time of the year to visit the Hikkaduwa coral reef. Since the purposes of visiting this area are diverse, the tourists who were leaving the park after coral viewing were targeted. Every visitor who was willing to take part in the survey was randomly encountered at the exit point. Meanderers who had made incidental visits were removed from the sample. The ultimate sample consisted of 235 visitors from 18 administrative districts of Sri Lanka. Those visitors were interviewed after explaining the purpose of the survey and obtaining their verbal informed consent.

The sample of respondents comprised 60.4% males and 39.6% females, indicating an under-representation of women. Women’s participation in leisure activities is limited due to household responsibilities and the caring behavior of women despite their employment status [86,87]. In the Sri Lankan context, the majority of women bear family responsibilities [88,89], sacrificing their opportunities for leisure activities. The dominant age category was 41 to 50 years and the majority of visitors had four family members. The average level of education was between 13 and 14 years and members of environmental societies accounted for 2.98% of the sample (

Table 1. Sociodemographic profile of the survey respondents.

Variables	(%)	Mean	Std. Error
Gender
Male	60.43
Female	39.57
Age		42.01	0.62
21–30	10.64
31–40	32.34
41–50	42.13
51–60	11.06
61–70	3.83
Family members		13.97	0.16
1	0.43
2	7.23
3	22.55
4	44.26
5	19.57
6	5.96
Education (in years)		13.97	0.16
Membership of Environmental societies	2.98

).

The required information was obtained using a questionnaire, which was developed considering the ethical aspects. Respondents were asked to provide information under several categories, namely the general attitude towards the conservation of nature, awareness and attitude towards Hikkaduwa and the coral reef, and travel-specific data.

Visitations to all the recreational areas in Sri Lanka, including HNP, significantly declined due to the COVID-19 pandemic [78]. In Sri Lanka, conducting face-to-face interviews with visitors to recreational areas became difficult after the pandemic due to the fear of possible infection. This situation lasted for a long time. Therefore, it was impossible to continue the survey during the post-COVID period.

3.3. Theoretical Justification

TPB identifies attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control as determinants of intention, which subsequently predicts behavior [90]. Similarly, the current study tries to identify another group of predictors of PEB. Considering the positive correlation of environmental knowledge with attitude and PEB [91], environmental knowledge was used in the proposed model. Furthermore, despite the heap of research addressing the impact of environmental knowledge on behavior [21,92], the use of environmental knowledge in studies on PEB is still important due to its influence on other environment-related aspects like environmental attitudes, concerns, awareness, and values. Environmental knowledge of visitors was measured on a 5-point Likert scale and a series of questions were prepared following the literature [22]. Visitors’ knowledge of global warming (EK_GW), ocean depletion (EK_OD), and sea level rise (EK_SLR) were used as indicator variables of environmental knowledge.

According to the TPB, it is assumed that intentions represent the motivation [90]. As the GFT suggests, people may be motivated to engage in PEB for hedonic reasons, gain reasons, or normative reasons [93]. Individuals voluntarily participate in environment-related activities through environmental organizations, when their level of environmental motivation is high [94]. According to Johnson et al. [95], environmentally motivated individuals attempt to obtain opportunities in environment-related societies to volunteer for environmental conservation activities. In Sri Lanka, becoming a member of an environmental society is the most suitable path available if an environmentally motivated individual seeks an opportunity to engage in environment-related activities effectively. Accordingly, the current study chose motivation as a predictor of behavior, which has not been considered by research focusing on environmental behavior and PV to the best of our knowledge. ‘Being a member of an environmental society’ was used as the indicator variable for motivation.

Questions related to PEB were developed, adopting items from previous studies [63,96,97]. Accordingly, indicator variables related to actual environmental behavior included recycling and proper disposal of garbage (EB_RG), energy-saving actions (EB_ES), composting (EB_C), sustainable use of water (EB_SUW), reducing the use of non-biodegradable materials (EB_RNB) and consumption of organic produce (EB_COP).

PV is evaluated using several dimensions, including the economic value, which is related to the pre-purchase stage [98,99]. Therefore, during the pre-purchase stage related to visiting a tourist destination, the trip cost incurred to visit a tourist destination acts as a proxy for the tourist’s PV. Accordingly, the PV of a site or tourists’ overall assessment of the utility expected to be derived from a destination, which is perceived when planning the travel, is reflected by the transportation cost and time cost incurred [49,51,100]. Round-trip transportation cost and travel time were obtained from the visitors. Almost all the people had visited the site as groups, and the cost per individual was then derived. The time cost was evaluated as one-third of the wage rate [83,101,102]. A considerable proportion of visits to Hikkaduwa are multi-destination visits and visitors were asked whether the sole purpose of this trip was recreation at HNP.

Cardinal values for all multi-destination visits were calculated using the expected value approach [103]. This approach adjusted both the transportation cost and the time cost. If the visitors had multiple recreational purposes for visiting the park, they were again adjusted using the expected value approach. The adjusted trip cost per individual was used in the conceptual model as the indicator variable of PV.

3.4. Data Analysis

First, the trip cost was calculated for each visitor, which is the summation of the transportation cost and the time cost adjusted using the expected value approach. The research hypotheses of this study were tested through PLS-SEM, which evaluates inter-relationships (see, Figure 2) between hypothesized latent constructs [104]. The measurement model explains the relationships between indicator variables and underlying constructs, while the structural model describes relationships among unobserved latent variables [22].

The PLS-SEM method is based on an iterative approach that maximizes the explained variance of endogenous constructs [105], which is a variance-based structural equation modeling (VB-SEM) technique. PLS-SEM is an alternative to OLS regression, canonical correlation, or covariance-based SEM of systems of independent and response variables, and it is a suitable technique when the research purpose is making a prediction or exploratory modeling. It has already been extensively used in previous studies on PEB [20,21]. PLS-SEM is mostly used for research with non-normal data and small sample sizes [104].

4. Results

There were 26% first-time visits to this national park and 176 people made one-day trips. The sole purpose of the travel of 158 visitors was to visit HNP, while 60 tourists traveled for multiple purposes, but their primary purpose was visiting HNP. The average TC per individual was USD 4.7 (average transportation cost = USD 2.9 and the time cost = USD 1.8), with a Standard Deviation of USD 3.3. The TC per individual ranged from USD 0.03 to USD 15.3. Major recreational purposes were viewing corals (100%), relaxing (29.4%), swimming (17.4%), and snorkeling (3.4%). The sole purpose of 61.7% of tourists was coral viewing, while the rest had multiple purposes for their visits. Among the sample, 88.8% of visitors had previous recreational experiences.

The majority of visitors had moderate knowledge of all the global environmental problems (Figure 3). However, all the visitors identified that the conservation of this site is essential.

The percentage of visitors practicing at least three environmentally friendly habits was 71.5. Energy-saving actions and the recycling and proper disposal of garbage were the environmentally friendly behaviors practiced by the majority of respondents. Composting, the sustainable use of water, reducing the use of non-biodegradable materials, and the consumption of organic produce were the other environmentally friendly habits that were recorded most frequently (

Table 2. Environmentally responsible behavior of visitors.

Behavior	Visitors (%)
Sustainable use of water	68
Composting	69
Reducing the use of non-biodegradable materials	69
Consumption of organic produce	70
Recycling and proper disposal of garbage	77
Energy-saving actions	81

).

4.1. Measurement Model

Cronbach’s Alpha is the traditional measure of internal consistency [106]. However, it underestimates the internal consistency [104]. Therefore, internal consistency was evaluated using composite reliability (CR) [107]. The CR of all the constructs was above 0.7, indicating internal consistency. The absolute contribution of the indicator to the definition of its latent variable is represented by outer loadings [108]. Outer loadings of the indicators and the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) are used to evaluate convergent validity. In the present model, the outer loadings of all indicators except EB_RG and EB_ES were above 0.7 (

Table 3. Evaluating the measurement model.

Construct	Indicator	Outer Loadings	CR	AVE
Environmental knowledge (EK)	EKGW	0.976	0.985	0.956
	EKOD	0.978
	EKSLR	0.979
Motivation (MOT)	SOC	1	1	1
Environmental behavior (EB)	EBRG	0.446	0.719	0.409
	EBC	0.744
	EBES	0.476
	EBCOP	0.807
Perceived value (PV)	TC	1	1	1

). Indicators with outer loadings between 0.4 and 0.7 should be removed when they lead to an increase in the composite reliability above the threshold value [104]. The AVE value of the EB construct was below 0.5. Accordingly, more than 50% of the variance remains in the error and only the rest of the variance is explained by the EB construct. The AVE of the EB construct is calculated as the sum of the squared loadings divided by the number of indicators associated with the EB construct [104]. According to the results of this study, two indicators had outer loadings below 0.7, which were also used in calculating the AVE, leading to a lower AVE value as a consequence. Although it is recommended to remove indicators with outer loadings below 0.7 to improve the convergent validity in general, indicators with outer loadings between 0.4 and 0.7 should only be removed if the CR of the respective construct increases with the removal of indicators [104]. Therefore, the EB_RG and EB_ES indicators were retained in the model as the composite reliability was already above the threshold value and considering their contribution to the content validity. These problematic indicators can be replaced with more suitable indicators, which may share a higher proportion of the variance, to improve the convergent validity. However, the convergent validity of a construct is said to be adequate, only based on the CR value, despite the fact that more than 50% of the variance is due to error [109]. The CR value of the EB construct well exceeded the threshold. Accordingly, the present study does not have any concerns over internal consistency and convergent validity (see Appendix A).

Cross-loadings, the Fornell–Larcker criterion, and the Heterotrait/Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) of the correlations were used to evaluate the discriminant validity. All the outer loadings on the associated construct were greater than its cross-loadings on other constructs (

Table 4. Cross-loadings.

Indicator	EB	EK	MOT	PV
EBRG	0.389	−0.187	0.068	0.107
EBC	0.755	−0.356	0.134	0.043
EBES	0.497	−0.213	0.066	−0.019
EBCOP	0.818	−0.408	0.181	0.000
EKGW	−0.468	0.976	−0.084	−0.018
EKOD	−0.450	0.979	−0.097	0.013
EKSLR	−0.484	0.978	−0.155	−0.001
SOC	0.190	−0.115	1.000	0.067
TC	0.041	−0.002	0.067	1.000

). The correlation between each construct was evaluated (p ≤ 0.05), and the value for the square root of each construct’s AVE, which were represented on the main diagonal, were higher than its correlations with other constructs, satisfying the Fornell–Larcker criterion [109]. All the values for HTMT were below the threshold of 0.85 (

Table 5. Discriminant validity.

Construct	EB	EK	MOT	PV
Fornell–Larcker criterion
EB	0.640	−0.479	0.190	0.041
EK	−0.479	0.978	−0.115	−0.002
MOT	0.190	−0.115	1.000	0.067
PV	0.041	−0.002	0.067	1.000
Heterotrait/Monotrait Ratio (HTMT)
EB
EK	0.660
MOT	0.251	0.116
PV	0.095	0.011	0.067

). Therefore, the measurement model showed discriminant validity.

4.2. Structural Model

The structural model was employed to test the causal relationships among environmental knowledge, motivation, environmental behavior, and PV. The model was tested for multicollinearity using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). VIF values for the endogenous constructs were below three, confirming the absence of collinearity issues. Standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), defined as “the root mean square discrepancy between the observed correlations and the model-implied correlations” [110], was used as the model fit measure. It was 0.067, which was below the threshold value of 0.08, showing an acceptable model fit [110]. Chi-square-based model fit measures as used in CB-SEM are not applicable for PLS-SEM, because the algorithm for obtaining PLS-SEM solutions is not based on minimizing the divergence between observed and estimated covariance matrices [108]. The significance of path coefficients was assessed using a bootstrapping technique, testing the proposed hypotheses (see

Table 6. Evaluating the structural model.

Hypotheses	Coefficient	t-Values	Result
H1: Environmental knowledge → Environmental behavior	−0.475 ***	−8.43	Not supported
H2: Motivation → Environmental behavior	0.121 **	1.81	Supported
H3: Environmental behavior → Perceived value	0.160 ***	2.40	Supported
H4: Environmental knowledge → Perceived value	0.101 **	1.08	Not supported
H5: Motivation → Perceived value	0.084 **	1.65	Supported

Note: ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

). The number of bootstrap samples used was 5000. The bias-corrected and accelerated method was used for constructing confidence intervals [104].

The results show that environmental knowledge significantly and negatively influenced environmental behavior (β = 0.475, p < 0.001), while motivation significantly and positively influenced environmental behavior (β = 0.121, p < 0.001). Motivation and environmental behavior significantly and positively influenced PV at β = 0.084 (p < 0.01) and β = 0.160, (p < 0.001), respectively. Environmental knowledge significantly and negatively influenced PV at β = 0.101 (p < 0.01), although the impact was not positive, as expected. Therefore, the results of the analysis supported hypotheses H2, H3, and H5, which were then accepted. Hypothesis H1 was not supported, as the resulting relationship showed a negative influence of environmental knowledge on environmental behavior in contrast to the proposed relationship. Hypothesis H4 was also not supported. Motivation had both a direct impact (0.084, p < 0.01) and an indirect impact (0.019, p < 0.001) on PV. Moreover, environmental behavior had a complementary partial mediating effect on the relationship between motivation and PV. Accordingly, the results lent support to the view that motivation has a direct positive influence on PV while environmental behavior additionally strengthens PV.

The Stone–Geisser Q² value was obtained using a blindfolding procedure with an omission distance of seven [104], and it was above zero for both environmental behavior and PV, indicating the predictive relevance.

5. Discussion

5.1. Influence of Pro-Environmental Behavior on Percieved Value

Giving rise to a new area of study, our research was able to reveal that PV has been directly and positively influenced by PEB. When individuals adopt PEB, they become environmentally responsible and promote eco-friendly practices such as ecotourism, and the value they perceive is higher. The more the environmentally friendly tourists value ecotourism, the more they engage in ecotourism. An increase in the level of environmentally friendly visitation would ensure that the environmental damage is minimized, leading to a sustainable marine ecosystem.

Ensuring the long-term survival of a fragile marine ecosystem like the Hikkaduwa coral reef without compromising recreational opportunities is challenging [28]. The maximum recreational benefit of the park could not be derived in the presence of excessive regulations. The current entry fee of the park does not have a significant effect on visitor management as it is an insignificant amount [111]. Therefore, increasing the level of environmentally friendly visitations to HNP is the most effective strategy to ensure that the coral reef is maintained intact. Environmental conservation could be promoted with the attraction of environmentally friendly tourists through ecotourism [112]. Accordingly, anthropogenic impacts will be reduced as tourists may choose activities that have a lower impact on the environment. Increased ecotourism will increase employment opportunities and enhance the income for locals, making their livelihoods more sustainable. It may also divert them from the current activities that lead to coral degradation. In addition, the general public can be encouraged to engage in PEB, which will subsequently increase their tendency to choose ecotourism. It is essential to make people aware of ecotourism through proper awareness programs, as these concepts are still in the emerging stage in Sri Lanka.

5.2. Influence of Motivation on Pro-Environmental Behavior

This study has asserted that motivation influences environmental behavior. Individuals who showed motivation in this study were active members of environmental societies. Since membership is a voluntary activity, people join those societies merely for their genuine interest in environmental issues. When people are influenced by normative motives, they tend to engage in eco-friendly activities, which they perceive as morally right or socially acceptable [113]. Members of these societies derive pleasure by engaging in environmental conservation activities, which emphasizes the contribution of hedonic motives of visitors towards their environmental behavior. Most environmental societies in Sri Lanka educate their members about general environmental aspects as well as local and global environmental issues that influence PEB [114]. In addition, gain motives may also have promoted PEB due to the interference of background motives, as suggested by GFT [42,115]. All the individuals who were members of the environmental societies were young people. If we can motivate the young generation to practice PEB, sustainable changes can be made in societal trends that last for a long time. Motivating the older generation to engage in PEB will also be possible through the spillover effects within generations [96]. If people are motivated to practice PEB related to the private sphere, their lifestyle will become sustainable. Motivating them to adopt public-sphere PEB will provide long-term benefits to the entirety of society.

5.3. Influence of Motivation on Perceived Value

PV has been positively influenced by motivation. Members of environmental societies are more aware and concerned about the value of a natural area used for ecotourism. Therefore, these motivated people highly value it, or, in other words, incur higher transportation costs and higher time costs in visiting the site. Accordingly, individuals can be motivated to participate in environment-related activities, which will encourage people to adopt PEB and engage in ecotourism. If people are motivated, they will also show a direct tendency to choose ecotourism activities. Attracting ecotourists through target marketing strategies, which focus on segments of the market, will increase participation in environmentally friendly tourism in natural areas, leading to environmental sustainability [5,116].

5.4. Influence of Environmental Knowledge on Pro-Environmental Behavior

The influence of environmental knowledge on behavior was significantly negative. Action-related knowledge has the greatest impact on behavior, and the effect of basic knowledge is insignificant [21]. Action-related knowledge directly influences private-sphere behavior [97]. Our study addressed systemic environmental knowledge and domestic PEB, where knowledge of effectiveness plays a major role. Therefore, this relationship may have been unexpectedly negative. Sometimes, individuals believe neither that their actions can mitigate environmental problems nor that it is their responsibility [114]. Some individuals may recognize the importance of environmental issues, even though their knowledge level is low, so they show PEB despite the fact that their knowledge is inadequate [117]. It is also possible that individuals provide information without proper understanding or adequate environmental literacy [118], which results in a low level of PEB. Sometimes, the knowledge about environmental issues is not sufficient to develop PEB [119]. Moreover, people may not engage in PEB despite them being aware of environmental issues and the consequences of their actions when their decisions are restricted by financial constraints [120]. When individuals have the required knowledge, they may recognize the consequences of their actions as long-term. Therefore, they may not show PEB, as the impacts are not on their generation. This may also be a reason for the negative relationship revealed.

Paço and Lavador [40] also found that there is no difference in PEB based on the level of environmental knowledge. The findings of Bartiaux [120] also confirmed that knowledge does not influence PEB. Contradicting results were also reported, revealing that environmental knowledge influences PEB [35,121,122]. Proper knowledge about the consequences of their behavior on the environment is considered important to intentionally adopt environmentally friendly behavior [123]. Therefore, disseminating action-related environmental knowledge should be emphasized, which focuses on the environmental impacts of behavior [96]. It should be realized that there may be other factors like financial constraints and time constraints related to lifestyle, which can have an impact on the decision to behave in an eco-friendly manner.

5.5. Influence of Environmental Knowledge on Perceived Value

The influence of environmental knowledge on PV was also insignificant, indicating that PV is not determined by the level of knowledge. In our study, only 26% of visitors to Hikkaduwa coral reef were visiting the reef for the first time. The remaining 74% of visitors, who had visited the site more than once, stated that the coral reef has been severely degraded. A small proportion (6.9%) of individuals out of those 74% of visitors stated that they had no intention to visit this depleted coral reef again. Others were willing to visit this site, although they noticed the depletion of the reef. Accordingly, differences in individual perception rather than knowledge may have determined the value they place. However, making the visitors more knowledgeable in terms of action-related knowledge and effectiveness knowledge will increase their value of ecotourism. These outcomes also highlight the potential of the Hikkaduwa coral reef to attract tourists, despite its degraded status.

The results of the current study revealed that the environmental knowledge of tourists who visit HNP negatively affected their PEB. In contrast, Esfandiar et al. [20] argued that awareness of consequences is an influential factor of pro-environmental binning behavior in national parks. Environmental knowledge positively influenced the PEB of tourists in marine park islands in Malaysia [124]. Our study identified that PEB influences PV, while motivation is a significant influential factor of the PEB and PV of visitors to HNP. In the ecotourism destinations in China, environmental knowledge significantly and positively influenced environmental perceived value. PEB was positively influenced by environmental perceived value, perceived consumption effectiveness, environmental attitudes, and environmental awareness [46]. Considering the sustainable tourism on Jeju Island in South Korea, environmental affect, which was defined as the emotional reactions to environmental issues, and nature affiliation were identified as significant influential factors of PEB by Kim et al. [125]. Environmental knowledge was a significant determinant of environmental affect related to that tourist destination. According to the results of the study conducted by Hu et al. [126], environmental knowledge had indirect effects on the behavioral intention related to the litter management behavior of visitors to Huangshan National Park, which is a mountainous tourism area in Southeast China.

Furthermore, considering the sustainable tourism in Midyat city in Turkey, Uslu et al. [52] revealed that the impact of perceived environmental impacts on support for sustainable tourism was positive, while perceived economic impacts had a negative effect. Emotional solidarity, stakeholders’ attitude, stakeholders’ commitment, and perceived economic benefit were also identified as influential factors of the support of residents toward sustainable tourism development in Shiraz, an ancient town in Iran [127].

The outcomes of the present study are useful for the management of all marine recreational destinations. This study revealed the importance of PEB in ecotourism areas. Therefore, the visitors should be provided with necessary instructions on behaving inside the park in an environmentally friendly manner, and a proper monitoring mechanism can be established. Providing a discount on the entrance fee and other activity-specific fees for future visits or offering rewards to visitors who practice PEB inside the park can be suggested. Necessary infrastructure and facilities such as bins for segregating waste, composting and recycling bins, and nature observation areas to avoid the disturbance to the environment should be established to support the PEB of tourists [20]. Developing a mechanism to charge a fee to visitors who do not practice PEB is also proposed. As motivation was identified as an influential factor of PEB, destination managers can consider collaborating with environmental societies and obtaining the contribution of these societies to maintain the ecotourism areas sustainably.

It is suggested to develop policies focused on increasing awareness of the ecological effects of tourism in the marine environment, promoting public awareness about the importance of practicing PEB in ecotourism areas and promoting community-based ecotourism. Policies that provide directions and guidelines on the use and maintenance of sensitive ecotourism areas, equipped with proper monitoring mechanisms, should also be proposed. A reward scheme to motivate the individuals who practice PEB and a proper mechanism to penalize the people who impose a negative impact through their actions can be introduced through new policies.

Some limitations of this study deserve attention. Domestic pro-environmental habits are well developed in most individuals, which are partially carried over when they are away from home. Spillover of domestic PEB to tourism PEB may also take place as spillover between contexts is possible [53,97]. Therefore, the tourism PEB was not specifically considered. Outcomes of PEB studies are affected by social desirability bias. However, maintaining subject anonymity and modifying questions to neutralize socially acceptable answers [128] were practiced to minimize it. Common method bias did not distort the results of this study, as Harmans’ single-factor test indicated that only 36.99% of the variance is explained by one factor, which is below the 50% threshold [129]. However, potential endogeneity issues may be present, making the estimated path coefficients biased and inconsistent. They may also lead to Type I and Type II errors [130]. The survey was limited to local tourists, but the responses of foreign visitors are also important as their level of visitation is also considerable. The extent to which the research findings can be generalized and the outcomes can be used for the sustainable management of other marine ecotourism areas depends on the degree of similarity in the characteristics of the visitors and those areas.

Future researchers are encouraged to examine the implications on the seas in the context of ecotourism and ecological sustainability. This study can be repeated covering all seasons of visiting HNP. The same study can be expanded to cover marine ecotourism areas in several countries to identify whether there is a difference in the influential factors of PEB based on cultural aspects.

6. Conclusions

This study revealed that PEB influences PV, while both PEB and PV are influenced by motivation. It was found that environmental knowledge had no positive influence on PEB or PV. It can be concluded that general knowledge about environmental issues does not make attitudinal changes. Adopting PEB contributes to achieving environmental sustainability goals when the planet urgently needs to reverse the drastic depletion of natural resources. If individuals are environmentally responsible, they admire and value their surrounding environment, reinforcing eco-friendly practices. Environmental knowledge and awareness programs should be focused on moral persuasion. In addition, promoting environmentally responsible behavior in economically important natural habitats will further strengthen the contribution of such habitats to the national economy more sustainably. Promoting PEB in visitors to ecologically and environmentally sensitive marine environments is, therefore, desirable.

As this coral reef ecosystem is struggling to overcome rapid degradation due to anthropogenic impacts, immediate attention should be paid to suitable conservation strategies. Promoting ecotourism in HNP will be beneficial for the conservation and sustainable management of this park. Accordingly, practicing PEB and adopting ecotourism are important as conservation strategies for fragile marine ecosystems, which ensures their long-term survival while sustainably utilizing their economic potential.