1. Introduction
The connectedness to nature directly correlates with well-being, human health, and conservation efforts [
1,
2,
3]. The significance of this connection is evident through an increasing focus of the literature on reconnecting people with nature for sustainability transformations [
4,
5]. Thus, fostering connections to nature has been identified as a pivotal point for sustainability [
6,
7]. Such connections are important in urban areas, as the global population resides in urban areas [
8]. According to the UN projection, the percentage of the global urban population is expected to rise to 66% by 2050 [
9], highlighting the importance of nature in urban areas for reconnecting people with nature through urban landscapes.
Integrating nature in urban environments strengthens the connection with nature for urban dwellers and provides daily opportunities for interaction and engagement with nature, in contrast to more distant nature experiences [
10]. With urbanization on the rise and limited access to natural environments, urban green spaces (UGSs) play a significant role in fostering a connection with nature among urban populations [
11,
12]. As UGSs offer daily opportunities for people to interact with nature [
13,
14], they serve as vital components of urban planning to promote pro-environmental behavior and sustainability.
The concept of connection with nature (CN) holds the potential for re-establishing intimate relationships with the urban environment. Previous studies have demonstrated that individuals’ interactions with nature foster and fortify their bond with the natural world [
15,
16]. This forging of CN has the potential to drive significant societal shifts towards the care and preservation of nature [
4]. Furthermore, recent research underscores the crucial role of engaging with nature in enhancing human health and well-being and motivating environmentally responsible behavior [
17,
18].
In exploring the correlations between nature connectedness and various modes of engagement with the natural world, Lumber et al. identified pathways such as contact, beauty, emotion, meaning, and compassion [
19]. Additionally, a variety of scales have been developed to measure different facets of connectedness to nature, including the Connectedness to Nature Scale (CNS), Nature Relatedness Scale, and Nature Connection Index [
18,
20].
Despite significant progress in the research on connectedness to nature, fundamental questions remain regarding the mechanisms and pathways influencing various outcomes [
12,
21]. To address these challenges and opportunities, the literature explores various conceptual frameworks, including nature connectedness [
20], nature relatedness [
22], and human–nature connection [
4,
23,
24].
Ives et al. categorized five dimensions of connectedness with nature along a spectrum of individuals’ inner and outer worlds, encompassing “material, experiential, cognitive, emotional, and philosophical” aspects (2018). In a similar vein, other scholars have categorized connectedness with nature through three distinct relationships: intertwined, inclusive, and indistinguishable [
25]. Schultz’s “Inclusion with Nature in Self” scale, which features overlapping circles labeled “Self” and “Nature”, has been instrumental in assessing biospheric attitudes, NEP scores, and self-reported behavior [
26].
While these constructs exhibit nuanced differences, they collectively convey a subjective and enduring sense of interconnectedness between humans and the natural environment, encompassing cognitive, emotional, and behavioral dimensions [
27]. In this study, we adopt the term connection with nature (CN) and utilize Schultz’s Inclusion with Nature in Self (INS) scale [
26]. The Inclusion of Nature in Self (INS) scale primarily targets the cognitive dimension, assessing the degree to which individuals integrate knowledge about the natural world into their self-concept [
26,
28].
Engagement in environmental activities, a key component of environmental education [
29], is instrumental in mobilizing individuals towards actions beneficial to the environment. Volunteering in specific natural settings facilitates direct engagement and fosters pro-environmental behaviors. Such involvement cultivates a sense of connection between individuals and their environment [
30,
31], thereby nurturing civic responsibility for environmental stewardship [
32].
While this engagement yields positive outcomes by fostering pro-environmental behaviors, it also enhances individuals’ understanding of natural systems, thereby influencing their environmental conduct [
33,
34]. The research underscores the correlation between feeling connected to nature and exhibiting environmentally responsible behavior [
18], with scholars such as Schultz [
26] and Zylstra et al. [
21] highlighting its pivotal role. Additionally, a robust connection to nature has been linked to diverse pro-environmental activities [
35,
36], underscoring its significance in driving environmental engagement. However, despite the documented benefits of engaging in pro-environmental activities and cultivating a strong connection to nature, a notable gap exists in understanding how these relationships translate into sustained pro-environmental action.
The escalating global urbanization and a burgeoning urban population place significant pressure on UGSs. These spaces serve as the primary conduit for urban dwellers to connect with nature, offering crucial opportunities to foster relationships with the natural environment. Interactions with urban nature, ranging from passive strolls to active engagement, yield diverse benefits. Studies have underscored the substantial contribution of UGSs to overall health and well-being, encompassing physical, emotional, and mental aspects [
37,
38,
39]. Recognizing their pivotal role, the World Health Organization (WHO) deems UGSs essential for fostering healthy, sustainable, and livable urban environments [
40].
Despite their importance, it remains unclear which specific types of natural settings within urban areas enhance connections with nature and how this influences pro-environmental behavior. CN demonstrates a positive correlation with individuals’ interactions with natural environments, with even brief exposure to nature evoking a sense of connection [
41]. Against this backdrop, understanding the association between UGSs, CN, and pro-environmental behavior is imperative. This research aims to elucidate these relationships, supported by empirical evidence, to inform effective urban planning and environmental management strategies.
The primary aim of this study is to investigate the CN within urban landscapes, focusing on an urbanizing city in the Global South. Specifically, we examine a case study of an Indian city characterized by disparities in UGS provision. We aim to assess the relationship between UGS availability, CN, and engagement in environmental activities indicating pro-environmental behavior (PEB). To achieve this, we analyze UGS provision data and survey questionnaire responses to understand how urban dwellers perceive their connection with nature in cities, the influence of UGS availability on these perceptions, and the relationship between perceived CN and PEB.
This paper aims to address three main objectives:
To explore the impact of UGS availability on different levels of perceived CN.
To understand the association between perceived CN and engagement in environmental activities, reflecting PEB.
To investigate the relationships between demographic factors such as gender, age, education, and work status on EB.
This research is exploratory and contributes to the existing literature by focusing on urban landscapes in the Global South, where challenges related to urbanization and environmental degradation are pronounced. By shedding light on the associations between UGSs, CN, and EB, this study aims to provide insights that can inform urban planning and environmental management strategies in similar contexts.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows: The
Section 2 outlines the methods, including the study area, survey method, data collection, measurement scales, and statistical analysis. In the
Section 3, we present the results regarding the association between UGSs, CN, and EB. The
Section 4 provides a discussion of the findings. Finally, in the last section, we draw conclusions based on this study’s results.
2. Methods
2.1. Study Area
For this study, we have considered the case of Nagpur City. Situated in central India, the city is classified as a tier II city with a population of 2.4 million and a land coverage of roughly 218 km
2. Administrative divisions within Nagpur are structured into ten zones, amalgamating 136 electoral wards under the Nagpur Municipal Corporation (NMC). The city was once known for its greenery, but it is now grappling with substantial loss and degradation of its natural greenery, marking a notable shift in its urban landscape [
42,
43]. The city’s landscape features natural and artificial lakes, the Nag and Pili River basins, urban forests, institutional greens, parks and gardens, playgrounds, greenery along roadways, and others. However, the existing public UGSs exhibit disparities in their provisions [
44,
45]. As identified by Lahoti et al., at the city scale, the per-capita public UGS stands at 3.65 m
2, which is quite below the WHO-recommended UGS provision standards, and this distribution varies significantly across the ten administrative zones [
45]. Furthermore, the variation in proximity and service area coverage among the ten administrative zones is significantly high [
45]. Accordingly, we divided the city’s administrative zones into three categories based on UGS availability, as shown in
Figure 1, for use in this study.
2.2. Data Collection
For data collection, we conducted a face-to-face questionnaire survey with urban dwellers to ascertain their interaction and connection with urban nature and participation in environmental activities in Nagpur. Data collection was facilitated by a digital-based questionnaire administered through the Survey 123 field app (3.19.114). This enabled the capture of the respondents’ residence location within the ten administrative zones. The respondents in the survey specified the UGS they visit and interact with, their perceived CN, and their participation in environmental activities. In this study, we mainly focused on (1) questions pertaining to interaction with UGSs, in terms of whether respondents visit UGSs or not, and if not, what the reasons are; (2) questions enquiring about respondents’ relationship with urban nature; (3) a question to gauge respondent participation in pro-environmental activities; and (4) demographic-related questions including gender, age, household location, education, and work status.
Sixteen trained research assistants were surveyed in January 2024 using an electronic survey form to enhance the speed and scalability of the survey. The Survey123 field app offered features such as local language settings (English, Hindi, and Marathi) and geo-tagging. Soft data delineating administrative zones and public UGSs with the Google Maps interface were derived from previous fieldwork [
45,
46]. Respondents used the Google Maps interface to pinpoint their household location, which was then translated into the administrative zone. The questionnaire allowed participants to opt-out to maintain anonymity and confidentiality. The target population was respondents aged above 18.
2.3. Measures and Data Variables
UGS availability was categorized as high, moderate, and low (
Table 1 and
Figure 1). This categorization was based on per-capita UGS availability in each administrative zone, as detailed in a previous study by Lahoti et al. [
45]. Although the focus in the current study was the ten administrative zones within the city boundaries, some respondents from the periphery participated in the survey. Hence, their household locations are considered peri-urban.
In our study, we utilized self-reported measures to assess both CN and EB. For CN, we employed a visual representation in the questionnaire, adapted from Schultz’s “Inclusion with Nature in Self” scale. This construct aims to gauge individuals’ perceptions of their relationship with nature by presenting two circles, one green representing nature and the other white representing the respondent. The participants were asked to choose from five options what best described their relationship with nature based on the proximity of the circles, which were subsequently used as terms in data analysis.
Self-reporting is a commonly used method for assessing pro-environmental behavior [
47], valued for its cost-effectiveness, ease of administration, and flexibility [
48]. Researchers often rely on self-report measures to determine the frequency of engagement in various pro-environmental behaviors [
49]. In our study, EB was evaluated through a straightforward categorical question with response options of yes or no. While our survey covered multiple aspects of pro-environmental behavior, this study focuses on this measure.
In addition to measuring CN and PEB, demographic information, including gender, age, education, and work status, was also collected through the questionnaire. Participants were asked to provide their demographic details, and the categories for each demographic variable are listed below (
Table 2). This information will be used to explore potential associations between demographic factors and PEB in our analysis.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
We ran descriptive and exploratory statistics to provide an overview of the data. Spatial data processing was carried out using ArcGIS Pro 2.8, while R 4.3.2 was utilized for other analytical tasks. Descriptive statistics were used to identify the characteristics of the surveyed population, such as demographics and reasons for non-visitation to UGSs. An exploratory analysis using chi-square tests and mosaic plots was carried out to examine relationships between variables, such as gender, work status, and reasons for non-visitation. A chi-square test explored the association between the respondent’s perceived CN and UGS availability. Further analysis was warranted as the p-value was low, indicating a significant association.
Subsequently, multinomial logistic regression analysis was conducted to investigate the correlation between these variables. The analysis utilized the perceived CN variable as the outcome variable, with UGS availability as the predictor variable. Standard procedures for multinomial logistic regression were followed, with coefficients and standard errors calculated to assess the impact of UGS availability levels on perceived CN. The intercept coefficient represented the baseline comparison for the “separate” and “high” variable categories. Additionally, odds ratios were computed to quantify the likelihood of perceiving the CN categories compared to the reference category, providing insights into the strength and direction of these associations. Another multinomial logistic regression analysis was conducted to further explore the correlation between respondents’ perceived CN and their engagement in environmental activities (EA). In this analysis, perceived CN categories were the outcome variable, while engagement in EA was the predictor variable. Coefficients (Coef.) and standard errors (SE) were calculated to assess the impact of engagement in EA on perceived CN.
A logistic regression analysis was performed to investigate the relationship between demographic variables and respondents’ engagement in EA. Categorical variables, including gender, age, education, and work status, were coded as factors, and a binary logistic regression model was fitted using the generalized linear model function in R 4.3.2.