Cleaner Production of Cementitious Materials Containing Bioaggregates Based on Mussel Shells: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Country | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
China | 2.29 | 2.29 | 2.29 | 2.29 | 2.29 | 2.29 | 2.44 | 2.43 | 2.33 | 2.24 | 2.17 | 2.18 | 2.18 |
Indonesia | 0.80 | 0.80 | 0.80 | 0.80 | 0.80 | 0.80 | 1.10 | 1.21 | 1.23 | 1.21 | 1.18 | 1.21 | 1.23 |
Peru | 0.76 | 0.78 | 1.49 | 1.48 | 0.94 | 0.95 | 0.92 | 0.76 | 1.32 | 0.88 | 1.03 | 1.02 | 1.07 |
United States of America | 0.98 | 1.11 | 1.12 | 1.13 | 1.03 | 1.06 | 1.03 | 1.08 | 1.03 | 1.04 | 0.91 | 0.92 | 0.94 |
India | 0.37 | 0.56 | 0.64 | 0.66 | 0.59 | 0.77 | 0.86 | 0.85 | 0.78 | 0.79 | 0.80 | 0.83 | 0.85 |
Japan | 0.69 | 0.80 | 0.70 | 0.81 | 0.68 | 0.69 | 0.68 | 0.69 | 0.70 | 0.68 | 0.68 | 0.75 | 0.78 |
Vietnam | 0.11 | 0.20 | 0.37 | 0.37 | 0.59 | 0.65 | 0.68 | 0.68 | 0.69 | 0.71 | 0.71 | 0.71 | 0.72 |
Norway | 0.48 | 0.52 | 0.54 | 0.54 | 0.54 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.52 | 0.54 | 0.50 | 0.53 | 0.55 | 0.54 |
Republic of Korea | 0.24 | 0.40 | 0.38 | 0.34 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.34 | 0.35 | 0.39 | 0.38 | 0.43 | 0.44 | 0.46 |
Morocco | 0.10 | 0.15 | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.24 | 0.21 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 0.31 | 0.29 | 0.31 | 0.30 | 0.46 |
Thailand | 0.40 | 0.38 | 0.36 | 0.37 | 0.39 | 0.38 | 0.36 | 0.39 | 0.40 | 0.40 | 0.42 | 0.44 | 0.44 |
Chile | 0.90 | 0.90 | 0.82 | 0.81 | 0.85 | 0.87 | 0.47 | 0.41 | 0.46 | 0.43 | 0.38 | 0.40 | 0.43 |
Philippines | 0.29 | 0.29 | 0.30 | 0.36 | 0.37 | 0.38 | 0.38 | 0.41 | 0.36 | 0.36 | 0.38 | 0.38 | 0.39 |
Malaysia | 0.16 | 0.23 | 0.28 | 0.27 | 0.30 | 0.29 | 0.32 | 0.32 | 0.31 | 0.32 | 0.30 | 0.33 | 0.34 |
Mexico | 0.26 | 0.25 | 0.26 | 0.27 | 0.32 | 0.32 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 0.29 | 0.31 | 0.29 | 0.32 | 0.31 |
Iceland | 0.31 | 0.36 | 0.32 | 0.35 | 0.36 | 0.26 | 0.25 | 0.27 | 0.22 | 0.22 | 0.24 | 0.24 | 0.31 |
Russian Federation | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.07 |
France | 0.17 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.24 | 0.23 | 0.23 | 0.25 |
Spain | 0.24 | 0.25 | 0.26 | 0.27 | 0.23 | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.19 | 0.20 | 0.21 | 0.21 | 0.21 | 0.22 |
New Zealand | 0.19 | 0.21 | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.19 | 0.21 | 0.22 | 0.19 | 0.19 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.22 | 0.21 |
Argentina | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.20 | 0.19 | 0.21 | 0.20 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.18 |
Denmark | 0.40 | 0.37 | 0.40 | 0.33 | 0.23 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.17 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.17 |
Brazil | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.15 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.15 | 0.16 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.17 |
Canada | 0.23 | 0.22 | 0.24 | 0.24 | 0.26 | 0.24 | 0.22 | 0.20 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.15 |
Italy | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
Slovenia | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.04 |
Others | 2.50 | 1.66 | 1.62 | 1.14 | 2.91 | 2.87 | 2.31 | 2.67 | 2.81 | 2.58 | 2.32 | 2.21 | 1.96 |
Total | 13.27 | 13.31 | 14.21 | 13.84 | 15.06 | 15.01 | 14.68 | 14.99 | 15.55 | 14.74 | 14.50 | 14.68 | 14.87 |
2. Bioaggregates Obtained from Mussel Shells
2.1. Bibliometric Analysis
2.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Mussel Shells
Bioaggregates | Specific Mass (g/cm3) | Specific Gravity | DCM (mm) | FM | Surface Area (mm) | Water Absorption (%) | Moisture Content (%) | Study |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cockle | 3.03 | 1.32 | - | - | 13.56–23.97 | - | - | [35] |
Cockle | 2.82 | - | - | - | - | - | 0.15 | [36] |
Cockle | 2.30 | - | 4.75 | 2.50 | - | - | 0.50 | [6] |
Cockle | 2.50–2.64 | 2.09 | - | 4.40–4.57 | - | 2.5 | - | [8] |
Cockle | - | 1.38 | 4.75 | - | - | 5.67 | - | [13] |
Cockle | 2.52 | 1.39 | 4.00 | - | - | 2.93 | - | [24] |
Mussel | 3.01 | 1.26 | - | - | 29.87 | - | - | [35] |
Mussel | 2.57 | - | 4.75 | 3.11 | - | - | 1.73 | [4] |
Mussel | 2.62–2.73 | - | - | 1.90–5.38 | - | 2.17–4.12 | - | [8] |
Mussel | 2.40 | - | 5.00 | - | - | 3.52 | - | [16] |
Mussel | 2.65 | - | 4.00 | 4.64 | - | 2.56 | 0.63 | [7] |
Mussel | 2.72 | - | 4.00 | 2.21 | - | 3.94 | - | [15] |
Mussel | 2.59 | 1.57 | 4.00 | 2.15 | - | - | - | [37] |
Mussel | 2.67 | - | 4.00 | 3.71 | - | 2.22 | - | [19] |
Oyster | 3.09 | - | - | - | 1.61–58.53 | - | - | [35] |
Oyster | - | - | - | - | 25.1–46.1 | - | - | [33] |
Oyster | 2.65 | - | - | - | - | - | 0.36 | [36] |
Oyster | 1.85–2.48 | - | - | 2.00–6.50 | - | 2.9–9.2 | - | [8] |
Oyster | 2.42 | - | 4.75 | - | - | - | - | [38] |
Oyster | 2.48 | 5.00 | 2.80 | - | 2.90 | 0.57 | [39] | |
Oyster | 2.10 | 1.05 | 4.75 | 2.00 | - | 7.66 | - | [40] |
Oyster | - | 1.85 | - | 2.8 | - | 9.2 | - | [41] |
Oyster | 2.58 | - | 4.75 | 3.13 | - | 3.54 | - | [42] |
Bioaggregates | CaCO3 | Na2O | SO3 | MgCO3 | SiO2 | Al2O3 | SO4 | Other | Study |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cockle | 96.85 | 0.42 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.94 | 0.15 | 0.05 | 1.44 | [6] |
Cockle | 97.13 | 0.37 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.98 | 0.17 | 0.07 | 1.13 | [36] |
Mussel | 95.09 | 0.35 | 0.18 | 0.21 | 1.12 | <0.01 | - | 3.04 | [7] |
Mussel | 89.46 | - | 0.57 | - | 1.26 | - | - | 0.07 | [4] |
Mussel | 96.80 | 0.27 | 0.34 | 0.05 | 0.55 | 0.20 | 0.11 | 1.68 | [48] |
Mussel | 95.60 | 0.44 | 0.34 | 0.03 | 0.73 | 0.13 | 0.11 | 2.62 | [36] |
Mussel | 98.64 | 0.42 | 0.52 | 0.10 | - | - | - | 0.32 | [49] |
Oyster | 95.70 | 0.19 | 0.73 | 0.42 | 1.01 | 0.14 | 0.32 | 1.49 | [48] |
Oyster | 96.80 | 0.23 | 0.75 | 0.46 | 1.01 | 0.14 | 0.43 | 0.18 | [36] |
Oyster | 89.56 | 0.98 | 0.72 | 0.65 | 4.04 | 0.42 | - | 3.63 | [50] |
2.3. Applications of Mussels Shells: Life Cycle Analysis (LCA)
2.4. Bioaggregates Applied to Cementitious Materials
2.4.1. Influence of Bioaggregate Particle Size
2.4.2. Influence of the Specific Mass of the Bioaggregate
2.4.3. Influence of Bioaggregate Morphology
2.4.4. Influence of the Chemical Composition of the Bioaggregate
2.4.5. Workability and Rheological Properties of Cementitious Materials Containing Bioaggregates
2.4.6. Water Absorption, Porosity, and Capillarity of Cementitious Materials Containing Bioaggregates
2.4.7. Mechanical Strength of Cementitious Materials Containing Bioaggregates
Bioaggregates | % Replacement | Compresive Strenght (MPa) | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Tensile Strength (MPa) | Modulus of Elasticity (MPa) | Study |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cockle | 0 | 25.75 | - | 2.72 | - | [6] |
10 | 22.98 | - | 2.10 | - | ||
20 | 20.21 | - | 2.00 | - | ||
30 | 17.44 | - | 2.10 | - | ||
40 | 17.06 | - | 2.25 | - | ||
50 | 15.93 | - | 2.40 | - | ||
60 | 13.19 | - | 1.64 | - | ||
100 | 11.69 | - | 1.73 | - | ||
Cockle | 0 | 16.50 | - | 2.50 | - | [97] |
10 | 14.00 | - | 2.08 | - | ||
20 | 9.80 | - | 1.78 | - | ||
Cockle | 0 | 21.70 | - | 2.82 | - | [103] |
20 | 21.20 | - | 2.60 | - | ||
20 | 18.00 | - | 2.30 | - | ||
40 | 15.30 | - | 2.12 | - | ||
Cockle | 0 | 40.50 | 8.00 | - | 23.60 | [104] |
50 | 39.00 | 6.40 | - | 22.50 | ||
100 | 36.00 | 6.10 | - | 21.20 | ||
Mussel | 0 | 29.64 | - | 2.40 | 29.00 | [19] |
25 | 20.19 | - | 1.70 | 24.00 | ||
50 | 9.34 | - | 1.35 | 17.50 | ||
75 | 7.99 | - | 1.10 | 14.50 | ||
100 | 8.29 | - | 1.05 | 13.00 | ||
Mussel | 0 | 38.00 | - | 3.05 | - | [16] |
15 | 40.50 | - | 3.10 | - | ||
30 | 36.50 | - | 2.90 | - | ||
Mussel | 0 | 62.00 | - | 5.80 | - | [90] |
30 | 41.50 | - | 3.40 | - | ||
Mussel | 0 | 31.30 | 2.79 | - | 28.50 | [93] |
10 | 29.20 | 2.50 | - | 26.70 | ||
Mussel | 0 | 36.20 | 4.50 | 4.25 | 25.00 | [50] |
5 | 35.80 | 4.60 | 4.30 | 23.00 | ||
Oyster | 0 | 29.30 | - | - | 33.50 | [39] |
10 | 29.10 | - | - | 31.20 | ||
20 | 29.60 | - | - | 29.90 | ||
Oyster | 0 | 40.00 | - | 3.20 | 33.00 | [105] |
5 | 45.00 | - | 2.90 | 32.50 | ||
10 | 42.00 | - | 2.88 | 31.00 | ||
20 | 40.50 | - | 2.82 | 29.50 | ||
Oyster | 0 | 33.00 | - | 3.00 | - | [44] |
5 | 33.80 | - | 3.10 | - | ||
20 | 32.70 | - | 3.20 | - | ||
40 | 30.30 | - | 2.85 | - | ||
60 | 32.50 | - | 2.80 | - | ||
Oyster | 0 | 29.70 | 3.20 | - | - | [41] |
30 | 24.80 | 2.75 | - | - | ||
50 | 22.65 | 2.30 | - | - |
2.4.8. Thermal Insulation of Cementitious Materials Containing Bioaggregates
3. Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Work
- -
- Mussel shells are waste found in different countries around the world, such as China, Indonesia, Peru, and the United States of America, with high levels of generation with values of approximately 15 million tons/year in 2023. These shells are generally discarded irregularly or in landfills. The high level of waste generation demonstrates an alert for alternative applications, such as the study of bioaggregates.
- -
- Bioaggregates produced from mussel shells and similar materials have potential for application in concrete and mortars due to their chemical composition, predominantly based on CaCO3 in the form of calcite or aragonite, compatible with limestone aggregates and chemically inert.
- -
- Challenges from a chemical point of view are related to the presence of organic impurities, especially in the chitin layer in the external shell, and the presence of chlorides and sulfates, which can delay the setting of the cement or impair the adhesion of the aggregate with the cement paste. Research shows that carrying out simple cleaning treatments, such as washing in running water and drying in ovens at temperatures of 100 °C, are sufficient to remove impurities and enable the application of the material as a bioaggregate.
- -
- Regarding physical properties, it is observed that bioaggregates have a specific mass similar to conventional aggregates and can be used in different particle sizes, with great variation in MF and DMC. However, there is a greater potential for application as fine aggregate, as these effects are less detrimental to the compressive strength of cementitious materials.
- -
- The morphology of bioaggregates is complex, but the presence of lamellar, irregular, highly porous, and flat particles predominate. This particle pattern harms the transition zone between paste and aggregate, promoting entrained air, porosity, and a reduction in strength. However, it is worth highlighting that the transition zone is less complex than that noted using recycled construction and demolition aggregates, for example. This is an advantage when applying the material.
- -
- From a properties point of view, it is observed that the use of bioaggregates in concrete and mortar has a tendency to worsen workability, increase water absorption and porosity, reduce density, and cause damage to mechanical properties. On the other hand, there is a tendency to reduce thermal conductivity, suggesting an improvement in insulation properties. This pattern is justified by the high water absorption of the bioaggregate due to the presence of irregular, lamellar, and porous particles, which impair adhesion to the cement paste. The presence of organic impurities, chlorides, and other factors increase in the viscosity of cementitious materials in the fresh state.
- -
- However, several authors demonstrate that the use of lower levels of bioaggregate, generally up to 25%, does not harm the mechanical properties of concrete and mortars, emerging as an eco-friendly solution for disposing of mussel shell waste, for example. Other possible applications include porous or permeable concrete; concrete and light mortars; material for covering, sealing or laying blocks; or even as mortars for thermal and acoustic insulation. In this way, viable solutions for the use of mussel shell bioaggregates in cementitious materials are observed.
- -
- Other possible applications for mussel shells involve the use of the material as an additive to animal feed, retention filter, establishment of a fertilizer, or controlling eutrophication in ponds and water treatment systems. However, none of these applications have a large scale ability to dispose of waste from mussel shells. Applications as bioaggregates in concrete and mortar make it possible to correctly recycle this waste, enabling the correct application of LCA.
- -
- Characterization of mussel shell bioaggregates, using techniques such as Los Angeles abrasion tests, aggregate strength, tenacity tests, and/or packing compactness tests.
- -
- Analysis of the efficiency of the mussel shell cleaning treatment through washing and drying cycles, heating the waste, or applying jet and pressure washing.
- -
- Rheological tests with concrete and mortars containing mussel shell bioaggregates and similar materials; assessments of incorporated air, water retention, and rheology using dropping ball or squeeze flow test; and rheology analysis using viscometers.
- -
- Tests that evaluate the influence of bioaggregates on the reactivity of Portland cement, such as calorimetry tests and the definition of setting times, together with complementary analyzes of X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, or thermal analyses, aiming to explore the phases formed or altered during cement hydration.
- -
- Additional tests on thermal, acoustic, and electrical insulation of mortars and concrete with bioaggregates, as there is potential to improve these properties with the use of mussel shells.
- -
- Assessments of other important mechanical parameters, such as modulus of elasticity and tensile strength in flexion or diametrical compression to demonstrate the impact of bioaggregates on other relevant properties.
- -
- Verify the influence of the use of additional cementitious materials, such as blast furnace slag and pozzolans, on the properties of concrete and mortars produced with mussel shells.
- -
- Durability analysis of concrete and mortars containing mussel shell bioaggregates using carbonation tests, chloride and sulfate attack, salt spray, freeze and thaw cycles, and/or fire simulation.
- -
- Analysis of the pore structure and porosity of concrete and mortars containing bioaggregates with mussel shells and similar materials using tests such as mercury intrusion porosometry or microtomography of concrete.
- -
- Non-destructive tests on concrete and mortars containing bioaggregates using sclerometry, ultrasonic pulse, and electrical resistivity tests.
- -
- Theoretical and experimental modeling of reinforced concrete elements with bioaggregates through the analysis of beams, pillars, and slabs on a reduced scale.
- -
- Economic analysis of concrete and mortar containing mussel shell bioaggregates or similar materials.
- -
- Environmental characterization tests of mussel shells and concrete and mortars containing waste, through leaching and solubilization.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Publications |
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1963–2000 | 8 |
2001–2010 | 11 |
2011–2020 | 48 |
2021–2024 | 37 |
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de Freitas, J.J.G.; Vieira, C.M.F.; Natalli, J.F.; Lavander, H.D.; de Azevedo, A.R.G.; Marvila, M.T. Cleaner Production of Cementitious Materials Containing Bioaggregates Based on Mussel Shells: A Review. Sustainability 2024, 16, 5577. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135577
de Freitas JJG, Vieira CMF, Natalli JF, Lavander HD, de Azevedo ARG, Marvila MT. Cleaner Production of Cementitious Materials Containing Bioaggregates Based on Mussel Shells: A Review. Sustainability. 2024; 16(13):5577. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135577
Chicago/Turabian Stylede Freitas, José Júlio Garcia, Carlos Maurício Fontes Vieira, Juliana Fadini Natalli, Henrique David Lavander, Afonso Rangel Garcez de Azevedo, and Markssuel Teixeira Marvila. 2024. "Cleaner Production of Cementitious Materials Containing Bioaggregates Based on Mussel Shells: A Review" Sustainability 16, no. 13: 5577. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135577