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Article

The Effects of Development-Oriented Aid on Student Development in Higher Education: The Mediating Effect of Psychological Capital

by
Xiaohong Li
* and
Yuxi Mu
School of Public Policy and Management, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(13), 5803; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135803
Submission received: 1 May 2024 / Revised: 2 July 2024 / Accepted: 3 July 2024 / Published: 8 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Psychology of Sustainability and Sustainable Development)
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Abstract

:
Recently, there has been a transition from guarantee-oriented financial aid to development-oriented aid for economically disadvantaged students. Development-oriented aid aims to enable economically disadvantaged students to acquire long-term and sustainable self-development capacity. However, to what extent and how development-oriented aid promotes student development remains unclear. Identification of the related mechanism can help both students and educators effectively apply development-oriented aid in higher education scenarios. The main objective of this study was to uncover the effect of size, pathways, and mediating factors of development-oriented aid on student development in higher education. Drawing from a sample of 1792 sponsored students at University G in China and applying the structural equation modeling method for quantitative analysis, the results indicate that development-oriented aid directly shows positive influences toward student development and indirectly impacts student development through psychological capital. These results also show that development-oriented aid directly impacts Han Chinese students’ development more than the development of ethnic minority students. The pathways through which development-oriented aid positively influences Han Chinese students and ethnic minority students vary.

1. Introduction

Higher education is rapidly expanding on a global scale, and a progressively greater number of students are pursuing self-improvement through higher education. The number is growing at an unprecedented rate. However, the growth has been inequitable in high- and low-income groups, and the high cost has become a main barrier preventing economically disadvantaged students from receiving higher education. Therefore, financial aid for these students is essential for promoting educational equity and improving people’s well-being. The issue of financial aid for students in higher education has not only attracted the attention of various government agencies, but it has also been a critical topic in academia for a long time. Studies have shown that financial aid plays an active and crucial role for students pursuing higher education. Financial aid guarantees students the opportunity to participate in higher education and reduces the likelihood of dropping out of school [1]. Receiving financial aid enables students to decrease the time devoted to part-time jobs, upgrade their accommodations, and bolster social integration [2], all of which have been recognized as factors contributing to academic achievement. Moreover, according to the literature, financial aid can also incentivize students to improve their academic performance, which helps them to successfully obtain a degree [3,4,5]. The enduring benefit of financial aid primarily relies on its role in fostering income growth for recipients after graduation [6]. Existing studies focus on the impact of financial aid on dropout rates, students’ academic achievement, and degree attainment, which centers on students’ academic development. In contrast, discussion on the development of students’ non-academic competencies is insufficient. In higher education, nurturing non-academic skills is just as essential as fostering academic achievement, as only the all-round development of college students can be sustained in the long term. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the investigation of financial aid for the all-round development of students.
Higher education in China has entered the popularization stage recognized by the world. Since 2019, more than 10 million students have enrolled in colleges and universities every year. To guarantee students’ right to higher education and promote the construction of a solid educational country, the Chinese government has continuously introduced and improved policies related to financial aid for students pursuing higher education over the past decades. Governments at all levels in China have allocated a total of CNY 87.476 billion in financial aid for students pursuing higher education, accounting for 52.21% of the total financial aid for higher education in 2022 [7], which brings forward the leading role of the Chinese government toward constructing the student financial aid system in higher education. Moreover, it highlights the determination to push forward the construction of a country with a strong education system and provide education that satisfies the people. At present, the model of student financial aid for higher education in China has transitioned from solely emphasizing the equity of educational opportunities to also prioritizing the equity of educational processes and outcomes. In other words, China’s financial aid for students pursuing higher education not only provides opportunities for economically disadvantaged students to receive higher education but also aids in the successful completion of their studies and the acquisition of the ability to sustain development in college.
The innovation of the concept of financial aid is reflected in the transition of student financial aid from guarantee-oriented financial aid to development-oriented aid. In 2020, China’s Ministry of Education and seven other ministries released the official document “Statements on Accelerating the Construction of the Ideological and Political Work System in Colleges and Universities” [8]. It explicitly emphasizes the concept of “Nurturing students through sponsorship” and advocates that a variety of assistance measures and innovative approaches should be taken to enable students to pursue sustainable development. Development-oriented aid breaks through the single form of financial aid that mainly focuses on economic assistance and establishes a student financial aid system based on the personalized developmental needs of a student, integrating economic and material assistance, academic help, psychological assistance, and skill enhancement. The transformation from economically guarantee-oriented financial aid to development-oriented aid reflects China’s people-centered philosophy.
Economically disadvantaged students are usually confronted with financial problems such as tuition fees and living expenses when they enter colleges and universities. Compared to other students, they may also face more severe challenges, such as a weak academic foundation and interpersonal barriers. Moreover, the support they can obtain from their families is often limited. Thus, economically disadvantaged students are in a relatively disadvantaged position in college, with limited opportunities for self-growth. Notably, development-oriented aid is meant to help these students through different forms of financial aid, and it can further help them overcome the challenges encountered in university life. Therefore, promoting the comprehensive development of students is the primary objective of development-oriented aid, which is also an essential criterion for measuring the effectiveness of development-oriented aid. Development-oriented aid is of great significance to the sustainability of individuals and society, and the Chinese government strongly advocates its implementation in higher education.
China is a multi-ethnic country with the Han and 55 other ethnic minorities. To promote ethnic unity and enhance cultural exchanges among ethnic groups, the Chinese government has formulated policies to encourage ethnic minority students to receive higher education. About 10% of college students in the country are from ethnic minorities, and a large number of them come from rural or remote areas. In the university campus environment with Han as the main body, minority students face the obstacles of study and life brought by cultural differences. Importantly, development-oriented aid also pays sufficient attention to the development needs of minority college students and provides them with necessary help.
The growth of college students during their higher education journey is a complex process. Recently, studies have begun to pay attention to psychological capital (PsyCap), a positive psychological state, as a factor that significantly influences students’ development. PsyCap plays a vital role in the academic adjustment of college students [9]. PsyCap is not only conducive to the academic progress and physical and mental development of college students, but it also increases their competitiveness in employment [10,11]. Moreover, PsyCap can be improved, which indicates that students can accumulate PsyCap during their college years. Along with providing diverse social support for economically disadvantaged students, development-oriented financial aid can contribute to accumulating students’ positive PsyCap. Therefore, in this study, the effects of size, pathways, and mediating factors of development-oriented aid on student development in higher education were systematically explored, focusing on the mediating role of PsyCap and considering Chinese Han and ethnic minority students.
The rest of the structure of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the literature review and the proposed hypotheses based on the psychological capital theory and student development theory. Section 3 describes the instruments and participants involved in this study. This section describes the structural equation modeling method used to analyze the data. Section 4 presents the results. Section 5 discusses the findings of this study, and Section 6 draws the conclusions.

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis

2.1. Student Aid and Development-Oriented Aid

Practical activities and theoretical research on student financial aid have gained rich results across the world. For example, the US government provides a federal student financial aid system that includes loans, grants, work–study programs, and scholarships. The UK government provides two primary forms of student financial aid for higher education. One is tuition fee waivers for some students, based on the students’ availability of funds, student needs, and student merit, and the other is the granting of student loans [12]. In China, the early forms of student financial aid for higher education included National Student Grants and National Scholarships. In 2007, the State Council of China introduced an announcement titled “Statement on Establishing and Improving Financial Aid Policy System for Students with Family Financial Difficulties in Ordinary Undergraduate Institutions, Higher Vocational Colleges, and Secondary Vocational Schools” [13]. Since then, China has gradually formed a government-led, multifaceted, and mixed financial aid system for economically disadvantaged students in higher education, including national scholarships, national grants, national student loans, work–study programs, and other financial supports.
The primary objective of student financial aid is to increase opportunities for access to higher educational institutions and helps students complete their education successfully. Kim indicated that student financial aid positively impacts the decision of high school graduates to pursue higher education or enter their choice of preferential institution [14]. A study from Colombia showed that student financial aid led to a reduction in dropout rates and that the extent to which it did so varied by type of support [15]. Nguyen et al. presented similar results, with grants increasing the probability of students pursuing their studies by about 2–3% [16]. For low-income groups of college students, grants make it more likely for them to obtain a bachelor’s degree [17]. Besides emphasizing completing school and earning a degree, studies are more concerned about the impact of financial aid on students’ individual development during their college careers. Financial aid can alleviate students’ financial anxiety, thus enabling them to reduce their off-campus part-time jobs [18]. Therefore, students can spend more time engaging in academic, social, and other on-campus activities [2]. Boatman and Long revealed that students receiving financial aid were more active and collaborative in group coursework and activities [19]. Furthermore, Qi et al. stated that the National Scholarships and National Encouragement Scholarships helped Chinese students establish learning goals and communicate more frequently with their teachers and peers [20]. Studies have also shown that different types of financial support may lead to different outcomes in terms of academic improvement. Although non-reimbursable financial aid, such as scholarships and grants, can commonly contribute to students’ academic performance [21,22,23], no similar effect has been observed in the case of student loans [24]. In addition to academic development, the positive impact of financial aid on students is also seen in employment. For instance, Gleeson et al. suggested that scholarship programs contribute to students’ employability [25]. These studies show that the positive impact of financial aid on college students is a long-term, sustainable effect.
Development-oriented aid in higher education has evolved based on the traditional concept of student financial assistance. In 2017, China’s Ministry of Education released the announcement titled “Implementation Outline of the Quality Improvement Project for Ideological and Political Work in Colleges and Universities” [26], which proposed to “establish a development-oriented aid system that combines state financial assistance, school awards, social donations, and student self-help, and to build a long-term mechanism that effectively integrates material assistance, moral infiltration, capacity expansion, and spiritual incentives”. This statement helps to better comprehend the meaning of development-oriented aid. In this study, development-oriented aid for higher education refers to the funding mode in which the government and colleges aim to promote the all-round development of the students through diverse ways of support based on financial material support so that the recipients can nurture their spiritual outlook, knowledge, and skills and eventually achieve their overall development. Compared with guarantee-oriented financial aid, development-oriented aid exceeds the narrow scope of providing only financial support to students. Based on economic and material support, development-oriented aid pays more attention to helping students with academic assistance, psychological assistance, skills training, moral education, and other aspects. Some studies have confirmed that the combination of financial and non-financial aid plays an essential role in improving academic performance and assisting degree attainment. Its role goes beyond the single form of guarantee-oriented financial aid [27,28]. Therefore, this study intends to explore the relationship and effect mechanism of development-oriented aid on students’ growth, which is an essential basis for measuring the effectiveness of developmental financial assistance.

2.2. Influence Factors of Student Development

Student development is an extension of the concept of human development in the field of education. Miller and Prince defined student development in higher education as the ability of individuals in higher education to perform more complex tasks [29]. Different views have been presented on the structure of student development. Chickering argued that students in higher education should achieve the following seven aspects of development: developing competence, managing emotions, moving through autonomy toward interdependence, developing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, and developing integrity [30]. Astin identified cognitive and affective outcomes as the two main dimensions of student development [31]. In this study, “student development” refers to the process in which students improve their academic level, comprehensive quality, and employability during college life.
Both higher education institutions and individual factors influence the development of students during their higher education. Mayhew et al. stated that colleges’ impact on students occurs during attendance and remains after graduation [32]. Kuh et al. constructed a theoretical model of influences on student development that emphasized individual and institutional factors, including the allocation of university resources and how learning and services were provided [33]. Hébert and Hauf reported the positive impact of service learning on students’ civic responsibility and interpersonal skills enhancement [34]. Chi et al. validated the role of the campus environment on students’ intellectual development, indicating that faculty mentoring is a significant predictor of intellectual enhancement [35]. Therefore, colleges and universities are responsible for encouraging students to follow the process of overall development, which includes optimizing the organizational structure, improving the teaching and learning process, and constructing a healthy campus environment. Colleges are the main entities implementing development-oriented aid. As mentioned above, studies have pointed out from different perspectives that student financial aid directly contributes to the development of both college students’ academic performance and their non-academic abilities. Various forms of development-oriented aid activities improve students’ academic and living conditions, in addition to encouraging them to participate in courses and research activities, social practice, and other fields. Therefore, it can be argued that universities promote student development by implementing various forms of development-oriented aid.
Influenced by the student-centered philosophy, previous studies have focused more on how college students’ own traits and behaviors affect their development. For instance, Pace emphasized that students’ efforts, to a great extent, determine their outcomes at the university [36]. Moreover, Collie et al. also showed that students’ active participation in university affairs facilitates their academic development [37]. These studies focus on the development of the college student group as a whole. However, it cannot be ignored that there exists a high degree of heterogeneity within the college student group. Accordingly, scholars have begun to pay attention to the development of subgroups of different students, in particular, ethnic minorities and disadvantaged students. Studies have found that ethnic minority students face identity, perceived bias, and acculturation pressures during their college period, which may hinder their academic participation, performance, and overall development [38,39,40]. To help ethnic minority students overcome these obstacles and realize their development, abundant practical activities have been included in colleges and universities worldwide. Haeger and Fresquez pointed out that involvement in scientific research and high-quality mentorship by tutors contribute to the development of minority and disadvantaged undergraduates [41]. Internationalization experiences have also been shown to benefit the personal and professional development of underrepresented students [42]. Notably, about 10% of undergraduates in China are from ethnic minorities, and there is an upward trend. The Chinese government and higher education institutions have strived to equalize the access and learning process for ethnic minority students, including development-oriented aid. Therefore, this study focuses on whether there is a difference in the impact of development-oriented aid on development between Han and ethnic minority students. Herein, two hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 1 (H1):
Development-oriented aid positively impacts student development.
Hypothesis 2 (H2):
The positive impact of development-oriented aid on student development is different between Han and ethnic minority college students.

2.3. Psychological Capital

The concept of “PsyCap” originated from positive psychology. Luthans et al. first introduced it in the field of management, which defined PsyCap as the positive psychological state of an individual [43]. They believed that PsyCap contains four dimensions: namely, self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience. Individuals’ PsyCap varies by demographic characteristics such as gender, age, and number of siblings [44]. More importantly, PsyCap can be influenced by various external factors. For example, social support from family members [45], instructors [46], and others contribute differently to the overall enhancement of college students’ PsyCap. Based on the above-mentioned studies, the impact of development-oriented aid on college students’ PsyCap can be explained in two ways. On the one hand, individuals’ PsyCap can be developed, which indicates that it can be enhanced through interventions. The activities of development-oriented aid include the forms of course teaching, psychology lectures, and social practice, which are conducive to enhancing college students’ PsyCap. On the other hand, social support is one of the essential factors affecting PsyCap, and developmental financial assistance for college students can be regarded as providing social support for them. When receiving development-oriented aid, college students can also simultaneously obtain support from social interactions with teachers and peers, higher education institutions, etc. Herein, it is assumed that
Hypothesis 3 (H3):
Development-oriented aid positively impacts the PsyCap.
Studies in higher education have focused on the positive effects of PsyCap on students. First, PsyCap affects college students’ behavior, and it can reduce the occurrence of undesirable behaviors such as Internet addiction [47] and dropping out of school [48]. Second, it can promote college students’ academic progress. For instance, You pointed out that PsyCap enhances college students’ academic engagement and learning ability [49]. Carmona-Halty et al. confirmed that PsyCap positively affects academic performance [50]. Finally, PsyCap benefits college students’ employment and entrepreneurship. College students with high PsyCap exhibit stronger perceived employability [51] and higher entrepreneurial intentions [52]. Notably, PsyCap favors the development of several skills and qualities of college students. Thus, the following hypothesis is raised:
Hypothesis 4 (H4):
PsyCap positively impacts student development.
Importantly, PsyCap can be developed, and it can guide individual behavior. Therefore, scholars have begun to pay attention to the utility of PsyCap as a mediating variable. For instance, Elom et al. showed that all four dimensions of PsyCap mediate between academic major satisfaction and study commitment [53]. Maslakcı et al. pointed out that multiculturalism positively affects the entrepreneurial willingness of college students, which PsyCap partially mediates [54]. Xu and Choi found that PsyCap partially mediates the effect of cultural and artistic participation on college students’ life satisfaction [55]. Consequently, herein, it is hypothesized that development-oriented aid promotes students’ development by enhancing their PsyCap. The following hypothesis is thus put forward:
Hypothesis 5 (H5):
PsyCap mediates the positive impact of development-oriented aid on student development.
A hypothesis model was built, as shown in Figure 1.

3. Methods

3.1. Instruments

In this study, a questionnaire was designed based on the three key concepts, namely, development-oriented aid, PsyCap, and student development. Respondents rated their agreement on a five-point scale (one = strongly disagree; five = strongly agree). Based on the implementation of the development-oriented aid activities, these concepts are categorized into four types: psychology lectures and counseling, one-on-one support from faculties, voluntary activities, and social practice activities. Since development-oriented aid is personalized, the actual activities in which different students are involved vary. Therefore, this study measures the endorsement of development-oriented aid activities among sponsored students by four items. Each item represents one type of aid activity.
Referring to existing studies [56,57] and combining the actual situation of college students in China, herein, scales were developed to measure the PsyCap of sponsored students. The scale consists of the four dimensions mentioned above. Each dimension is made up of three items.
This study measured student development based on academic level, employability, and comprehensive quality. The academic level reflects the accumulation of professional knowledge and improvement in the academic ability of college students. Employability refers to the vocational and social skills required by college students for their careers after graduation. The comprehensive quality is an essential index of the evaluation of students in the Chinese education system, which emphasizes the investigation of college students’ moral, physical, and mental health; humanistic thought; and innovative ability. The three dimensions are vital for Chinese students to achieve development during their college years. Items on each scale are listed in Table 1.

3.2. Participants

The participants involved in this study are undergraduate students enrolled at G University in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region who have received development-oriented aid. University G has established a development-oriented aid system covering all economically disadvantaged students. The system combines financial aid with non-financial assistance. Financial aid mainly includes scholarships, work–study programs, and other financial aid. The non-financial assistance activities consist of implementing the professional ability development subsidy program for economically disadvantaged students, conducting voluntary activities, bestowing the title of “Stars of Self-improvement” on sponsored students to publicize their stories of hard work and perseverance, organizing lectures to cultivate a sense of honesty and gratitude, and conducting free study tours for students. The development-oriented aid activities encourage students to improve themselves in different ways. Sponsored students participate in the related activities according to their interests and needs. Moreover, University G is located in the southwest Chinese minority autonomous region. This institution has distinctive ethnic and regional characteristics, reflected in the relatively high proportion of ethnic minority students in the student population. In 2023, ethnic minority students in University G accounted for about 25.54% of the total number of students in the institution, including Zhuang, Miao, Yao, Dong, and so on. Therefore, it is typical to take University G as a case study. Notably, 2477 sponsored students at University G completed the questionnaire online from 1 to 8 June 2023. Out of them, 1792 questionnaires were indeed valid, with a 72.53% validity rate. The demographic characteristics of participants are presented in Table 2.

3.3. Data Analysis

Herein, the structural equation modeling method was utilized for data analysis by applying SPSS and AMOS as tools. Structural equation modeling aids in estimating linear relationships between multiple exogenous and endogenous variables through a simultaneous multiple-equation estimation process [58]. The data analysis followed four steps: First, the descriptive analysis was conducted to explore the recognition of development-oriented aid by sponsored students and the current status of PsyCap and student development. Second, a measurement model was constructed for validation factor analysis to test the validity of the scales used in the study. Third, a structural model was built, and path analysis was used to validate the proposed hypotheses. The bootstrap method was utilized to conduct the mediation effect test with a 95% confidence level in this step. Fourth, the multi-group analysis was adopted to explore the differences between the hypothesis model in Han and minority student groups. Parameter estimation was carried out by the maximum likelihood method.

4. Results

4.1. Descriptive Analysis

The twelve items of the PsyCap scale were packaged into four observational variables to reduce the random error [59]. The four observational variables were labeled self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience. The corresponding results are presented in Table 3. Among the four observational variables of development-oriented aid (DA), DA3 (4.18) and DA4 (4.12) exhibited higher mean values. These two variables represent the students’ recognition of voluntary activities and social practice activities, respectively. Forms of development-oriented aid, such as voluntary and social practice activities, have been established for many years and are relatively mature. Thus, they are generally recognized by the sponsored students. The mean values of DA1 (3.77) and DA2 (3.9) are relatively low. DA1 and DA2 reflect the recognition of the sponsored students in the psychology lectures and the one-on-one support from faculties, respectively. The common point of the two development-oriented aid activities is that both relate to students’ mental health. Notably, the effect of the psychological support has not reached the expectations. The mean values of the four dimensions of PsyCap approximately match each other. It implies that the PsyCap of sponsored college students is generally high, and its four dimensions are balanced. The mean value of SD1 (4.25) among the three observed variables of student development is higher than those of SD2 (4.12) and SD3 (4.10). Students believe that their comprehensive quality, academic level, and employability have developed after receiving development-oriented aid, and among them, comprehensive quality improvement is relatively higher than the other two abilities.

4.2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

In this study, a measurement model was constructed for confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). In the measurement model, the chi-square was 486.510 (p < 0.001), and the DF was 41. The chi-square is affected by the sample size, which is prone to a rather large chi-square value when the sample size is large, resulting in the χ2/DF being greater than the threshold value. Therefore, the use of this indicator is inappropriate when the sample size is large [60]. The sample size in this study was 1792. Thus, the scaled non-centrality parameter (SNCP) was further calculated, which could reduce the influence of the sample size on the Chi-square value. The SNCP of this model was 0.249 < 3.00, indicating a good fit. Furthermore, other goodness of fit indicators were also checked, as follows: RMSEA was 0.070, GFI was 0.952, and SRMR was 0.041. Consequently, it was found that the measurement model fit well.
The validity of the latent variables in the model was assessed through convergent validity and discriminant validity. The CFA results are shown in Table 4. The factor loadings of each observed variable were greater than 0. The latent variables’ composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted value (AVE) were calculated based on the factor loadings of the observed variables. The CRs of the three latent variables were greater than 0.7, and the AVEs were greater than 0.5 [61], indicating that the latent variables exhibited good convergent validity.
Table 5 presents the analysis results of the discriminant validity, where the diagonal values are the open-square values of the latent variables’ AVE, and the non-diagonal parts are the correlation coefficients between the latent variables. The correlation coefficients of the latent variables are all less than the open square value of their AVE, which can be considered good discriminant validity [62].

4.3. Structural Model and Testing of Hypotheses

Herein, a structural model was constructed to test the proposed hypotheses. The goodness of fit indicators of the structural model (χ2 = 486.510, DF = 41, RMSEA = 0.078, CFI = 0.973 > 0.9, SRMR = 0.041 < 0.5) revealed that the structural model exhibited a good fit [63]. Table 6 presents the results of the path analysis. First, the standardized effect size of the path “Development-oriented aid → Student development” was 0.355 (p < 0.001), which showed that development-oriented aid positively affects student development. Thus, hypothesis H1 was supported. Development-oriented aid not only provided financial assistance to students, but also helped them participate in various activities, such as voluntary activities and social practice activities. It can not only alleviate the financial burden on students, but also enhance their confidence and capabilities. Overall, enriching the forms of development-oriented aid activities is beneficial, as it effectively promotes student development through activities supported by such aid.
Second, the standardized effect size of the path “Development-oriented aid → PsyCap” was 0.585 (p < 0.001), indicating that development-oriented aid exhibited a moderate positive effect on PsyCap, which supported hypothesis H3. The positive impact of development-oriented aid on PsyCap reflected the improvability of PsyCap. By participating in various forms of development-oriented aid activities, students can expand their horizons and improve their self-confidence, thus realizing the self-improvement of their PsyCap. They can also broaden social relationships in their interactions and build their PsyCap capital with the social support of mutual help.
Finally, the standardized effect size of the path “PsyCap → Student development” was 0.466 (p < 0.001), which supported hypothesis H4. PsyCap showed a medium-strength positive effect on student development. It can be speculated that the higher the PsyCap, the stronger the sense of self-efficacy, and students can become more optimistic about their mindset in daily life. Students with high PsyCap are more inclined to pursue development spontaneously, and adopting active and positive behaviors in learning and life can help this group achieve better growth. The established structural model is shown in Figure 2.
The Bootstrap method was adopted to test the mediating effect of PsyCap, and the number of repeated samples was 5000. The test results of the mediating effect are presented in Table 7. The standardized indirect effect was 0.261. The upper and lower limits of the 95% confidence interval did not contain 0. Thus, the indirect effect was significant. Moreover, the direct effect was significant with an effect size of 0.355, and the total effect was significant with an effect size of 0.616. The indirect, direct, and total effects were all significant. Hypothesis H5 was supported. PsyCap shows a partial mediating effect on the positive impact of developmental financial aid on student development.

4.4. Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis

This study analyzed whether there existed a difference between Han Chinese students and ethnic minority students in the theoretical model by using the multi-group SEM method. The sample was divided into two groups according to the ethnic category. The first group consisted of 1167 Han Chinese students. The second group was composed entirely of 625 students of the ethnic minority.
The measurement invariance test was performed using a multi-group CFA. The two data groups were fitted to the measurement model separately, and the results are presented in Table 8. The RMESA of the two groups was between 0.074 and 0.090, and the CFI was between 0.963 and 0.971, which indicated a good fit. Subsequently, several models were constructed to test between-group consistency. These models are the baseline model without parameter restrictions and the restricted models with equal measurement weights, equal structural covariances, and equal measurement residuals [64]. In large samples, the chi-square values are more sensitive to changes in the chi-square values. Therefore, ΔRMESA and ΔCFI were used to test for measurement invariance [65]. Table 8 summarizes that the study used measurement instruments that satisfied weak, strong, and strict measurement invariance between the two groups.
Subsequently, the paths of the structural model were tested for differences between each group. The baseline model without parameter restrictions was constructed first. Then, the restricted models with equal measurement weights, equal measurement intercepts, and equal structural weights were constructed sequentially for the between-group consistency test. Table 9 presents the goodness of fit indicators of the baseline model and each restricted model, and all the above-mentioned models exhibited a good fit. Comparative analysis of the results of different models indicates that the amount of chi-square difference between the baseline model and the model with equal structural weights was significant (p < 0.05). These results reveal that a difference existed between the groups.
The differences in path coefficients were further analyzed by fitting the two groups of data in the baseline model, and the results are presented in Table 10. The critical ratio for differences between parameters represents the differences in parameters in different groups. Notably, significant differences exist if its absolute value is greater than 1.96. Among the three pathways, the critical ratio for differences between the parameters in the path “Development-oriented aid → Student development” was −2.543, and the absolute value was greater than 1.96, indicating a significant difference between the paths in the Han Chinese and the ethnic minority groups. Furthermore, the path coefficient of the Han Chinese was 0.392, and that of the ethnic minority group was 0.290. In other words, H2 was supported. The direct positive impact of development-oriented aid on student development was more substantial in the Han Chinese group than in the ethnic minority group. The differences between groups for the other two paths were not significant.
Table 11 presents the results of the mediation effect test for the two groups, separately. The mediating effect of PsyCap was significant and partially mediated in both the Han and ethnic minority students. In the Han Chinese group, the standardized effect size of the indirect effect was 0.250, and the mediating effect accounted for 38.95% of the total effect. For the ethnic minority group, the standardized effect size of the indirect effect was 0.281, and the mediating effect was 49.21%. The reason for the difference may be that development-oriented aid activities were mainly designed based on the needs of Han Chinese students. Therefore, Han Chinese students directly benefitted more from the development-oriented aid activities. When ethnic minority group students participated in development-oriented aid activities, their PsyCap was nurtured, leading to the development of other abilities. Thus, the impact of development-oriented aid on them is more of an indirect effect.

5. Discussion

5.1. Findings and Theoretical Contribution

Based on the PsyCap theory and student development theory, this study proposed research hypotheses and constructed a model. Then, data were collected through the online questionnaire and analyzed by the structural equation modeling method. Consequently, the following four findings were obtained:
First, the PsyCap level of the sponsored students is high, but students’ recognition of psychological support is not as expected. The results of the descriptive analysis show that sponsored students’ PsyCap is at a high level and reaches a balanced development in four aspects: namely self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience. The existing studies have pointed out that the PsyCap of Chinese college students is at a high level [55,66]. The results of this study further emphasize that though a number of college students belong to a relatively economically disadvantaged position, it does not mean that their PsyCap is insufficient. Among the different forms of development-oriented aid, voluntary activities and social practice activities are widely recognized by students, while psychology lectures and counseling have relatively low recognition. It is thus speculated that students may have a high demand for personalized psychological needs, but institutions cannot meet their needs. At present, university G mainly conducts psychology lectures, and one-to-one assistance by faculties has rarely been provided due to the limited number of faculties. However, psychology lectures can only solve common problems, and meeting the individual needs of college students is a difficult task. Although they are performing well in PsyCap, institutions and their faculty should pay more attention to the psychological development needs of students and innovate psychological support methods.
Second, development-oriented aid can directly facilitate student development and also help to enhance the PsyCap of students. Studies have reported that financial aid positively impacts the academic progress of college students [67,68,69]. In particular, for economically disadvantaged students, financial aid is beneficial in achieving academic success [70]. A literature review mentioned that the combination of financial and non-financial aid is better than the single form. The results of the present study also support this view. This study discovered that development-oriented aid positively influences students’ personal growth beyond academic development alone. The direct effect coefficient of development-oriented aid on student development is 0.355, which corresponds to a relatively weak effect. It can be explained as follows: Students gain various practical experiences by participating in development-oriented aid activities and further promote comprehensive qualities, knowledge and skills, and employability. Optimistic predictions of institutional factors such as instructional interventions [71], faculty encouragement and guidance [72], and peer relationships [73] on students’ PsyCap have been found in existing studies. The direct effect coefficient of development-oriented aid on PsyCap is 0.58, which is relatively medium. Development-oriented aid can be as one of the most effective ways to enhance the PsyCap of students. Since development-oriented aid activities are mainly initiated by higher education institutions and organized on campus, it reveals the critical role of universities in developing students’ PsyCap. Undeniable, a lot more systematic explorations are further demanded to focus on the specific impacts of different development-oriented aid activities on PsyCap, and expand the scope of high-impact activities so that more college students can benefit from them.
Third, PsyCap partially mediates the impact of development-oriented aid on student development. The indirect effect of development-oriented aid on students’ development is 0.267, and the total effect is 0.616 in this study. This finding points to a mechanism in which development-oriented aid can help students. That is, development-oriented aid enhances the PsyCap of the recipient students and thus promotes the realization of students’ development, precisely verifying China’s concept of “Poverty Alleviation Through Increasing People’s Confidence”. PsyCap is a vital resource that students can establish, and it shows a substantial impact on their academic achievement and personal development. For example, Martínez et al. showed that PsyCap fully mediated college students’ academic engagement and performance [74]. Sánchez-Cardona et al. reported that PsyCap partially mediated college students’ learning goals and academic performance [75]. A literature review discussed the role of PsyCap as a mediating variable, and the findings of this study provide a new perspective. It indicates that improving college students’ PsyCap should be given greater importance in higher education. Development-oriented aid focuses not only on the opportunity for students to receive higher education and complete their studies but also on sustainable improvement through higher education. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a development-oriented aid system for poverty alleviation and intellectual and spiritual support, then adopt diversified forms of financial aid to help college students enhance their PsyCap to achieve the nurturing purpose of students’ sustainable development.
Fourth, significant differences exist in the positive impact pathways of development-oriented aid on the development of Han Chinese and ethnic minority students. Han Chinese students are more able to achieve personal development directly with development-oriented aid. For Han Chinese students, the direct impact of development-oriented aid on student development is greater; in contrast, for ethnic minority students, this impact is insufficient. Although the Chinese government has introduced several preferential policies to promote the realization of higher education access opportunities for ethnic minority students, more significant efforts are still required to be devoted to achieving the success of the involvement of ethnic minority students in higher education compared to Han Chinese students, which is hindered by barriers such as language, cultural differences, and the digital divide [76,77]. The results of this study indicate that the individualized developmental needs of ethnic minority students may not have been fully considered in the design of development-oriented aid. In China, different ethnic groups exhibit different living environments, ethics, and customs, which lead to various development needs. These differences can affect their experiences and feelings about development assistance activities and thus influence the effectiveness of development assistance. Individualization is one of the essential features of development-oriented aid. In the future, it is necessary to pay special attention to the needs of ethnic minority students and to develop innovative forms of development-oriented aid to promote all-around development for every student.
Different from most studies that focus on the development of college students in a specific aspect of student financial aid, this study may make a possible theoretical contribution to revealing the positive effect of development-oriented aid on college students. It argues that development-oriented aid promotes the all-round development of college students in terms of comprehensive qualities, academic knowledge, and employability. Further, this study also proves the mechanism and role of development-oriented aid in nurturing individuals. Moreover, herein, a pathway was found that development-oriented aid could affect students’ development by enhancing their PsyCap, thus emphasizing the importance of PsyCap. The four dimensions of PsyCap are all critical qualities for personal growth, and the cultivation of PsyCap needs to be emphasized in fostering higher education talents. The present study also reveals that the positive effects of development-oriented aid differ between Han and ethnic minority students. This difference suggests that students’ backgrounds may influence the effectiveness of development-oriented aid.

5.2. Limitations and Future Directions

The method of data collection in this study was relatively single. The data used in the study originated from the self-reports of the sponsored students in the questionnaires. Therefore, there may be some shortcomings in measuring the complex concepts of development-oriented aid and student development. Focused group interviews and other methods can be used in future research to more clearly describe college students’ views and attitudes toward development-oriented aid and their own personalized development needs. Moreover, the concept of student development is defined and measured in the context of Chinese higher education, and whether the results can be adapted to different cultural contexts remains to be discussed. Finally, this study focuses only on the mediating effect of PsyCap affecting the influence of development-oriented aid on student development, and other ways through which development-oriented aid may influence student development still demand further systematic discussion.

6. Conclusions

Based on the psychological capital theory and student development theory, this study established a hypothetical model of three variables, namely, development-oriented aid, student development, and psychological capital. The hypotheses were validated by using structural equation modeling. This study found that the positive impact of development-oriented aid on the development of Han Chinese students is greater. Comparatively, the positive impact on the development of ethnic minority students is relatively weak. The results provide a reference for improving the effectiveness of development-oriented aid. In the future, higher education institutions should accurately identify the individual development needs of students and provide them with appropriate development-oriented aid activities. Furthermore, they should work toward helping students build their psychological capital. Importantly, the development-oriented aid should be designed to meet the personalized needs of students from different backgrounds.

Author Contributions

X.L., designed the research plan, developed questionnaire, distribute questionnaire, co-write the paper. Y.M., collected and analyzed data, collaborated on writing the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Interdisciplinary Scientific Research Foundation of Applied Economics of Guangxi University: Study on the Effects, Heterogeneity and Mechanisms of International Students Driving China’s OFDI Growth (Grant No. 2023JJJXB16). This work was also supported by 2023 Higher Education Planning Project of Chinese Society of Higher Education: Research on the Current Situation and Optimization Strategy of Building Modern Artisan Colleges between China and Countries Along the “Belt and Road” Route (Grant No. 23BR0105). This work was also supported by 2022 Guangxi Philosophy and Social Science Planning: Research on the Efficacy of China’s Supply of International Chinese Language Education to the Five GMS Countries and Strategies for Optimization (Grant No. 22BYY003).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Figure 1. The hypothesized model.
Figure 1. The hypothesized model.
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Figure 2. The estimated standard direct path coefficients in the structural model.
Figure 2. The estimated standard direct path coefficients in the structural model.
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Table 1. Items of development-oriented aid, PsyCap, and student development.
Table 1. Items of development-oriented aid, PsyCap, and student development.
ConceptLabelItemCronbach’s Alpha
Development-oriented aidDA1I have benefited a lot from the psychology lectures and counseling.0.839
DA2Teachers and counselors care about us and provide one-on-one support.
DA3I am glad to participate in voluntary activities organized by the university.
DA4Participating in social practice and other activities is useful to my work skills.
PsyCap I am confident that I can do well within my responsibility.0.957
I am confident that I can obtain good academic results.
I believe I can analyze long-term problems and find solutions.
I am full of energy to achieve my study and life goals.
I can think of many ways to achieve my current study and life goals.
I will engage in my studies and life in the future optimistically and in a planned way.
When I have to do something in my studies and life, I am confident I can overcome difficulties and complete tasks.
In my studies and life, I will solve the problems I encounter irrespective of any situation.
I usually take the pressures of study and life in stride.
In my studies and life, I have always believed that behind darkness is light; do not be pessimistic.
When I encounter uncertainty, I usually hope for the best in my studies and life.
I always focus on the positive side of things, always be optimistic.
Student developmentSD1The development-oriented aid has improved my academic level.0.937
SD2The development-oriented aid is beneficial to my employability.
SD3The development-oriented aid is conducive to improving my comprehensive quality.
Table 2. The demographic characteristic.
Table 2. The demographic characteristic.
ItemsFrequency%
GenderFemale104858.50
Male74441.50
GradeFreshman41022.90
Sophomore49527.60
Junior44825.00
Senior43924.50
Ethnic groupHan Chinese116765.10
Ethnic minority62534.90
Have experience as a student cadreYes94052.50
No85247.50
Have experience in participating in advanced societiesYes31817.70
No147482.30
Whether economically disadvantaged studentsYes168594.00
No1076.00
Table 3. The results of the descriptive analysis.
Table 3. The results of the descriptive analysis.
LabelMeanVarianceStandard DeviationSkewnessKurtosis
DA13.770.8640.930−0.588(0.058)0.37(0.116)
DA23.90.8130.902−0.669(0.058)0.47(0.116)
DA34.180.6140.784−0.946(0.058)1.469(0.116)
DA44.120.6600.812−0.868(0.058)1.118(0.116)
Self-efficacy4.070.4310.657−0.534(0.058)1.016(0.116)
Hope4.020.4470.669−0.511(0.058)0.814(0.116)
Resilience4.030.4390.663−0.436(0.058)0.582(0.116)
Optimism4.040.4850.696−0.622(0.058)0.945(0.116)
SD14.250.5260.725−0.798(0.058)0.962(0.116)
SD24.120.6410.801−0.662(0.058)0.328(0.116)
SD34.10.6610.813−0.642(0.058)0.191(0.116)
Note: DA refers to development-oriented aid, and SD refers to student development, similarly hereinafter.
Table 4. The results of the CFA.
Table 4. The results of the CFA.
PathStandardized EstimateComposite ReliabilityAVE
Development-oriented aid → DA40.6740.8450.577
Development-oriented aid → DA30.769 ***
Development-oriented aid → DA20.821 ***
Development-oriented aid → DA10.768 ***
PsyCap → Optimism0.8850.9410.800
PsyCap → Resilience0.901 ***
PsyCap → Hope0.950 ***
PsyCap → Self-efficacy0.838 ***
Student development → SD30.9320.9390.837
Student development → SD20.946 ***
Student development → SD10.864 ***
Note: *** p < 0.001.
Table 5. The correlations of the latent variables.
Table 5. The correlations of the latent variables.
Development-Oriented AidPsyCapStudent Development
Development-oriented aid0.760
PsyCap0.5850.894
Student development0.6160.6540.915
Table 6. The results of the path analysis.
Table 6. The results of the path analysis.
PathStandardized EstimateS.E.C.R.
Development-oriented aid → PsyCap0.585 ***0.02920.384
PsyCap → Student development0.446 ***0.02917.483
Development-oriented aid → Student development0.355 ***0.03110.015
Note: *** p < 0.001.
Table 7. The results of the mediating effect test.
Table 7. The results of the mediating effect test.
Standardized Estimate95% CI Lower95% CI Upper
Indirect effect0.2610.2110.309
Direct effect0.3550.2740.435
Total effect0.6160.5630.665
Table 8. The results of MGCFA.
Table 8. The results of MGCFA.
Modelχ2Δχ2DFΔDFRMSEAΔRMSEACFIΔCFI
Han group305.717-41-0.074-0.976-
Ethnic minority group246.704-41-0.09-0.963-
Unconstrained552.461-82-0.057-0.972-
Measurement weights567.81715.3569080.0540.0030.9710.001
Structural covariances601.24433.427 **107170.0510.0030.970.001
Measurement residuals638.6237.376 ***118110.050.0010.9690.001
Note: ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Table 9. The goodness of fit indicators of the unconstrained and constrained models.
Table 9. The goodness of fit indicators of the unconstrained and constrained models.
Modelχ2Δχ2DFΔDFRMSEACFI
Unconstrained552.461-82-0.0570.972
Measurement weights567.81715.3569080.0540.971
Measurement intercepts584.70832.247 *101190.0520.971
Structural weights591.51839.057 *104220.0510.971
Note: * p < 0.05.
Table 10. The results of the path differences between groups.
Table 10. The results of the path differences between groups.
PathStandardized EstimateCritical Ratios for Differences between Parameters
Han Chinese GroupEthnic Minority Group
Development-oriented aid → PsyCap0.582 ***0.593 ***−0.485
PsyCap → Student development0.428 ***0.474 ***0.431
Development-oriented aid → Student development0.392 ***0.290 ***−2.543
Note: *** p < 0.001.
Table 11. The results of the mediating effect between groups.
Table 11. The results of the mediating effect between groups.
Indirect Effect95% CI Lower95% CI UpperDirect EffectTotal EffectRatio of
Mediating Effect
Han Chinese
students		0.2500.1970.3090.3920.64238.95%
Ethnic
minority students		0.2810.1890.3760.2900.57149.21%
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Li, X.; Mu, Y. The Effects of Development-Oriented Aid on Student Development in Higher Education: The Mediating Effect of Psychological Capital. Sustainability 2024, 16, 5803. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135803

AMA Style

Li X, Mu Y. The Effects of Development-Oriented Aid on Student Development in Higher Education: The Mediating Effect of Psychological Capital. Sustainability. 2024; 16(13):5803. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135803

Chicago/Turabian Style

Li, Xiaohong, and Yuxi Mu. 2024. "The Effects of Development-Oriented Aid on Student Development in Higher Education: The Mediating Effect of Psychological Capital" Sustainability 16, no. 13: 5803. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135803

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