Next Article in Journal
Creating Organizational Resilience through Digital Transformation and Dynamic Capabilities: Findings from fs/QCA Analysis on the Example of Polish CHP Plants
Previous Article in Journal
Environmental Knowledge and Green Purchase Intention and Behavior in China: The Mediating Role of Moral Obligation
Previous Article in Special Issue
Exploring Determinants of Second-Hand Apparel Purchase Intention and Word of Mouth: A Stimulus–Organism–Response Approach
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 16
Issue 14
10.3390/su16146265
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Recycling Clay Waste from Excavation, Demolition, and Construction: Trends and Challenges

by
Liliana Carolina Hernández García
1,
Sergio Neves Monteiro
2 and
Henry A. Colorado Lopera
1,*
1
CCComposites Laboratory, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Calle 70 No. 52-21, Medellin 050010, Colombia
2
Military Institute of Engineering—IME, Praça General Tibúrcio 80, Urca, Rio de Janeiro 22290-270, RJ, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(14), 6265; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146265
Submission received: 17 June 2024 / Revised: 3 July 2024 / Accepted: 5 July 2024 / Published: 22 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recycling Materials for the Circular Economy—2nd Edition)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The recycling of clay waste from construction debris highly depends on the chemical and mineralogical composition of the waste. Clays and clay minerals are known to be among marginal construction waste, representing an interesting opportunity and platform to produce other low-cost and low-carbon materials due to their possibilities for functional material design, such as adsorbents, drug delivery, catalysts and photocatalysts, and nanocomposites. The present review analyzes a wide variety of mechanisms for encapsulating organic and inorganic species between the layers of clay minerals. Through the compilation of advances in acid activation, exchange of inorganic cations, intercalation, and pillarization, new applications for clay materials are generated, paving the way to a nanometric world with functional, magnetic, adsorption, and catalytic capabilities. New trends are consolidated in the reuse of recycled clays in infrastructure projects, such as hydraulic concrete, water purification, soil fertility, pigments and paints, food packaging and storage, and ceramic appliances. It is concluded that clay waste is suitable to reuse in many industrial products and construction materials, enabling a reduction in the consumption of raw materials.

1. Introduction

Topics such as large-scale pollution [1], water scarcity [2], climate change [3], and particle matter derived from contamination [4] are now of concern not only for scientists and politicians but also for many people interested in sustainability worldwide [1]. Construction materials include concrete, soil, steel, pavement, and others, which contribute by weight and volume to the biggest industry of manufacturing in the world. As construction continues and the population increases, there is more demand for these materials, which are finite, and therefore we must pursue their recycling and reuse. Among all pollutants [5], the civil construction industry is responsible for a significant amount, with a production equivalent to one ton of cement per year for each inhabitant of the Earth, carried out in mining plants that, due to geo-accumulation, alter the pH of the soil up to a radius of 2000 m, increasing the concentrations of nitrogen (167 ppm), phosphorus (2.52 ppm), and metals such as Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Ni, Zn, and Co [6].
According to the UNE 2024 report, the use of construction materials has tripled in the last fifty years, growing more than 2.3% annually [7]. Likewise, it indicates that the collection of stone materials such as sand, gravel, clays, and other minerals used for concrete production constitutes the largest type of material use in the world, with records close to 45.3 billion tons in the last year, corresponding to 50% of all materials extracted worldwide.
This scenario gives us an outlook far from that of the sustainable development goals [8], one where we are facing a quadruple planetary crisis of climate change, a loss of biodiversity, pollution, and waste. The indicators of the building and construction sector are worrying, as CO2 emissions in 2022 represented 32% of the global emissions from these activities, and the transition to sustainable construction is slow with respect to the adoption of green building certifications [9]. Research into the circularity of materials generated from the recycling of demolition and construction waste has become a global trend that seeks to reduce the environmental impact of the construction industry [10].
Non-hazardous waste that results from construction activities, excavation, demolition, the repair of civil works, or other complementary activities, such as the mining of stone aggregates, is divided in two categories: usable and non-usable [11]. Usable waste can be classified into three groups. The first group is stone waste, made up of ceramics, concrete, bricks, sand, and gravel with sizes greater than 0.075 mm. The second group constitutes non-expansive fine waste, the size of which is less than 0.075 mm. The third group is non-stone, such as plastics, PVC, wood, paper, silicon, glass, rubber, metal, organic soil, and organic materials [12].
In the category of non-usable waste, there are the hazardous wastes, polystyrene and Styrofoam, the contaminated wastes, as well as clays or clayey rocks that have expansive properties, a plasticity index greater than thirty, or a liquid limit greater than 40%. Expansive clays are designated by the World Road Association as marginal materials that must be eliminated from infrastructure works, due to their absorption capacity, low density, resistance, volumetric instability, fineness, and plasticity, which is why they are classified as marginal wastes [13]. These are organized according to compliance with specifications, the liquid limit (LL), and the plasticity index (PI), as shown in Figure 1.
The swelling of clays is directly proportional to the size of the particle, the plasticity index, and the number of saturation and drying cycles [14]. For that reason, the clay waste used in the construction of infrastructure works is remolded, though this means that the transported clay undergoes desiccation and saturation, causing the silica layers to separate even further and weaken the material. These wastes are not typically used within the construction sector, due to their small particle size (<0.075 mm) and their high plasticity index (>30%) [15]. Today, these clays are the object of study of other sciences such as materials engineering, chemistry, and nanotechnology. In such fields, this swelling or expansiveness can be useful given its ability to encapsulate minerals between the separated silica layers, requiring chemical and physical transformations for further optimization [16,17].
The applications of nanotechnology in the concrete industry are based on the chemical and mineralogical composition of clay residues. SiO2 is known as a compound that improves workability in concrete and increases the dissolution resistance of calcium carbonate and the speed of setting [18]. TiO2 can self-clean surfaces thanks to photocatalysis, an ability to remove pollutants from the environment [19]. Fe2O3 is a component used in intelligent structures to control the stress state of structures in real-time [20], while Al2O3 increases the modulus of elasticity of concrete [21]. Processed clay improves the mechanical performance of concrete since it minimizes the permeability of the material, increases the resistance to chlorides, and reduces shrinkage [22].
Although there is a considerable number of publications on construction and demolition waste, most of them are on the use of recycled aggregates, concrete, and bricks [23]. There are many benefits of reusing these clayed materials as construction materials, such as their low particle size, high adsorption, cation exchange capacity, and because they contain beneficial precursors that work very well for the encapsulation of hazardous materials [24,25], or because they can produce competitive properties in a sustainable solution [19].
Clay waste is defined as all ceramic materials that contain clay minerals and that result from the processes of mining, excavation, construction, or demolition of infrastructure works. They can be found in powder, lumps, or blocks (dry or saturated). The marginal clay residues are cohesive, register a plasticity index greater than 30%, and have high swelling potential and volumetric instability [26]. This review focuses on the study of scientific publications that describe different processes for the reuse of clay waste from excavation or construction and demolition waste (in applications such as hydraulic concrete, water purification, floor fertilization, pigments and paints, food packaging and storage, and white ceramics). The use of these materials, their limitations, and the opportunities and applications are summarized. In summary, research efforts at recycling clay waste significantly offset the environmental impact generated by waste in infrastructure works. To realize the massive use of this waste it is necessary to combine multiple applied disciplines (such as construction, geotechnics, and pavement engineering) with science (materials, chemistry, and process engineering). This can provide efficient solutions, which are sustainable economically and environmentally in time.

2. Methodology

The collection of results was carried out through quantitative research in scientometrics and bibliometrics, using the open-source tools of R Studio. The bibliographic data were collected from different search engines: Scopus, Science Direct, Scielo, Springer Link, Redalyc, Nature, Patenscope, and Google Patents.
The data processing and analysis were carried out in three stages:
  • Data collection: Metadata were obtained from the keywords ‘waste clay’ and ‘demolition and construction waste’, filtering for only scientific publications and excluding review articles, books, and other publications.
  • Data processing: R Studio, Excel, and Power BI were applied, with parameters used for a descriptive analysis over time.
  • Visualization, analysis, and interpretation of data: We used maps, boxes, bar charts, and ring graphs, which are presented as plots in this manuscript in Figures 2–7.
The statistical trend curve of scientific publications traced a clear growth trajectory with a time window from the year 2000 to the year 2024. However, trends in patents did not have a clear growth pattern over this period—partly since patents are susceptible to change or renewal over longer periods, where the renewal of a patent will count as a new patent, which does not provide reliability in the count—so, to carry out the analysis of patent information, we took 10 years as a shorter time range, counting from 2014 to 2024.

3. Results

This section contains the results of a systematic search of documents, mostly research and review papers, from several important academic databases, as well as patents from important sources as well, all mentioned in the methods above. These searches were based on waste clays and construction and demolition wastes. Next, the topics and techniques found were analyzed in detail, starting with applications in hydraulic concrete, followed by applications in 3D printing, water purification, soil fertility, pigments and paints, food packaging and storage, and ending with white ceramic goods.
The search for scientific publications on construction and demolition waste was conducted using recognized academic databases. In the database Scopus, we found 79,594 documents including studies on construction and demolition waste, of which 6948 referred directly to clay waste. China, Spain, the United States, and India stood out as the countries with the highest number of publications on demolition and construction, while African countries published the least on these topics, as shown in Figure 2.
Moreover, Redalyc offered 1569 documents published in Brazil and 3353 in Colombia, as shown in Figure 3, positioning the Redalyc scientific information system as the network of scientific journals most used by the Latin American community.
The growing interest in the reuse of construction and demolition waste is reflected in the growth of publications, with the highest peak for Redalyc in 2016, while for Springer, Scopus, and Science Direct, the topic peaked in 2023. The areas with the highest impacts are engineering and earth sciences, with 20.6% each, while areas such as energy, chemistry, ceramic engineering, and business register 2.9% each, as shown in Figure 4.
In the same order, in the last 10 years, 801 patents related to technologies associated with demolition and construction waste were registered in Google Patents, while in Patenscope, 133 patents were published, as shown in Figure 5. In these figures, China stands out for having 29% of the patents, reflecting a massive will for improving the protection of the environment, as shown in Figure 5.

3.1. Marginal Waste and Its Applications

Marginal waste is the waste that originates from mining, tailings, and construction and demolition activities, whose reuse requires industrial processes that render production more expensive and perhaps unfeasible. Due to its high water absorption and porosity, its use is limited in the construction of new buildings [27]. In addition to the extra processing costs and both high water absorption and porosity, the low use is also due to a poor knowledge of its possible uses by engineers and a lack of regulation of its use in civil construction. These marginal wastes include clay soils resulting from sand washing, the excavation of deep foundations such as basements and piles, and earthworks for road infrastructure works. Clays and clay minerals are materials made up of phyllosilicates with a particle size of less than 2 microns, which have a structure based on the stacking of planes of oxygen and hydroxyl ions [28].
These residues are inorganic materials (feldspar or mother clay), which by processes of weathering, erosion, and hydrolysis, transform the layers of tetrahedral and octahedral silicate units linked together, resulting in thirty types of nanoclays, with different mineralogical compositions and properties. Among these properties are absorption, adsorption, swelling, and volumetric stability, which are related to the plasticity index and the liquid limit [29,30]. Table 1 shows some of the most common clays typically found in construction and demolition waste.
Due to the cation exchange capacity of clay minerals, these materials are commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry, as lubricants, desiccants, diluents, binders, pigments, thickeners, and carriers of active ingredients [31,32]. However, to use clay construction waste, it is necessary to carry out chemical processes of synthesis, purification, and pillarization of clay, which makes its production difficult and expensive [33,34,35], and thus, less attractive when it comes to establishing a circular economy with this waste.

3.1.1. Applications in Hydraulic Concrete

Concrete is the most commonly used material in infrastructure works, but it requires a high energy expenditure for its production and thus constitutes one of the main sources of CO2 emissions in the world [36]. When making concrete, clinker production is the calcination of limestone (CaCO3) to produce lime (CaO), which results in the release of a significant amount of CO2 in the chemical reaction (see Equation (1)). In addition to this, the burning of fossil fuels to heat furnaces and the consumption of fuels necessary to extract and transport the raw materials result in the generation of more than 1500 tons of CO2 for production worldwide [37].
C a C O 3 + h e a t → C a O + C O 2
The reduction of cement powder in concrete is one of the biggest challenges that the industry has witnessed [38]; there are notable advances, but in most cases, the innovations have not been scaled to commercialization. The lack of demand is due to the uncertainty in the market, which leaves consumers preferring traditional materials [37]. According to the Google Patents database, 922 patents have been published on low-carbon hydraulic cements in the last ten years (see Figure 6). In 2023, 158 were published, of which 33% correspond to new additives that seek to reduce cement consumption, 38% are for designs of mixtures for special concretes, 18% are for alternative cements, 5% are for mixtures that incorporate construction and demolition waste (CDW), 5% mention the incorporation of alternative fuels for cement production, and only 1% are for aggregate improvement stones to mitigate the environmental impact [39].
Lightweight concrete is a sustainable alternative for waste management and lower consumption of raw materials because it allows the incorporation of recycled materials that reduce any environmental impact of the mix [40,41]. Studies on the subject in the laboratory validated the possibility of using quarry waste as a fine aggregate in light concrete mixtures [42,43]. However, its fineness modulus is generally lower than that of natural sand, which increases the water consumption in the mixture and at the same time the cement content. Thus, the design of the mixture must establish an optimal content of replacement of fine aggregate by residues, so that a low density is achieved without affecting the mechanical properties of the concrete [44].
Another sustainable way to incorporate clay residues into concrete is by using brick dust [45]. When the clay is calcined for the manufacture of bricks, it undergoes a thermal activation that leads to the transformation of kaolinite into an amorphous phase, that is, by dihydroxylation, the structure of the crystal lattice is totally or partially broken, forming a material with high reactivity [46,47].
This facilitates the reaction of Ca(OH)2 in the presence of water to form calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) or calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH). This is known as a supplemental cementitious material or artificial pozzolana, which when added to a concrete mixture, improves its mechanical properties and durability. On the other hand, pozzolanic activity depends not only on the amorphous phase but also on the fineness of the powder [46,48,49,50]. As for brick waste, in addition to going through a drying process, it must be crushed and ground, so that particles with a size of less than 75 microns can be processed.
However, not all clay bricks have the mineral kaolin present, so it cannot be fully stated that brick dust is a replacement cementing material. Its fineness can reduce the porosity of concrete, improving consistency and strength and ensuring a cement reduction of 5 to 30% in weight [45,51]. There is a close relationship between the density of the mixture, the maximum brick dust content, and the stability of compressive strength over time [52]. Therefore, it is recommended that experimental tests should be carried out that relate these three variables, to determine the appropriate dosage [53,54,55].
Another use for clay residues in concrete is artificially activating clays to convert them into pozzolans or supplementary cementitious materials [56]. Case studies indicate that clays with different kaolin contents, calcined at a temperature of 750 °C for 30 min, with rapid or abrupt cooling and final grinding, can exhibit pozzolanic reactivity in concrete mixtures. However, at the age of 28 days, there are no significant differences from other meta-clays that have a lower proportion of kaolin, if the fineness of the clay is maintained [57,58].
One of the advantages of adding thermally activated clays to the mix is the reduction in the amount of tricalcium aluminum hydrates (C3A) in the reaction, which decreases the alkalinity of the concrete and the amount of ettringite, mitigating damage from sulfate attack [59,60]. Similarly, by reducing pores with such a fine powder, the microstructure of the concrete is densified, reducing permeability, the alkaline silica reaction, and the alkaline carbonate reaction [61,62]. However, it should be noted that the addition of these fine powders to the mixture reduces its fluidity, so that an additional content of plasticizer additives is usually necessary.
In the last ten years, a total of 4877 scientific articles have been published by Science Direct on the reuse of clay waste in mixtures with hydraulic cement, recording favorable results, both in the reduction of water for the mixture and in the reduction of cement, thanks to the addition of activated clays. This accounts 934 publications in the year 2023, the highest number so far, as shown in Figure 7.
We now summarize the validated publications on waste mixtures with clay minerals and hydraulic cement. Calcined clay, clay brick dust, waste concrete powder, waste brick powder, ground granules, pulverized hardened concrete, recycled coarse fine aggregate, and metakaolin are clay minerals that have undergone physical chemical changes. Table 2 shows findings in concrete mixtures with materials that have the same chemical composition and that are derived from clay waste. Table 2 also shows the references, the city, and country where the research was carried out, the waste used in the mixtures, the dose that registered the greatest resistance, and the main findings (such as the reduction in cement consumption in the mixture, reduction of fluidity, reduced permeability, and greater resistivity) guaranteeing a more sustainable and resistant concrete.

3.1.2. Applications in Precast and 3D Printing

Prefabricated pieces such as pavers and clay bricks are the most traditional building materials because of their low cost and high production [76]. There are more efficient artisanal techniques and industrial methods that enable special pieces to be molded thanks to the plasticity and absorption of the clay material [77]. Technical standards indicate that a clay paving stone must have a strength of 20 MPa for light traffic and 55 MPa for a road with heavy traffic [78]. Masonry must have a compressive strength of 13 MPa for the construction of buildings [79]. It is feasible to use mining waste and tailings residues to manufacture freeze–thaw-resistant masonry, with favorable results in Portland cement and quicklime mixtures, cured with hydrothermal treatments [80] in a vapor chamber at an average temperature of 90 °C for 9 h, with a heating and cooling ramp of 1.5 h, for a total of 12 h of curing.
In addition to innovations in manufacturing processes, there are a variety of mixtures that incorporate plastic scraps, obtaining strengths of 38 MPa [81]; calcined organic waste, with dosages of up to 12% of the weight of the mixture and with strengths of 20 MPa [82]; and mixtures of geo-polymeric binders with clay residues such as bricks, clay tiles, and glass, whose strengths are close to 35 MPa [83,84]. They all are sustainably manufactured from recycled raw materials, which do not require the traditional infrastructure and energy consumption to calcinate the clay blocks. Traditional methods require huge kilns for drying the bricks for 3 days at 60 °C and then for firing from 48 to 72 h at sintering temperatures between 800 to 1200 °C [85].
At the same time, more sophisticated techniques such as 3D printing are being used in construction materials [86,87]. The most commonly used 3D printing technique on the market is Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), used mostly for thermoplastic materials. VAT photopolymerization is also a very extended technology, which works using a laser beam to cure a photosensitive liquid resin, creating thermoset polymers. Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective laser melting (SLM), and electron beam melting (EBM) are used in the aerospace industry and work with metallic materials, using either a laser or an electron beam to melt or sinter the materials. In contrast, for clay waste, there are selective laser sintering (SLS), binder jetting (BJ) and direct ink writing (DIW), which allow for 3D ceramics by using lasers or a liquid adhesive that spreads selectively [88]. For larger pieces, DIW, an extrusion-based 3D printing mode, is used [89,90].
Experimental studies indicate that extrusion-based 3D printing (3DCP) of thermally activated clay, such as brick dust, mixed with pulverized limestone and properly wetted cementitious materials registers strengths of 3 to 3.8 MPa, enabling further optimization [91]. High-quality printed parts [92] were obtained by using scanning methods on specific printed pastes, with a speed of 30 mm/s and a high extrusion flow rate (0.38 mL/s).
On the other hand, the fluidity of clay paste directly depends on the 3D printing technique. Experiences in DIW (direct ink writing) in ceramic manufacturing with water/clay ratios of 0.68 and 0.72 and fly ash additions show a favorable effect on workability, surface finishing, and strengths (between 25 and 45 MPa) [93,94]. Some experts recommend the use of glycerin and plasticizing additives, such as sodium polyacrylate, to improve the printing process. Likewise, there are studies that seek to achieve the encapsulation of hazardous wastes such as electric arc furnace steel dust (EAFD) in the printing of ceramics with clay mixtures that contained 10 to 20% waste, with the best strengths due to the formation of magnesium ferrite (MgFe2O4) from the interaction between clay and waste [95].

3.1.3. Water Purification

Other types of clay that are found among construction and demolition waste are montmorillonites and illites. Known for their high cation exchange capacity, they are used to adsorb charge-carrying contaminants [96,97], whuch provides a good reason for their use as a purifier of polluted water. The effect of montmorillonite clays is to generate slight expansions between tetrahedron layers, increasing their hydrophobicity and analyte chemisorption [98]. This suggests that expansive clays may serve the same function as activated carbon in the wastewater purification process. Moreover, they can selectively remove perchlorate and pathogenic bacteria from polluted water [99,100].
Furthermore, during the filtering and sedimentation of wastewater, clays are decanted, which depending on their adsorption and porous properties, can also be used as a catalytic support or filter medium through the manufacture of cellular glass–ceramics [100]. Another method uses residues from oil bleaching processes or liquid formulations with clays, as another carbon precursor option [101,102]. Because clays are generally composed of a mixture of mineral materials and organic debris, when pyrolyzed at low temperatures, carbon can be produced on the surfaces of small clay minerals, such as nanocomposites, which have a high sorption capacity similar to that of activated carbon. The main difference between a carbon-based clay residue and activated carbon is its production temperature, since these residues are calcined at temperatures significantly lower than those of activated carbon, which reduces the carbon imprint [103,104].
Generally, water purification with clay residues is the most promising method due to its environmental impact and low cost. Thus, hard minerals can be encapsulated using nanocomposites (in combination with clay minerals and other materials such as polymers, biopolymers, acids, alcohols, surfactants, or organic materials) such as nuclear wastes and other hazardous materials [105,106]. However, clays do not have permanent porosity, which can be rectified by techniques of physical and chemical modification of clay minerals through the intercalation of cations in the interlaminar space [107]. This includes the synthesis of nanocomposites with metal pillars, biochar, or organocations through thermal or chemical activation, with the possibility to increase their specific surface area and expand the dimensions of the pores [20,108,109].
The technique, known as clay pillarization, aims to open up space between its layers by adding stable columns of metal oxides that separate the silicate layers and create interstitial spaces with molecular dimensions [110]. This separation is only formed by hydrolysis of metal oxides or salts (pillar solution), where ion exchange between the exchangeable ions in the clay arises, which is where the space between the layers is increased and when swollen is washed and dried, so that the precursors of pillars are transformed into stable pillars. Then, these are exposed to heat treatment for dehydration and dihydroxylation. Depending on the solution and precursors, a type of pillar will be formed. Among these are known organic cations, organophilic cations, metal clusters, polyoxycations, oxides, and mixed metal oxides [110,111,112], as shown in the Figure 8.

3.1.4. Soil Fertility

In addition to minerals, clay waste from construction and demolition waste usually contains carbonates and phosphorus, which contribute to the recovery of acidic soils through cation exchange techniques and base saturation [113]. Different experiments have been carried out, mixing CDW with eucalyptus bark compost, which results in a favorable impact on the cultivation of black oats (Avena Strigosa) thanks to the capacity of liquid retention, porosity, and pH [114].
Although the use of compost in the improvement of agricultural soils is known, mixing with CDW waste brings with it a sustainable alternative for landscaping and restoration of areas affected by soil erosion and degradation [115]. In the same vein, in India, amendments of animal and plant origin have been tested, such as manure from sheep, poultry, and rice husk ash mixed with clay residues, causing an increase in the size of the fruits grown and improving profitability and agricultural production [116].
Unproductive soils have an acidic pH, a condition improved by the application of lime. Clay and carbon contents provide pH stability, while the nutrients provided by biomass or biochar are embedded in the clay matrix. This, added to the moisture retention capacity of clay, conditions the soil properties, so that, in dry seasons such as autumn, the agricultural production can remain stable [117].

3.1.5. Pigments and Paints

Host–host interaction between clay minerals and organic dyes through hydrogen bonding and Van der Waals forces characterizes some clays (such as palygorskite), which makes them attractive for applications such as pigment and colorants [118], energy storage and conversion, electronics, and biosensors.
Halloysite is another dioctahedral clay mineral considered to be a hydrated polymorph of kaolinite with curved sheets, capable of storing water molecules in the interlaminar space [119]. Its particles can take shapes such as spheres, tubes, plates, or slats. Tubular halloysite fibers are caused by a mismatch in the alignment of the tetrahedral layer of silica bonded with the octahedral layer of alumina. It is known that the outer surface of the nanotube carries a negative charge that functions as a polyvalent anion, while the edges are amphoteric with negative charges at a high pH and positive charges at a low pH [120]. This condition improves the adsorption capacity of both anionic and cationic dyes, improving the performance as a detergent for cleaning dyes and other common textile stains. Studies indicate that stained fabrics after a treatment with halloysite nanotubes show a high retention of whiteness, preventing stains on the surfaces of textiles [121].
Cloisite nanoclay is used to modify the performance of zinc-rich epoxy paints, thanks to its cation exchange capacity, which improves barrier effects and inhibits zinc powder consumption [122]. Likewise, the use of tailings rich in this mineral in the manufacture of PVA latex eco-paints gives a greater efficiency if the grinding of granite waste is included in the production [123]. In addition to contributing to sustainable development, it improves abrasion resistance due to the hardness and abrasiveness of the particles [124]. However, it must be combined with other catalysts to improve the pH, as granite residues make the mixture more alkaline, which affects the strength of the paint film [125].

3.1.6. Food Packaging and Storage

Food packaging research proposes the combination of natural bioactive compounds with nanoparticles, which have antimicrobial properties, in seeking to maintain the quality of packaged foods. Among the most common sources of bioactive compounds are clay–polymer nanocomposites. Montmorillonite clay has the ideal nanostructure to achieve the best strengths and a light barrier, with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties to protect food from degradation [126].
Owing to the intercalation capacity of nanoclays, they have been applied not only as a nanopackaging material for the cosmetic, biomedical, and food industries but also as a reinforcement material in thermoplastics [127]. Studies indicate that nanoclays can be studied as nanocontainers to convert liquid substances into solid powders, making them easier to handle and transport [128]. However, claiming that all clay residues can be used as food packaging material would be a mistake. To find a clay nanocompound for food packaging, a detailed evaluation is necessary, as studies show that different organoclays differ in their toxicity, depending on the modifier used [129].

3.1.7. Ceramic White Goods

White pottery is an ancient product that dates from 4300 to 2400 B.C., originally industrialized in China and India [130]. Known as porcelain, kaolinite clay became the symbol of many prehistoric cultures, technology, and arts. Currently, research is leaning towards the incorporation of waste for the manufacture of ceramics [131]. Forming a mixture between kaolin and sand residues from cast steel guarantees a higher density, shrinkage to high temperature, and strength; however, the mixture registers a lower absorption of water because during sintering, more vitreous and mullite phases are formed [132]. Moreover, the residues resulting from stoneware polishing reduce the sintering time and temperature in the production of cellular ceramics [133].
On the other hand, porcelain stoneware production processes have evolved with the development of new technologies, which include changes in the chemical composition of the material, compaction pressure, firing time, maximum sintering temperature, and tempering [134]. The latter consists of a sudden, or chemical, cooling that facilitates ion exchange for the cation substitution between ions of lower and higher radii. This is how it is possible to incorporate waste, such as vitrified toilets, which has a higher strength and lower coefficients of thermal expansion [135].
Similarly, findings of the same benefits of vanadium–titanium magnetite tailings for the preparation of foamed ceramics are known [136]. This reduces the environmental impact, as these highly polluting materials are used in the production of new ceramics. The addition of residues in the mixtures slightly affects the white color of the ceramic, so it is recommended to carry out a process of bleaching the residue before integrating it into the mixture [137].

4. Conclusions

The construction of infrastructure is the activity that most impacts the consumption of natural materials, due to dependent activities such as the mining of stone aggregates, CO2 emissions in the production of materials for the manufacture of concrete, and the low adoption of sustainable construction.
Within the classification of demolition, excavation, and construction wastes, there are reusable and non-reusable wastes within infrastructure works. One of the materials with immense potential that is unusable, sometimes known as marginal waste, comprises highly compressible clays, which have value due to their volumetric instability, absorption, plasticity, and low resistance.
Marginal waste such as expansive clays can be used in other engineering fields as a supplementary cementitious material, through the thermal activation of kaolin, or as a fine material to reduce porosity in concrete.
The ion exchange capacity and large specific surface area of clays facilitate strong interactions with chemical molecules and ions. The intercalation of molecules increases the spaces between the layers, resulting in a greater specific surface area of the adsorbent material, improving its adaptability in other applications.
To achieve the transfer of knowledge in the industry, government support for these initiatives is necessary, with potential benefits in the following three areas: economic, environmental, and scientific.
Only 0.4% of publications include clay residues as a suitable material for reuse in the design of other materials. Nonetheless, we have high expectations for accessing the benefits of clay in the future, such as their ability to encapsulate other minerals and their more economical sintering compared to other materials.
The ion exchange capacity and large specific surface area of clays facilitate strong interactions with chemical molecules and ions, and the intercalation of molecules increases the spaces between the layers, resulting in a greater specific surface area of the adsorbent material. This can optimize the functionality of clays in concrete production, 3D printing, wastewater purification with harmful reagents, production of fertilizers, pigments and paints, food storage containers, and white ceramic items, among other sectors.

5. Recommendations

The greatest challenge in this field of study is the great variability of the mineralogical and chemical characteristics of the materials, which is a challenge as well for the implementation of the diverse solutions provided worldwide. Many researchers look for standard samples with characteristics specific to each region, but many lack a comparison with other similar solutions. Moreover, there are more challenges to solve, which include problems with the scalability of the solutions, durability, and the environmental impacts of the solutions in the environment (such as life cycle assessment and leachability studies).
Thus, for future work, not only must the physical and mechanical characteristics be parameterized but also there is a need to review the impact of variations in financial issues, to guarantee the economic sustainability of production with recycled materials compared to traditional materials. This investigation is important not only because it is necessary to increase the impact of these solutions on the environment but also because the environmental situation is becoming critical, leaving less time to improve the strategies summarized in this research.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.C.H.G. and H.A.C.L.; methodology, L.C.H.G. and H.A.C.L.; validation, L.C.H.G. and S.N.M.; investigation, L.C.H.G. and H.A.C.L.; writing—original draft preparation, L.C.H.G. and H.A.C.L.; writing—review and editing, L.C.H.G., H.A.C.L., and S.N.M.; supervision, H.A.C.L.; project administration, H.A.C.L.; funding acquisition, L.C.H.G., H.A.C.L., and S.N.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Kaufman, Y.J.; Fraser, R.S.; Ferrare, R.A. Satellite Measurements of Large-Scale Air Pollution: Methods. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 1990, 95, 9895–9909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Liu, J.; Yang, H.; Gosling, S.N.; Kummu, M.; Flörke, M.; Pfister, S.; Hanasaki, N.; Wada, Y.; Zhang, X.; Zheng, C.; et al. Water scarcity assessments in the past, present, and future. Earth’s Future 2017, 5, 545–559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Mahasenan, N.; Smith, S.; Humphreys, K. Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies-6th International Conference; Proceeding; Elsevier: Kyoto, Japan, 2003. [Google Scholar]
  4. Grantz, D.A.; Garner, J.H.B.; Johnson, D.W. Ecological effects of particulate matter. Environ. Int. 2003, 29, 213–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Werkheiser, I.; Piso, Z. People Work to Sustain Systems: A Framework for Understanding Sustainability. J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag. 2015, 141, A4015002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Ismail, Z.; Ali, S.; Zulfiqar, A.; El-Serehy, H.A. Impact of cement industries on potentially toxic elements’ contamination and other characteristics of topsoil: A case study. Environ. Pollut. Bioavailab. 2023, 35, 550–568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. United Nations Environment Programme. Summary for Policymakers Global Resources Outlook 2024 Bend the Trend; United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2024. [Google Scholar]
  8. United Nations. Paris Agreement; United Nations: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  9. United Nations Environment Programme. Global Status Report for Buildings and Construction. In Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction; United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Colorado, H.A.; Muñoz, A.; Monteiro, S.N. Circular Economy of Construction and Demolition Waste: A Case Study of Colombia. Sustainability 2022, 14, 7225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. ASTM D5681-23; Standard Terminology for Waste and Waste Management. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2023. [CrossRef]
  12. United Nations Environment Programme. Global Resources Outlook; United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2024. [Google Scholar]
  13. PIARC. Review of Practices Using Marginal and Secondary Materials in Rural and Industrial Areas; Comité Técnico AIPCR Geotecnia y Carreteras sin Pavimentar: La Défense, France, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  14. Gaspar, T.A.V.; Jacobsz, S.W.; Heymann, G.; Toll, D.G.; Gens, A.; Osman, A.S. The mechanical properties of a high plasticity expansive clay. Eng. Geol. 2022, 303, 106647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. PIARC. Design and Construction of Earth-Structures 2B/Treatment of Materials Technical, 2021R02B/EN; World Road Association (PIARC): Paris, France, 2021; Volume 1, Available online: http://www.piarc.org (accessed on 1 May 2024).
  16. Doudou, S.; McTeer, J.; Wickham, S.; Thied, R.; Woodcock, R.; Turner, T.; Hamblin, C.; Buckley, M.; Walsh, C. Optimised Management of Orphan Wastes in the UK. In Proceedings of the ASME 2013 15th International Conference on Environmental Remediation and Radioactive Waste Management, Brussels, Belgium, 8–12 September 2013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Rodríguez, M.; Bussi, J.; De León, M.A. Application of pillared raw clay-base catalysts and natural solar radiation for water decontamination by the photo-Fenton process. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2021, 259, 118167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Mohammed, S. Processing, effect and reactivity assessment of artificial pozzolans obtained from clays and clay wastes: A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2017, 140, 10–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Selvasofia, S.D.A.; Sarojini, E.; Moulica, G.; Thomas, S.; Tharani, M.; Saravanakumar, P.; Kumar, P.M. Study on the mechanical properties of the nanoconcrete using nano-TiO2 and nanoclay. Mater. Today Proc. 2021, 50, 1319–1325. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Gil, A.; Vicente, M.A. Progress and perspectives on pillared clays applied in energetic and environmental remediation processes. Curr. Opin. Green Sustain. Chem. 2020, 21, 56–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. de Andrade Salgado, F.; de Andrade Silva, F. Recycled aggregates from construction and demolition waste towards an application on structural concrete: A review. J. Build. Eng. 2022, 52, 104452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Papatzani, S. Effect of nanosilica and montmorillonite nanoclay particles on cement hydration and microstructure. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2016, 32, 138–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Wu, H.; Zuo, J.; Zillante, G.; Wang, J.; Yuan, H. Status quo and future directions of construction and demolition waste research: A critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 240, 118163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Karayannis, V.G.; Karapanagioti, H.K.; Domopoulou, A.E.; Komilis, D.P. Stabilization/Solidification of Hazardous Metals from Solid Wastes into Ceramics. Waste Biomass Valorization 2017, 8, 1863–1874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Florez, R.; Colorado, H.A.; Alajo, A.; Giraldo, C.H. The material characterization and gamma attenuation properties of Portland cement-Fe3O4 composites for potential dry cask applications. Prog. Nucl. Energy 2019, 111, 65–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. García, L.C.H.; Salamanca, N.F.L. Resilient Module Soil-Cement Prediction based on Setting Temperature. Ing. Investig. 2020, 40, 7–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Luciano, A.; Cutaia, L.; Altamura, P.; Penalvo, E. Critical issues hindering a widespread construction and demolition waste (CDW) recycling practice in EU countries and actions to undertake: The stakeholder’s perspective. Sustain. Chem. Pharm. 2022, 29, 100745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Johnston, C.T. Clay mineral–water interactions. Dev. Clay Sci. 2018, 9, 89–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Moreno-Maroto, J.M.; Alonso-Azcárate, J. What is clay? A new definition of “clay” based on plasticity and its impact on the most widespread soil classification systems. Appl. Clay Sci. 2018, 161, 57–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Singh, N.B. Clays and Clay Minerals in the Construction Industry. Minerals 2022, 12, 301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Carretero, M.I.; Pozo, M. Clay and non-clay minerals in the pharmaceutical industry. Part I. Excipients and medical applications. Appl. Clay Sci. 2009, 46, 73–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Yang, X.; Wei, G.; Wu, P.; Liu, P.; Liang, X.; Chu, W. Controlling oxygen vacancies of CoMn2O4 by loading on planar and tubular clay minerals and its application for boosted PMS activation. J. Hazard. Mater. 2022, 436, 129060. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Fang, L.; Wang, L.; Zhou, T.; Liu, L.; Zhou, J.; Li, M. Preparation and characterization of Fe,Co,Si-pillared montmorillonites with aminosilanes as silicon pillars precursor. Appl. Clay Sci. 2017, 141, 88–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Najafi, H.; Farajfaed, S.; Zolgharnian, S.; Mosavi Mirak, S.H.; Asasian-Kolur, N.; Sharifian, S. A comprehensive study on modified-pillared clays as an adsorbent in wastewater treatment processes. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2021, 147, 8–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Asgari, M.; Vitale, G.; Sundararaj, U. Synthesis and characterization of a novel nickel pillared–clay catalyst: In-situ carbon nanotube–clay hybrid nanofiller from Ni-PILC. Appl. Clay Sci. 2021, 205, 106064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Habert, G.; Miller, S.A.; John, V.M.; Provis, J.L.; Favier, A.; Horvath, A.; Scrivener, K.L. Environmental impacts and decarbonization strategies in the cement and concrete industries. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 2020, 1, 559–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Lehnend, J.; Preston, F. Making Concrete Change Innovation in Low-Carbon Cement and Concrete, Cambridge; The Royal Institute of International Affairs: Tokyo, Japan, 2018; Available online: https://www.chathamhouse.org (accessed on 1 May 2024).
  38. Khalid, U.; Liao, C.; Ye, G.-L.; Yadav, S.K. Sustainable improvement of soft marine clay using low cement content: A multi-scale experimental investigation. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 191, 469–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Ding, M.; Yu, R.; Feng, Y.; Wang, S.; Zhou, F.; Shui, Z.; Gao, X.; He, Y.; Chen, L. Possibility and advantages of producing an ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) with ultra-low cement content. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 273, 122023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Zapata, J.F.; Azevedo, A.; Fontes, C.; Monteiro, S.N.; Colorado, H.A. Environmental impact and sustainability of calcium aluminate cements. Sustainability 2022, 14, 2751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Zhang, B.; Ahmad, W.; Ahmad, A.; Aslam, F.; Joyklad, P. A scientometric analysis approach to analyze the present research on recycled aggregate concrete. J. Build. Eng. 2022, 46, 103679. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Galetakis, M.; Soultana, A. A review on the utilisation of quarry and ornamental stone industry fine by-products in the construction sector. Constr. Build. Mater. 2016, 102, 769–781. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. De Carvalho Gomes, S.; Zhou, J.L.; Li, W.; Long, G. Progress in manufacture and properties of construction materials incorporating water treatment sludge: A review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2019, 145, 148–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Ray, S.; Haque, M.; Ahmed, T.; Mita, A.F.; Saikat, H.; Alom, M. Predicting the strength of concrete made with stone dust and nylon fiber using artificial neural network. Heliyon 2022, 8, e09129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Likes, L.; Markandeya, A.; Haider, M.; Bollinger, D.; McCloy, J.S.; Nassiri, S. Recycled concrete and brick powders as supplements to Portland cement for more sustainable concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 364, 132651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Al-Salami, A.E.; Morsy, M.S.; Taha, S.; Shoukry, H. Physico-mechanical characteristics of blended white cement pastes containing thermally activated ultrafine nano clays. Constr. Build. Mater. 2013, 47, 138–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Mikyskova, E.; Dousova, B.; Mikysek, P.; Lhotka, M.; Kolousek, D. Equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic study of Pb2+ removal from aqueous solution by waste brick dust. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2022, 634, 127939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. D’Elia, A.; Pinto, D.; Eramo, G.; Giannossa, L.C.; Ventruti, G.; Laviano, R. Effects of processing on the mineralogy and solubility of carbonate-rich clays for alkaline activation purpose: Mechanical, thermal activation in red/ox atmosphere and their combination. Appl. Clay Sci. 2018, 152, 9–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. España, V.A.A.; Sarkar, B.; Biswas, B.; Rusmin, R.; Naidu, R. Environmental applications of thermally modified and acid activated clay minerals: Current status of the art. Environ. Technol. Innov. 2019, 13, 383–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Padilla-Ortega, E.; Medellín-Castillo, N.; Robledo-Cabrera, A. Comparative study of the effect of structural arrangement of clays in the thermal activation: Evaluation of their adsorption capacity to remove Cd(II). J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 103850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Li, L.G.; Lin, Z.H.; Chen, G.M.; Kwan, A.K.H. Reutilizing clay brick dust as paste substitution to produce environment-friendly durable mortar. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 274, 122787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Hachemi, S.; Khattab, M.; Benzetta, H. The effects of recycled brick and water/cement ratios on the physical and mechanical performance of recycled aggregates concrete. Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. 2022, 7, 270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Sun, Y.; Yu, R.; Wang, S.; Zhou, Y.; Zeng, M.; Hu, F.; Shui, Z.; Rao, B.; Yuan, S.; Luo, Z.; et al. Development of a novel eco-efficient LC2 conceptual cement based ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) incorporating limestone powder and calcined clay tailings: Design and performances. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 315, 128236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Sinkhonde, D.; Onchiri, R.O.; Oyawa, W.O.; Mwero, J.N. Response surface methodology-based optimisation of cost and compressive strength of rubberised concrete incorporating burnt clay brick powder. Heliyon 2021, 7, e08565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  55. Sinkhonde, D.; Onchiri, R.O.; Oyawa, W.O.; Mwero, J.N. A study on mechanical properties of rubberised concrete containing burnt clay powder. Heliyon 2022, 8, e09614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Mitrović, A.; Zdujić, M. Preparation of pozzolanic addition by mechanical treatment of kaolin clay. Int. J. Miner. Process. 2014, 132, 59–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Mansour, A.M.; Al Biajawi, M.I. The effect of the addition of metakaolin on the fresh and hardened properties of blended cement products: A review. Mater. Today Proc. 2022, 66, 2811–2817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Supit, S.W.M.; Olivia, M. Compressive strength and sulfate resistance of metakaolin-based geopolymer mortar with different ratio of alkaline activator. Mater. Today Proc. 2022, 66, 2776–2779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Kaur, L. Mixed influence of steel fiber (SF) and metakaolin (MK) incorporation on mechanical properties of concrete. Mater. Today Proc. 2022, 65, 3449–3452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Chand, G.; Kumar, A.; Ram, S. Comparative study of metakaolin, pumice powder and silica fume in producing treated sustainable recycled coarse aggregate concrete by adopting two-stage mixing. Clean. Eng. Technol. 2022, 9, 100528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Li, R.; Lei, L.; Plank, J. Impact of metakaolin content and fineness on the behavior of calcined clay blended cements admixed with HPEG PCE superplasticizer. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2022, 133, 104654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Singh, S.B.; Murugan, M. Effect of metakaolin on the properties of pervious concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 346, 128476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Khankhaje, E.; Kim, T.; Jang, H.; Kim, C.-S.; Kim, J.; Rafieizonooz, M. A review of utilization of industrial waste materials as cement replacement in pervious concrete: An alternative approach to sustainable pervious concrete production. Heliyon 2024, 10, e26188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Khan, M.; McNally, C. Recent developments on low carbon 3D printing concrete: Revolutionizing construction through innovative technology. Clean. Mater. 2024, 12, 100251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Junaid, M.F.; Rehman, Z.U.; Kuruc, M.; Medveď, I.; Bačinskas, D.; Čurpek, J.; Čekon, M.; Ijaz, N.; Ansari, W.S. Lightweight concrete from a perspective of sustainable reuse of waste byproducts. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022, 319, 126061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Özkılıç, Y.O.; Başaran, B.; Aksoylu, C.; Karalar, M.; Martins, C.H. Mechanical behavior in terms of shear and bending performance of reinforced concrete beam using waste fire clay as replacement of aggregate. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2023, 18, e02104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Fakhri, R.S.; Dawood, E.T. Limestone powder, calcined clay and slag as quaternary blended cement used for green concrete production. J. Build. Eng. 2023, 79, 107644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Rodriguez-Morales, J.; Burciaga-Diaz, O.; Gomez-Zamorano, L.Y.; Escalante-Garcia, J.I. Transforming construction and demolition waste concrete as a precursor in sustainable cementitious materials: An innovative recycling approach. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2024, 204, 107474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Maaze, M.R.; Shrivastava, S. Development of framework in the selection and reuse of concrete waste and brick waste powder as pozzolanic material in cement concrete application using analytical hierarchy process technique. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 393, 132056. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Negm, A.A.; El Nemr, A.; Elgabbas, F.; Khalaf, M.A. High and normal strength concrete using grounded vitrified clay pipe (GVCP). Clean. Mater. 2022, 5, 100107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Dai, T.; Liu, T.; Zheng, T.; Fang, C.; Zheng, S.; Lei, G. Effect of waste clay brick powder on microstructure and properties in blended oil well cement pastes at HTHP conditions. Geoenergy Sci. Eng. 2024, 237, 212823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Murali, G.; Wong, L.S.; Ramkumar, V.; Abid, S.R.; Karthik, S. From waste to resource recycled lime sludge: Sustainable low clinker cementitious binder, a comprehensive study on hydration, strength of concrete. J. Build. Eng. 2024, 86, 108935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Balestra, C.E.T.; Garcez, L.R.; da Silva, L.C.; Veit, M.T.; Jubanski, E.; Nakano, A.Y.; Pietrobelli, M.H.; Schneider, R.; Gil, M.A.R. Contribution to low-carbon cement studies: Effects of silica fume, fly ash, sugarcane bagasse ash and acai stone ash incorporation in quaternary blended limestone-calcined clay cement concretes. Environ. Dev. 2023, 45, 100792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Wu, H.; Hu, R.; Yang, D.; Ma, Z. Micro-macro characterizations of mortar containing construction waste fines as replacement of cement and sand: A comparative study. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 383, 131328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Wu, H.; Gao, J.; Liu, C.; Guo, Z.; Luo, X. Reusing waste clay brick powder for low-carbon cement concrete and alkali-activated concrete: A critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 2024, 449, 141755. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Bonet-Martínez, E.; Pérez-Villarejo, L.; Eliche-Quesada, D.; Castro, E. Manufacture of Sustainable Clay Bricks Using Waste from Secondary Aluminum Recycling as Raw Material. Materials 2018, 11, 2439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Obeng, E.; Essandoh, H.M.K.; Akodwaa-Boadi, K.; Taylor, T.S.; Kusi, I.; Appiah-Effah, E. Recycled clay bricks and palm kernel shell as constructed wetland substrate for wastewater treatment: An engineered closed circuit circular economy approach. Environ. Technol. Innov. 2023, 32, 103324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. ASTM C1272-21; Standard Specification for Heavy Vehicular Paving Brick. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2021; pp. 1–4. [CrossRef]
  79. ASTM C62-17; Standard Specification for Building Brick (Solid Masonry Units Made from Clay or Shale). ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2017; pp. 1–4. [CrossRef]
  80. Lesovik, V.; Volodchenko, A.; Fediuk, R.; Amran, Y.H.M.; Timokhin, R. Enhancing performances of clay masonry materials based on nanosize mine waste. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 269, 121333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Aneke, F.I.; Shabangu, C. Green-efficient masonry bricks produced from scrap plastic waste and foundry sand. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2021, 14, e00515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. de la Casa, J.A.; Romero, I.; Jiménez, J.; Castro, E. Fired clay masonry units production incorporating two-phase olive mill waste (alperujo). Ceram. Int. 2012, 38, 5027–5037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Ulugöl, H.; Kul, A.; Yıldırım, G.; Şahmaran, M.; Aldemir, A.; Figueira, D.; Ashour, A. Mechanical and microstructural characterization of geopolymers from assorted construction and demolition waste-based masonry and glass. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 280, 124358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Gencel, O.; Kazmi, S.M.S.; Munir, M.J.; Sutcu, M.; Erdogmus, E.; Yaras, A. Feasibility of using clay-free bricks manufactured from water treatment sludge, glass, and marble wastes: An exploratory study. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 298, 123843. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Dodoo-Arhin, D.; Konadu, D.S.; Annan, E.; Buabeng, F.P.; Yaya, A.; Agyei-Tuffour, B. Fabrication and Characterisation of Ghanaian Bauxite Red Mud-Clay Composite Bricks for Construction Applications. Am. J. Mater. Sci. 2013, 3, 110–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Revelo, C.F.; Colorado, H.A. 3D printing of kaolinite clay ceramics using the Direct Ink Writing (DIW) technique. Ceram. Int. 2018, 44, 5673–5682. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Vergara, L.A.; Perez, J.F.; Colorado, H.A. 3D printing of ordinary Portland cement with waste wood derived biochar obtained from gasification. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2023, 18, e02117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Mohan, M.K.; Rahul, A.; De Schutter, G.; Van Tittelboom, K. Extrusion-based concrete 3D printing from a material perspective: A state-of-the-art review. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2020, 115, 103855. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Liu, D.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, X.; Chen, Z. 3D printing concrete structures: State of the art, challenges, and opportunities. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 405, 133364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Miao, Y.; Wang, G.; Gong, H.; Sheng, M.; Jing, J.; Lu, J.; Liu, M. Direct ink writing of SiOC ceramics with microwave absorption properties. Ceram. Int. 2023, 49, 12710–12724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Chen, Y.; Jansen, K.; Zhang, H.; Rodriguez, C.R.; Gan, Y.; Çopuroğlu, O.; Schlangen, E. Effect of printing parameters on interlayer bond strength of 3D printed limestone-calcined clay-based cementitious materials: An experimental and numerical study. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 262, 120094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Hou, S.; Xiao, J.; Duan, Z.; Ma, G. Fresh properties of 3D printed mortar with recycled powder. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 309, 125186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Revelo, C.F.; Colorado, H.A. 3D printing of kaolinite clay with small additions of lime, fly ash and talc ceramic powders. Process. Appl. Ceram. 2019, 13, 287–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Chen, Y.; He, S.; Zhang, Y.; Wan, Z.; Çopuroğlu, O.; Schlangen, E. 3D printing of calcined clay-limestone-based cementitious materials. Cem. Concr. Res. 2021, 149, 106553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Ordoñez, E.; Monteiro, S.N.; Colorado, H.A. Valorization of a hazardous waste with 3D-printing: Combination of kaolin clay and electric arc furnace dust from the steel making industry. Mater. Des. 2022, 217, 110617. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Ihekweme, G.O.; Shondo, J.N.; Orisekeh, K.I.; Kalu-Uka, G.M.; Nwuzor, I.C.; Onwualu, A.P. Characterization of certain Nigerian clay minerals for water purification and other industrial applications. Heliyon 2020, 6, e03783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Adams, F.V.; Peter, A.; Joseph, I.V.; Sylvester, O.P.; Mulaba-Bafubiandi, A.F. Purification of crude oil contaminated water using fly ash/clay. J. Water Process Eng. 2019, 30, 100471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Brown, K.; Mendoza, M.; Tinsley, T.; Bee-DiGregorio, M.Y.; Bible, M.; Brooks, J.L.; Colorado, M.; Esenther, J.; Farag, A.; Gill, R.; et al. Polyvinyl alcohol-montmorillonite composites for water purification: Analysis of clay mineral cation exchange and composite particle synthesis. Polyhedron 2021, 205, 115297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  99. Nir, S.; Brook, I.; Anavi, Y.; Ryskin, M.; Ari, J.B.; Huterer, R.S.; Etkin, H.; Zadaka-Amir, D.; Shuali, U. Water purification from perchlorate by a micelle–clay complex: Laboratory and pilot experiments. Appl. Clay Sci. 2015, 114, 151–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Gatica, J.M.; Gómez, D.M.; Harti, S.; Vidal, H. Clay honeycomb monoliths for water purification: Modulating methylene blue adsorption through controlled activation via natural coal templating. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2013, 277, 242–248. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Seçilmiş, Ş.S.; Yanık, D.K.; Fadiloğlu, S.; Göğüş, F. A comparative study on performance of industrial and microwave techniques for sunflower oil bleaching process. Food Chem. 2021, 365, 130488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Zhang, D.; Huang, Y.; Oshita, K.; Takaoka, M.; Wang, Q.; Sheng, C.; Lin, Z. Liquefied dimethyl ether based multi-stage extraction for high efficient oil recovery from spent bleaching clay. Waste Manag. 2021, 136, 204–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Wan, Z.; Wang, S.; Li, Z.; Yi, W.; Zhang, A.; Li, Y.; Zhang, P. Co-pyrolysis of lignin and spent bleaching clay: Insight into the catalytic characteristic and hydrogen supply of spent bleaching clay. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2022, 163, 105491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Sapawe, N.; Hanafi, M.F. Analysis of the pyrolysis products from spent bleaching clay. Mater. Today Proc. 2018, 5, 21940–21947. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Khankhasaeva, S.T.; Badmaeva, S.V. Removal of p-aminobenzenesulfanilamide from water solutions by catalytic photo-oxidation over Fe-pillared clay. Water Res. 2020, 185, 116212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  106. Hacıosmanoğlu, G.G.; Mejías, C.; Martín, J.; Santos, J.L.; Aparicio, I.; Alonso, E. Antibiotic adsorption by natural and modified clay minerals as designer adsorbents for wastewater treatment: A comprehensive review. J. Environ. Manag. 2022, 317, 115397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  107. Vicente, M.A.; Gil, A.; Bergaya, F. Pillared Clays and Clay Minerals. In Developments in Clay Science; Elsevier Ltd.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2013; Volume 5, pp. 523–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Chauhan, T.; Udayakumar, M.; Shehab, M.A.; Kristály, F.; Leskó, A.K.; Ek, M.; Wahlqvist, D.; Tóth, P.; Hernadi, K.; Németh, Z. Synthesis, characterization, and challenges faced during the preparation of zirconium pillared clays. Arab. J. Chem. 2022, 15, 103706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Reimbaeva, S.M.; Massalimova, B.K.; Kalmakhanova, M.S. New pillared clays prepared from different deposits of Kazakhstan. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 31, 607–610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Chauhan, M.; Saini, V.K.; Suthar, S. Enhancement in selective adsorption and removal efficiency of natural clay by intercalation of Zr-pillars into its layered nanostructure. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 258, 120686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Chen, Y.; Yang, S.; Zhang, T.; Xu, M.; Zhao, J.; Zeng, M.; Sun, K.; Feng, R.; Yang, Z.; Zhang, P.; et al. Positron annihilation study of chitosan and its derived carbon/pillared montmorillonite clay stabilized Pd species nanocomposites. Polym. Test. 2022, 114, 107689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Khan, M.I.; Almesfer, M.K.; Danish, M.; Ali, I.H.; Shoukry, H.; Patel, R.; Gardy, J.; Nizami, A.S.; Rehan, M. Potential of Saudi natural clay as an effective adsorbent in heavy metals removal from wastewater. Desalination Water Treat. 2019, 158, 140–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Marczak, D.; Lejcuś, K.; Kulczycki, G.; Misiewicz, J. Towards circular economy: Sustainable soil additives from natural waste fibres to improve water retention and soil fertility. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 844, 157169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. Santos, R.P.; Tubino, R. Potential evaluation of the use of construction and demolition waste (CDW) in the recovery of degraded soils by mining in Brazil. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. Adv. 2021, 12, 200060. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Lord, R.; Sakrabani, R. Ten-year legacy of organic carbon in non-agricultural (brownfield) soils restored using green waste compost exceeds 4 per mille per annum: Benefits and trade-offs of a circular economy approach. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 686, 1057–1068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Dubey, P.K.; Singh, A.; Chaurasia, R.; Pandey, K.K.; Bundela, A.K.; Singh, G.S.; Abhilash, P.C. Animal manures and plant residue-based amendments for sustainable rice-wheat production and soil fertility improvement in eastern Uttar Pradesh, North India. Ecol. Eng. 2022, 177, 106551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Soinne, H.; Keskinen, R.; Heikkinen, J.; Hyväluoma, J.; Uusitalo, R.; Peltoniemi, K.; Velmala, S.; Pennanen, T.; Fritze, H.; Kaseva, J.; et al. Are there environmental or agricultural benefits in using forest residue biochar in boreal agricultural clay soil? Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 731, 138955. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  118. Dong, J.; Zhang, J. Maya blue pigments derived from clay minerals. In Nanomaterials from Clay Minerals: A New Approach to Green Functional Materials; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2019; pp. 627–661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Jiang, J.; Ayaz, T.; Jiang, Z.; Lei, M. Green Remediation of Heavy Metal Polluted Water and Soil Using Clay Minerals: A Review. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2021, 632, 052079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  120. Carrillo, A.M.; Urruchurto, C.M.; Carriazo, J.G.; Moreno, R.A.; Molina, R.A. Structural and textural characterization of a Colombian Halloysite. Mex. J. Chem. Eng. 2014, 13, 563–570. [Google Scholar]
  121. Yang, X.; Cai, J.; Chen, L.; Cao, X.; Liu, H.; Liu, M. Green detergent made of halloysite nanotubes. Chem. Eng. J. 2021, 425, 130623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Akbarinezhad, E.; Ebrahimi, M.; Sharif, F.; Ghanbarzadeh, A. Evaluating protection performance of zinc rich epoxy paints modified with polyaniline and polyaniline-clay nanocomposite. Prog. Org. Coat. 2014, 77, 1299–1308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Lopes, M.M.S.; Pedroti, L.G.; de Oliveira, A.F.; Ribeiro, J.C.L.; de Carvalho, J.M.F.; de Carvalho, A.F.; Cardoso, F.d.P.; Nalon, G.H.; de Lima, G.E.S. Optimization of performance of sustainable paints using granite waste through the variation of particle size and pH. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 326, 129418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  124. Tressmann, D.M.G.A.; Pedroti, L.G.; de Carvalho, A.F.; Ribeiro, J.C.L.; Cardoso, F.d.P.; Lopes, M.M.S.; de Oliveira, A.F.; Ferreira, S.O. Research into the use of marble waste as mineral filler in soil pigment-based paints and as an active pigment in waterborne paints. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 241, 117976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  125. Lopes, M.M.S.; Alvarenga, R.d.C.S.S.; Pedroti, L.G.; Ribeiro, J.C.L.; de Carvalho, A.F.; Cardoso, F.d.P.; Mendes, B.C. Influence of the incorporation of granite waste on the hiding power and abrasion resistance of soil pigment-based paints. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 205, 463–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  126. Cheikh, D.; Majdoub, H.; Darder, M. An overview of clay-polymer nanocomposites containing bioactive compounds for food packaging applications. Appl. Clay Sci. 2022, 216, 106335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  127. Karimlou, M.M.; Tavakol, M.R.; Tooski, M.Y. Experimental study of the effect of clay nanoparticles on the strength of hybrid sandwich panels under quasi-static loading. Aerosp. Sci. Technol. 2022, 121, 107313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  128. Gutiérrez, T.J.; Ponce, A.G.; Alvarez, V.A. Nano-clays from natural and modified montmorillonite with and without added blueberry extract for active and intelligent food nanopackaging materials. Mater. Chem. Phys. 2017, 194, 283–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Maisanaba, S.; Llana-Ruíz-Cabello, M.; Pichardo, S.; Prieto, A.I.; Cameán, A.M.; Jordá-Beneyto, M.; Jos, Á. Toxicological assessment of two silane-modified clay minerals with potential use as food contact materials in human hepatoma cells and Salmonella typhimurium strains. Appl. Clay Sci. 2017, 150, 98–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  130. Wu, X.; Ji, F.; Zhang, X.; Wang, F.; Feng, F.; Lu, Q.; Zhao, S.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, C.; Huang, F.; et al. Geochemical evidence reveals a long-distance trade of white pottery in Neolithic China 5000 years ago. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 2022, 44, 103533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Bahtli, T.; Erdem, Y. The use of foundry waste sand from investment casting in the production of porcelain tiles. Ceram. Int. 2022, 48, 27967–27972. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Conte, S.; Zanelli, C.; Molinari, C.; Guarini, G.; Dondi, M. Glassy wastes as feldspar substitutes in porcelain stoneware tiles: Thermal behaviour and effect on sintering process. Mater. Chem. Phys. 2020, 256, 123613. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  133. de Sousa, I.V.; Nieves, L.J.J.; Dal-Bó, A.G.; Bernardin, A.M. Valorization of porcelain tile polishing residue in the production of cellular ceramics. Clean. Eng. Technol. 2022, 6, 100381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  134. de Souza, B.N.; Bó, M.D.; Hotza, D.; Fredel, M.C. Chemical modification of porcelain tile surface to optimize flexural strength and Weibull modulus through the ion exchange process. J. Build. Eng. 2022, 56, 104735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Tarhan, B.; Tarhan, M.; Aydin, T. Reusing sanitaryware waste products in glazed porcelain tile production. Ceram. Int. 2017, 43, 3107–3112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  136. Li, L.; Jiang, T.; Chen, B.; Zhou, M.; Chen, C. Overall utilization of vanadium–titanium magnetite tailings to prepare lightweight foam ceramics. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2020, 139, 305–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. Lu, Y.; Wang, W.; Xu, J.; Ding, J.; Wang, Q.; Wang, A. Solid-phase oxalic acid leaching of natural red palygorskite-rich clay: A solvent-free way to change color and properties. Appl. Clay Sci. 2020, 198, 105848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sustainability 16 06265 g001
Figure 1. Classification of construction and demolition waste for infrastructure works. (a) Glass, (b) brick dust, fly ash, and glass powder, (c) recycled aggregate, (d) mine, (e) peat.
Figure 1. Classification of construction and demolition waste for infrastructure works. (a) Glass, (b) brick dust, fly ash, and glass powder, (c) recycled aggregate, (d) mine, (e) peat.
Sustainability 16 06265 g001
Sustainability 16 06265 g002
Figure 2. Documents registered in Scopus by country and subject: Demolition and construction waste, measured in 2000–2024.
Figure 2. Documents registered in Scopus by country and subject: Demolition and construction waste, measured in 2000–2024.
Sustainability 16 06265 g002
Sustainability 16 06265 g003
Figure 3. Documents registered in Redalyc by country and subject: Waste from construction and demolition, measured in 2000–2024.
Figure 3. Documents registered in Redalyc by country and subject: Waste from construction and demolition, measured in 2000–2024.
Sustainability 16 06265 g003
Sustainability 16 06265 g004
Figure 4. Articles with the subject ‘Waste from construction and demolition’ published between 2000 and 2024.
Figure 4. Articles with the subject ‘Waste from construction and demolition’ published between 2000 and 2024.
Sustainability 16 06265 g004
Sustainability 16 06265 g005
Figure 5. Patents waste from construction and demolition, by year and by country, from 2014 to 2024.
Figure 5. Patents waste from construction and demolition, by year and by country, from 2014 to 2024.
Sustainability 16 06265 g005
Sustainability 16 06265 g006
Figure 6. Patents registered since 2014 related to low-carbon hydraulic cement with construction and demolition waste.
Figure 6. Patents registered since 2014 related to low-carbon hydraulic cement with construction and demolition waste.
Sustainability 16 06265 g006
Sustainability 16 06265 g007
Figure 7. Publications registered in the last ten years on the use of clays activated with hydraulic cement.
Figure 7. Publications registered in the last ten years on the use of clays activated with hydraulic cement.
Sustainability 16 06265 g007
Sustainability 16 06265 g008
Figure 8. Schematic presentation of clay pillaring process (d001 < d002).
Figure 8. Schematic presentation of clay pillaring process (d001 < d002).
Sustainability 16 06265 g008
Table 1. Different types of clay minerals found in demolition and construction waste (T: tetrahedral layer and O: octahedral layer).
Table 1. Different types of clay minerals found in demolition and construction waste (T: tetrahedral layer and O: octahedral layer).
Layer TypeGroupSubgroup
T:O1:1Rectorite
Kaolinite
Halloysite
Serpentine
Chrysotile
T:O:T2:1SmectiteMontmorillonite
Laponite
Illite
Hectorite
Bentonite
VermiculiteVermiculite
Pyrophyllite TalcPyrophyllite
Talc
MicaMuscovite
Paragonite
Brittle MicaMargarita
Clintonite
Kinoshitalite
T:O:T:O2:1:1ChloriteDonbassite
Sudoite
Chamosite
Table 2. Overview of the most recent research on waste clay and cement mixtures.
Table 2. Overview of the most recent research on waste clay and cement mixtures.
ReferenceResearch LocationResidue Used in the MixtureOptimal DosageMain Findings
[63]South KoreaFAFly ash10−30%GGBS increases permeability and reduces compressive strength due to the lower cementitious material content.
MKMetakaolin20%
SFSilica fume10%
GGBSGround granulated blast30%
FSDFine sawdust-
[64]Dublin, IrelandGGBD Ground granulated blast furnace slag 30%GGBS possesses a smaller particle size in comparison to cement, thereby improving the workability of the concrete mixture.
[65]Bratislava, SlovakiaFRCA Fine recycled coarse aggregate30%The presence of good interfacial bonding between FRCA and the cement paste favors increased compressive strength.
[66]Konya, TurkeyWFC Waste of fireclay 20%As the stirrup spacing decreases, the stirrups dominate the behavior, and as the stirrup spacing increases, WFC determines the bending behavior in the beams.
[67]Nineveh, IraqLMPLimestone power 10%The slump properties of fresh concrete are decreased, so a higher dose of superplasticizer is needed.
SSSteel slag10%
CCCalcined clay10%
[68]Coahuila, MexicoPHCPulverized hardened concrete45%CaCO3 and Ca(OH)2 from the recycled concrete and the Portland cement release Ca ionic species, which reacted with the sodium silicate, forming amorphous cementitious compounds such as calcium silicate hydrates and calcium modified silica gel, stable under water.
[2]Nanjing, ChinaGGBSGround granulated blast20%GGBS provides more active silicon and active aluminum than Portland cement, promoting the generation of CSH and CASH.
[69]Jaipur, IndiaFAFly ash20%TGA presents pozzolanic activity in FA, CWP, and BWP at 28 days of 0.92, 0.75, and 0.81 compared to Portland cement.
CWPConcrete waste powder
BWPBrick waste powder
[70]Cairo, EgyptGVCPGrounded vitrified clay pipe20%Slump shows a reduction in value of 15%; a superplasticizer must be used.
[71]Huei, ChinaCBPClay brick powder25–50%Main hydration product is xonoltite, which effectively refines the pore structure and improves its high-temperature resistance.
[72]Selangor, MalaysiaRLSRecycled lime sludge15%Incorporation of LS and CC in the mixture prompts additional hydration reactions and, after 28 days, the matrix exhibits a reduction in pore size and increased density.
CCCalcined clay30%
[73]Toledo, BrazilSCAAcai stone ash10%The concrete shows negligible reinforcement corrosion risk, with resistivity values above 100 kΩ cm.
CCCalcined clay
[74]Nanjing, ChinaWBFWaste brick fines10%WCF as a cement replacement raises water absorption and water porosity of mortar, and WBF causes a water porosity decline.
WCFWaste concrete fines10%
[75]China and others. CBPClay brick powder15%CBP mixture as a cement replacement decreases the heat of hydration; the smaller the particle size, the longer the curing time.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Hernández García, L.C.; Monteiro, S.N.; Lopera, H.A.C. Recycling Clay Waste from Excavation, Demolition, and Construction: Trends and Challenges. Sustainability 2024, 16, 6265. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146265

AMA Style

Hernández García LC, Monteiro SN, Lopera HAC. Recycling Clay Waste from Excavation, Demolition, and Construction: Trends and Challenges. Sustainability. 2024; 16(14):6265. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146265

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hernández García, Liliana Carolina, Sergio Neves Monteiro, and Henry A. Colorado Lopera. 2024. "Recycling Clay Waste from Excavation, Demolition, and Construction: Trends and Challenges" Sustainability 16, no. 14: 6265. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146265

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop