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Review

Sustainable Production: Integrating Medicinal Plants with Fish Farming in Aquaponics—A Mini Review

by
Stefka Stoyanova
*,
Ivaylo Sirakov
and
Katya Velichkova
Agriculture Faculty, Students Campus, Trakia University, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(15), 6337; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156337
Submission received: 21 May 2024 / Revised: 3 July 2024 / Accepted: 9 July 2024 / Published: 24 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Food Processing)
Browse Figure
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Aquaponics, defined as a sustainable technology combining aquaculture and hydroponics, integrates plant and fish production into one system. Aquaponics technology offers several major advantages over conventional methods of raising fish and/or plants. In this system, plants act as a natural biological filter, purifying the water so that the same amount can be used repeatedly. Fish, on the other hand, are a natural source of nutrients. This contributes to the aquaponics system’s substantial economic potential, thanks to its use of virtually free nutrients, dramatically reduced water consumption, and the elimination of filter systems, making this system innovative and sustainable. On the other hand, the use of medicinal plants for the needs of the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food industries is often associated with a decrease in their natural reserves. Utilizing aquaponics for the production of medicinal plants could reduce the pressure on these natural reserves. As a result, aquaponics has emerged as one of the most environmentally friendly methods of cultivating plant species. The concept of aquaponics, which evolved from traditional hydroponic systems, has gained worldwide recognition through the effective use of symbiosis. It refers to the coexistence and interaction of different organisms, facilitating their growth and life cycle processes. Unlike hydroponics, which requires the purification of nutrient solutions due to plant waste, aquaponics takes advantage of the natural cycle of waste and nutrient exchange between plants and fish. Fish waste serves as organic fertilizer for the plants, while the plants help purify the water for the fish. This symbiotic relationship not only reduces the environmental impact associated with aquaculture wastewater but also provides a sustainable method of food production. The integrated system reduces infrastructure costs, conserves water, and minimizes the potential for environmental pollution. Furthermore, it provides an opportunity for increased profitability from both crop and fish production. Cultivation of medicinal plants within aquaponic systems can be carried out year-round, offering a continuous supply of valuable pharmacological resources. This review examines suitable medicinal plants for aquaponic cultivation and evaluates their pharmacological benefits to humans.

1. Introduction

Aquaponics is an integrated multitrophic system that merges the components of recirculating aquaculture with hydroponics [1], where water from the fish tanks is used to stimulate plant growth. During the 1970s and early 1980s, researchers at the New Alchemy Institute and North Carolina State University in the USA laid the groundwork for modern aquaponics [2,3]. A prime example of this innovation is the technology developed at the University of the Virgin Islands (UVI) in 1980 [1]. Subsequent studies [2,3,4] have shown an increasing interest in aquaponics, a trend further underscored by the growing industrial role of aquaponics as the global population, already exceeding 7.2 billion, is projected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050. This growing interest is attributed to the escalating global demand for animal proteins [3,5,6,7].
The rise in antibiotic usage among humans has led to the emergence and proliferation of microorganisms resistant to antimicrobial agents. In response to the growing concern over antimicrobial resistance (AMR), efforts are being made to explore new strategies for combating resistant pathogens. One potential approach involves the use of herbs; hence, the cultivation of herbs within aquaponic systems presents a viable option for sustainable, year-round production that could support both aquaculture and the pharmaceutical industry [8,9,10]. The use of medicinal plants for the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and nutrition industries often leads to a decrease in their availability in natural habitats. The application of aquaponics for the production of medicinal plants could reduce the pressure on these natural reserves.
The literature review summarizes research conducted on the cultivation of herbal plants with high pharmacological value and fish under aquaponic system conditions up to the present.
Currently, there is a notable gap in systematic information regarding the cultivation of plants with pharmacological benefits to humans in aquaponic systems.

2. Methodology

2.1. The Basis of Our Study

This section outlines the methodology behind our study, which aimed to summarize and systematize the findings of research on the types of medicinal plants suitable for cultivation in aquaponic technology. Our study also explored the existing combinations of fish species and compatible medicinal plant species. A detailed analysis of the pharmacological value of the plants cultivated in the aquaponic system was performed. Guidelines for future research activities in the field, based on identified gaps in the literature, were outlined.

2.2. Search of Literature

The relevant literature for the current study was searched across various databases, including Google Scholar, EBSCOhost, Elsevier’s Scopus, and Clarivate’s Web of Science platform. The search spanned studies published from January 2010 to December 2024 to ensure relevance and timeliness. Although the search covered literature from 1960 to 2024, approximately 80% of the literature reviewed was published after 2010 to maintain relevance and timeliness.

2.3. Analysis

After the initial identification of pertinent articles, these were further scrutinized by examining their titles and abstracts. Only articles relevant to the research focus were selected for detailed review and subsequently incorporated into the literature review. A standardized form was used for data extraction to ensure uniformity, capturing essential information such as the authors, year of publication, research methodology, sample size, and main outcomes. This method allowed for a methodical comparison and integration of the studies.
The analysis employed a thematic synthesis technique, where the collected data were compared to identify recurring themes. These themes were then categorized and synthesized to provide a detailed perspective of the literature. This approach facilitates the identification of trends, similarities, and differences among the research findings.
It should be noted that this review is limited by its focus on English-language, peer-reviewed journals, potentially overlooking significant studies published in other languages or through non-peer-reviewed channels. Despite these limitations, the thematic synthesis method offers a structured and in-depth examination of the current knowledge in the field, highlighting major themes and identifying areas for further investigation [11].

3. Brief Overview of Aquaponics and Its Historical Significance

Aquaponics is an integrated system that combines the cultivation of aquatic organisms in a recirculating environment with plant cultivation [12,13,14,15,16]. This method offers several advantages, including reduced initial investments, operating, and infrastructure costs compared to separate aquatic and plant production systems; purification of aquaculture water through plant absorption, which minimizes water usage and the potential for environmental pollution from wastewater discharge; and the potential for increased profits through dual production outputs from the same facility [12,16,17].
The concept of aquaponics dates back over 600 years to the Aztecs, who cultivated crops on the marshy shores of Lake Texcoco in Mexico [3,18]. The modern incarnation of aquaponics emerged in the arid regions of Australia and the US Virgin Islands, driven by the necessity to maximize food production in areas with limited water resources [18,19].
The integration of fish and vegetable farming, sometimes referred to as “combined fish and vegetable production in greenhouses” or “combined fish and plant production in recirculating water”, gained attention in the 1970s and 1980s before the term “aquaponics” became widespread. The term was officially adopted in 1997 by the Aquaponics Journal, though the concept of a unified system for cultivating fish and vegetables persisted [20,21,22,23,24,25]. Over the past two decades, aquaponics has seen a surge in popularity, with significant growth and application observed from 1990 to 2019 [24,26].
The species of herbs and the conditions in aquaponic cultivation are presented (Table 1).
Aquaponic systems can be efficiently set up and operated in various environments, including densely populated urban areas, utilizing rooftops and balconies, among other spaces. These systems are notably water-efficient, using significantly less water than traditional hydroponics and aquaculture systems, with the added benefit of water reuse [45]. By combining the water cycles of plants and fish, aquaponics achieves sustainability and virtually zero emissions [46].
With the global population increasing each year, food security and infrastructure are becoming pressing concerns, and aquaponics offers a potential solution. Many urban areas globally face challenges in providing fresh food and water, often referred to as “Food Deserts” [3]. By producing fish and plant crops in an integrated system, aquaponics presents an opportunity to deliver fresh food efficiently, catering to the demands of a fast-paced, dynamic lifestyle. Owing to its numerous benefits over traditional agriculture, aquaponics is gaining international recognition as a reliable and sustainable food production method [18,47].
Aquaponics enables the cultivation of a wide variety of plants under its unique conditions, including bananas, tomatoes, cucumbers, beans, broccoli, onions, potatoes, and more [18]. Herbs, in particular, are well-suited to aquaponic systems due to their lower nutrient requirements compared to other green plant species like strawberries and tomatoes, which necessitate the addition of extra nutrients to the water [48,49]. Herbs also offer the advantage of providing a high yield per unit area in a relatively short period [50]. Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is identified as the most commonly cultivated herb in aquaponic systems [27], with herbaceous plants such as basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), mint (Mentha piperita L.), and fennel (Mentha spicata L.) being in demand for their pharmaceutical properties [44]. Basil and coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) are particularly prevalent in systems integrated with tilapia and catfish, showing an increase in the growth mass of both plants and fish under integrated cultivation conditions [28].
Tilapia is among the most frequently utilized fish species in aquaponic systems [27,51]. Research has explored the use of blue tilapia (Sarotherodon aurea) [52], hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus × Oreochromis niloticus) [22], Nile tilapia ‘red variety’ hybrid (Oreochromis niloticus × Oreochromis aureus) [53], and red tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) [54]. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is noted for its superior production indicators when raised in an aquaponic system [29], and it pairs well with various herbs such as coriander, parsley (Petroselinum crispum), mint (Mentha spicata), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), oregano (Plectranthus amboinicus), fennel (Anethum graveolens), and basil (Ocimum basilicum) [29]. Studies have demonstrated that these fish can thrive in conditions with high nitrate levels and low oxygen content when integrated with plants [53]. Due to its favorable meat flavor, rapid growth, and strong market acceptance, Nile tilapia is a preferred species for aquaponic cultivation [1,30,31,32,33,55,56,57].
Aquaponic systems offer a high degree of control over environmental factors affecting plants, fish, and microbes, including light, temperature, water quality, and disease and pathogen management, within closed-system conditions [58]. Following the EU’s 2006 ban on the use of all therapeutic antibiotics in aquaculture, probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and other functional feed additives have emerged as alternative solutions for sustainable food production systems that integrate aquaculture with plant cultivation [31]. This production technology has the potential to significantly contribute to global food production and address many challenges of modern society, including water scarcity, food security, and urbanization [59].

4. Sustainability in Aquaponics

Aquaponics aligns closely with sustainable aquaculture principles by merging plant and fish production and integrating nutrient flow through natural biological cycles, such as nitrification. This system allows for the efficient use of non-renewable resources [60]. The cycling of nitrogen (N) in aquaponic systems is crucial for their overall functionality. Fish excrete ammonia (NH3), a portion of which becomes ionized in water as ammonium ions (NH4+). Nitrifying bacteria within the biofilter then convert ammonia into nitrites and subsequently into nitrates [61], which plants can absorb from the water.
The growing global population’s demand for water and arable land requires the development of new crops and production technologies that meet increasing food and fuel needs while minimizing environmental impact [62,63]. Aquaponic systems, through integrated cultivation, offer the potential to enhance profits by producing both fish and vegetables within the same facility [12,17,64]. This symbiosis between the natural life cycles of fish, plants, and microorganisms fosters a sustainable micro-ecosystem where these entities coexist harmoniously [47,65]. Fish waste provides organic fertilizer for the plants, while the plants help purify the water for the fish. This symbiotic relationship not only mitigates the environmental impact associated with aquaculture wastewater but also offers a sustainable method of food production.
One of the benefits of aquaponics is the ability to harvest vegetables and herbs immediately before meal preparation. Aquaponic farms can be efficiently located in urban spaces, such as the roofs of high-rise buildings and parking lots, demonstrating the versatility and effective operation of these systems [66]. Aquaponics, notable for its water efficiency, uses 90% less water and significantly fewer nutrients to produce an equivalent amount of fish compared to conventional fish farming methods [51]. Furthermore, it allows for the pesticide-free cultivation of fruit and vegetables, avoiding the environmental and health hazards associated with traditional agriculture [17].
Aquaponics eliminates the need for large land areas by utilizing wastewater from aquaculture for plant cultivation, effectively doubling the available growing area [31]. This modern biotechnology offers substantial potential for producing ecologically clean crops and is unique in its complete avoidance of chemical usage [67]. The closed system prevents the entry of weed fish and fungi, making herbicides and fungicides unnecessary. In aquaponics, plants thrive with their roots partially or fully submerged in a nutrient-rich aquatic environment shared with fish [68]. It has been observed that after water circulates through the plant section, it is detoxified and oxygen-enriched, ready to be returned to the fish culture section [66].

4.1. Synergy between Fish and Plants

In aquaponic systems, plants play a crucial role by absorbing nutrients released from the waste of aquatic organisms (hydrobionts), enabling them to grow faster and healthier compared to traditional soil-based cultivation. The aquatic environment provides plants with constant access to water and nutrients, obviating the need for irrigation and fertilization. The shows a schematic diagram of an aquaponic system for the co-cultivation of herbs and fish (Figure 1).
Additionally, aquaponically grown plants are less prone to pests and diseases, further diminishing the necessity for chemical treatments. Another vital function of plants within these systems is their ability to act as natural filters, removing nitrates and other waste products from the water, thus fostering a healthy environment for fish and reducing the need for frequent water changes.
Fish waste, primarily composed of ammonium compounds, is processed by a critical group of bacteria known as “nitrifying bacteria”. These bacteria convert ammonia into nitrite (NO2) and subsequently into nitrate (NO3), which plants then absorb through their roots, utilizing it as a natural fertilizer for growth. Nitrifying bacteria, thriving in aerobic environments such as soil, sand, water, and air, are integral to the nitrification process that transforms plant and animal waste into nutrients accessible to plants. The primary pathway for nitrogen recycling in aquaponics systems is through nitrogen uptake by plants. For an aquaponic system to be effective, it must achieve high yields of both plant and fish biomass while maintaining low nitrogen loss. The transformation of nitrogen within plant biomass is influenced by factors such as the root surface area and the duration of contact with nutrients [69].
Moreover, plants can impact the microbial community, influencing microbial functions and the interactions between microorganisms [70]. The rate of nitrogen uptake is influenced by various factors, including nutrient concentrations, light intensity, humidity, temperature, and the level of carbon dioxide in the environment [71,72]. Factors such as the concentration of ammonium and nitrates, plant growth stages, and genetic characteristics are crucial for nutrient absorption [73]. Experiments with shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) and tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) have demonstrated that nitrogen uptake rates increase with plant age in aquaponic systems [74].
Nitrates tend to be more concentrated than ammonium and nitrite in aquaponic systems, making them the primary nitrogen source for plants [36,75]. The xylem, a conducting tissue in the root, transports water and dissolved minerals, while a suite of enzymes assists in converting nitrate into organic nitrogen. Notably, nitrate concentrations up to 150–300 mg N/L are not toxic to fish in aquaponic systems [31,76]. However, it is crucial to maintain low levels of total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) and nitrites to ensure the health of the fish [54,77]. Reports from well-managed aquaponic systems utilizing tilapia and basil have indicated TAN and nitrite concentrations ranging from 1.6 to 2.9 mg N/L and 0.4 to 1.1 mg N/L, respectively, with nitrates accumulating to concentrations as high as 54.7 mg N/L [75]. Other studies have shown that nitrates can range from 10 mg N/L to over 200 mg N/L without causing stress to tilapia and plants [55,78,79]. Nitrite is particularly harmful to fish as it binds with hemoglobin, impairing oxygen transport and cellular respiration [39]. Therefore, ammonia and nitrite concentrations should be maintained below 0.06 mg N/L and 8.2 mg N/L, respectively [80].

4.2. Medicinal Plants Have Been Identified as Effective in Stimulating Fish Growth

Plant extracts are known to enhance appetite and promote weight gain in fish [81,82]. A study conducted by [83] on grouper (Epinephelus tauvina) fed diets supplemented with methanol extracts of herbs such as Cynodon dactylon, Piper longum, Phyllanthus niruri, Tridax procumbens, and Zingiber officinale reported a 41% higher weight gain compared to control fish. Further research has shown that the inclusion of plant extracts in diets improves nutrient digestibility, enhances feed conversion, and leads to higher protein synthesis [84,85]. Ref. [86] observed that adding garlic to the feed of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss W., 1792) increased fish growth and feed digestibility. Garlic’s allicin content was noted to boost intestinal flora activity, therefore enhancing digestion and energy utilization, which in turn promoted growth in experimental fish. Similarly, feeding rainbow trout with ginger (Zingiber officinale) resulted in significant growth improvement and a better feed conversion ratio [87].
Ref. [88] found that trout fed with a licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) supplement exhibited an 8.54% higher average final mass than those in the control group, demonstrating licorice root extract’s positive effect on fish growth and meat quality. Ref. [89] investigated the impact of essential oils from peppermint, thyme, and sage, containing concentrations of pulegone, carvacrol, and 1.8-cineole, respectively, on the growth and survival of rainbow trout. The essential oils were added to the feed at concentrations of 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% and fed to different groups for 60 days. Results indicated that peppermint oil negatively affected the feed’s nutritional value compared to the control and other experimental groups. The best feed conversion ratios were observed in groups fed with thyme and sage additions. The highest growth rates were noted in fish fed with thyme and sage oil, while survival rates were similar among fish fed with thyme or sage oil and the control group.
Ref. [90] explored the effects of varying levels of oregano (Origanum onites L.) essential oil as a dietary supplement on rainbow trout growth. Fish were fed diets containing different concentrations (0.125, 1.5, 2.5, and 3.0 mL·kg−1) of oregano essential oil for 90 days. The groups fed with oregano essential oil exhibited significantly higher final weights than the control group, with the nutritional coefficient being more favorable in groups receiving 1.5 and 3.0 mL·kg−1 of the essential oil compared to other treatments. The lowest feed conversion ratio was observed in the group supplemented with the lowest concentration of oregano oil (0.125 mL·kg−1).

5. Pharmacological Value of Herbs Suitable for Aquaponics Cultivation

Medicinal plants, which could be used for the needs of pharmacy, cosmetics, and the food industry, are connected in most cases with a decrease in their quantity in the natural trove. The possibility of using aquaponics for the production of these plants in artificial conditions will decrease the pressure under the natural trove of medicinal plants.
Plants of interest with economic value suitable for cultivation in an aquaponic system are as follows:
Peppermint (Mentha piperita L.)—Among a variety of plants, Mentha piperita (Family Lamiaceae) stands out as one of the most widely utilized herbs globally, boasting a long history of safe application in medicinal formulations. Its leaves serve as a remedy for the common cold, inflammation of the mouth and pharynx, liver disorders, as well as gastrointestinal tract issues like nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, spasms, flatulence, and dyspepsia. The plant garners significant interest in the medical field due to its anti-oxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic properties [91,92,93]. It is deemed suitable for the prevention and treatment of numerous diseases [94], supporting the proper functioning of the gastrointestinal tract. It beneficially impacts the stomach, intestines, and bile ducts, promoting digestion and aiding the efficient absorption of food [95]. The phenolic compounds extracted from the plant find diverse applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries, highlighted by anti-oxidant properties attributed to the presence of compounds such as caffeic acid, eugenol, rosmarinic acid, and α-tocopherol [96]. Peppermint essential oil has proven effective against various harmful bacteria, including E. coli and Listeria.
Spearmint (Mentha spicata L.)—Spearmint is a member of the Lamiaceae family, renowned for its diverse pharmacological properties. Pharmacological research has demonstrated that extracts and essential oils of mentha exhibit antibacterial, antiparasitic, insecticidal, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-oxidant, diuretic, analgesic, antipyretic, antihemolytic, and protective effects [97]. Members of the Lamiaceae family have been among the most popular herbs for medicinal and aromatherapy uses since ancient times, finding extensive application in the production of spices for the food and pharmaceutical industries. The essential oil of (Mentha spicata) offers several health benefits, including fever reduction, depression relief, and asthma alleviation [98]. Research has indicated that plants in this family possess anti-oxidant activity due to the presence of phenolic acids, flavonoids, carvone, and ascorbic acid in their leaves [99]. Additional beneficial properties include anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and sedative effects [100]. The pronounced antimicrobial activity is attributed to the high concentration of carvone [101]. Moreover, spearmint has been noted for its gas-expectorant, antispasmodic, and diuretic properties [102].
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)—Known as an aromatic plant, basil possesses anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, and appetite-stimulating effects. Its leaves and stalks are utilized in treating chronic enteritis. Referred to as the “royal herb” by people, basil’s essential oils extracted from fresh leaves and flowers serve as aromatic additives in food, pharmaceutical products, and cosmetics [103,104,105]. Traditionally, Ocimum basilicum L. has been applied in medicinal practices to address headaches, coughs, diarrhea, constipation, warts, worms, and kidney function failure [104]. It also exhibits various beneficial effects, including antiseptic, carminative, antimicrobial, and anti-oxidant properties [106], and is used in traditional medicine to combat diarrhea, headaches, and coughs [107]. Its popularity in the pharmaceutical industry is well-recognized [108].
Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.)—This aromatic plant, characteristic of Mediterranean flora, is valued not only for its culinary uses but also for medicinal purposes [109,110,111]. Oregano is distinguished by its strong anti-oxidant effect due to its high content of phenolic acids and flavonoids [112]. Origanum vulgare, along with Hypericum perforatum, is recognized for its therapeutic and anti-oxidant effects, contributing to the production of effective medicines [112]. Numerous studies have documented this medicinal plant’s positive impact on the cardiovascular system, its role in cancer prevention, and its ability to reduce gastrointestinal inflammation, citing its bioactive, anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic properties [113]. Origanum vulgare extract and essential oil have demonstrated efficacy as natural food preservatives [113].
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.)—Belonging to the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) family, coriander is primarily cultivated for its seeds year-round. India leads as the largest producer, consumer, and exporter of coriander. As an annual herbaceous plant originating from the Mediterranean and the Middle East, it is renowned for its antimicrobial activities, alongside analgesic and hormonal balancing effects, promoting its incorporation in foods for its extensive health benefits and preservative effect [114]. All parts of this herb serve as flavoring agents and/or traditional remedies for a variety of diseases in herbal medicine [115]. Additionally, the plant is employed to treat digestive tract disorders, respiratory tract ailments, stomach issues, and urinary tract infections. Coriander exhibits numerous pharmacological properties, including anti-oxidant, antidiabetic, antimutagenic, antilipidemic, and antispasmodic actions [116,117,118,119,120]. Dietary supplementation with Coriandrum sativum L. seeds notably influences carcass lipid composition, reducing saturated fatty acid content and increasing monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids [121]. Coriander oil is recognized as a natural antimicrobial compound [122]. Both leaves and seeds contain anti-oxidants, with leaves having higher anti-oxidant levels than seeds [123]. Given its diverse applications and protective actions against various chronic diseases, coriander is aptly dubbed the “herb of happiness”. Moreover, processing coriander fruit and leaves is considered the optimal method for preserving this herb [114]. Extracts from this plant have demonstrated significant hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, protecting cells from oxidative damage [124].
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.)—A commonly domesticated plant across many regions, rosemary is used to flavor foods, drinks, and cosmetics. In folk medicine, it serves as an antispasmodic for renal colic and dysmenorrhea, aids in relieving respiratory disorders, and stimulates hair growth. It exhibits choleretic, hepatoprotective, and antitumorigenic effects [96]. Constituents of rosmarinus officinalis, particularly caffeic acid derivatives like rosmarinic acid, show therapeutic potential in treating or preventing bronchial asthma, spasmogenic disorders, peptic ulcer, inflammatory diseases, hepatotoxicity, atherosclerosis, ischemic heart disease, cataracts, cancer, and poor sperm motility [96]. It is also used to enhance toning during physical or intellectual exertion, stimulate hair growth, and treat scalp conditions such as eczema, boils, and wounds. Rosemary stimulates the central nervous system, respiration, and the musculoskeletal system [125,126]. Its effects on blood circulation and skin improvement, including enhancing blood flow, have been documented [127,128,129]. Its antimycotic activity, particularly against oral candidiasis resistant to conventional protective agents like nystatin following the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, corticosteroids, and cytotoxic drugs, has been noted, with rosemary oil significantly inhibiting Candida albicans growth [130].
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.)—Recognized as a medicinal and aromatic herb, thyme is used both in cooking and for medicinal purposes. The thymus genus is notable for its pharmacological and biological properties [131]. Its essential oil, known for its strong antimicrobial properties, owes this attribute mainly to thymol and carvacrol [132,133]. Thyme boasts the highest level of anti-oxidants among herbs [131]. Traditionally used in treating gastrointestinal and bronchopulmonary disorders, thyme essential oil and thymol exhibit antimicrobial activity against E. coli strains. Its extracts, applied in traditional medicine for respiratory diseases like asthma and bronchitis, possess antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-oxidant, and antiviral properties [134]. Thyme’s expectorant, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, carminative, and analgesic effects are beneficial for chronic gastritis, stomach ulcers, intestinal parasites, and in calming nervous agitation, insomnia, headache, and anemia [131,135].
Parsley (Petroselinum crispum F.)—Cultivated globally, parsley is employed in folk medicine as a diuretic, stomachic, and abortifacient, among others [136] ting kidney stone formation [134]. Parsley possesses antimicrobial, anticoagulant, antihyperlipidemic, antihepatotoxic, and anti-oxidant properties and acts as a laxative [137,138,139]. It is applied in treating lumbago, eczema, knee pain, impotence, and nosebleeds, and as a blood pressure regulator [140]. The hypoglycemic activity of parsley has been explored, with studies indicating its antidiabetic functions [141,142,143]. In folk medicine, it is used to prevent intestinal spasms and diarrhea [144]. The increasing application of parsley in the pharmaceutical, food, perfumery, and cosmetic industries underscores the demand for its large-scale cultivation [145].
Dill (Anethum graveolens L.)—Dill is widely recognized in Ayurvedic medicine for addressing stomach issues and acting as a diuretic [146]. It is reported to heal ulcers, abdominal and uterine pain, as well as eye diseases [147]. Anethum graveolens L. is an ingredient in over 56 Ayurvedic formulas, including Dasmoolarishtam, Dhanwanthararishtam, Mrithasanjeevani, Saraswatharishtam, Gugguluthiktaquatham, Maharasnadi Kashayam, Dhanwantharam Quatham, among others [148]. Fennel fruit, often confused with Anethum graveolens due to its similar aroma and medicinal properties, is traditionally employed for gastrointestinal disorders [149]. Research has revealed that A. graveolens extracts exhibit broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against pathogens such as S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Salmonella [150]. Additionally, studies have identified the antimicrobial properties of dill, attributed to the presence of furanocoumarin [151,152,153]. Anethum graveolens harbors a variety of constituents with pharmacological effects, suggesting its potential to develop new drugs for treating human diseases due to its effectiveness and safety [154].

6. Suitable Herb Species Cultivated in Aquaponics

The traditions of folk medicine across various countries have preserved the millennia-old knowledge of the beneficial effects of herbs on health. According to the World Health Organization, today, 80% of the global population relies on folk medicine for their healthcare needs [155]. Approximately 40% of all pharmaceuticals are derived from herbal preparations, involving over 20,000 medicinal species. A 2003 report by the BCC (American Agency for Marketing Research) highlighted that a quarter of the medications prescribed in the USA, Canada, and Europe contain active ingredients sourced from plants. A study in Great Britain revealed that 60% of its population utilized herbal preparations [156].
Suitable types of herbs for medicinal purposes cultivated in aquaponics are shown in Table 2.
Herbs, also known as medicinal plants, encompass a broad group of plants utilized in medical and veterinary practices for disease prevention and treatment. In many societies, the link between nutrition and healthcare is intrinsic, with numerous plant species being used both as food and medicine [160]. Herbal medicine is integral to daily life in many European countries, serving as a popular and sensible approach to disease prevention [155].
The range of plants suitable for cultivation as part of biofilters in aquaponics is extensive. However, their adaptation to specific integrated systems depends on the biological characteristics and density of the fish, influencing the concentration of nutrients transferred from fish waste to plant roots via bacteria. Green leafy vegetables with low to medium nutrient requirements adapt well to aquaponic systems [161]. Highly recommended species include herbaceous plants such as parsley (Petroselinum crispum), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), oregano (Origanum vulgare), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), basil (Ocimum basilicum), peppermint (Mentha x piperita), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), and spearmint (Mentha spicata), praised for their rapid growth, adaptability, and varied uses as culinary, medicinal, and aromatic plants [34,35,162].
Research studies have reported successful production of basil integrated with tilapia and shrimp, as well as oregano and mint with tilapia in aquaponic systems [36,37,163]. However, these studies primarily focused on plant production parameters, with limited information on the role of plants as biofilters for water purification in aquaponic systems [38]. Research by [39] demonstrated that cultivating tilapia with basil, mint, and spearmint can also serve as part of a biological filter in aquaponics, significantly removing nitrogen compounds and phosphates while maintaining suitable pH, oxygen, and temperature levels for tilapia.
Studies indicate varied growth results for parsley (Petroselinum crispum) when co-cultivated with Oreochromis niloticus × O. aureus [164]. Contrary to [42] findings, which showed no differences in parsley growth parameters when cultivated with Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), Ref. [164] reported no reduced growth of parsley cultured with rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). According to [42], integrated cultivation of basil and parsley with Nile tilapia (O. Niloticus) and catfish (C. Gariepinus) showed reduced plant growth due to diminished natural lighting in winter. Plants exhibited better elongation when grown with O. niloticus compared to those grown with African catfish (C. gariepinus). Ref. [43] found that mint (M. spicata) cultivated with African catfish (C. Gariepinus), without additional fertilization and maintaining optimal water parameters for the fish in the system, showed good growth indicators.
A published study involving Mentha, basil, and jojen in integrated culture with Nile tilapia demonstrated high plant growth results and substantial fish biomass, with 100% survival of the organisms under aquaponic conditions [44]. Ref. [29] conducted research on the growth performance of coriander (Coriandrum sativum), parsley (Petroselinum crispum), mint (Mentha spicata), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), oregano (Plectranthus amboinicus), fennel (Anethum graveolens), and basil (Ocimum basilicum) alongside Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in aquaponic cultivation. They discovered that mint and basil exhibited the best growth indicators in aquaponic conditions. Additional studies on cultivating carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) with basil indicated that the plants developed faster and more effectively compared to conventional cultivation. Basil, under aquaponic conditions, purifies water from nitrates, eliminating the need for additional water changes required in traditional recirculation systems, where approximately 10% of the water volume is replaced, aside from compensating for evaporation losses [165].
Further investigations into integrated aquaponic production of herbs like basil and coriander with tilapia and African catfish reported increased growth in both plants and fish within the co-culture [28]. The cultivation of Nile tilapia with basil and mint under aquaponic conditions also showed promising plant and fish growth rates [166]. Ref. [10] demonstrated that cultivating medicinal herbs such as Mentha spicata, basil, rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus), oregano (Origanum majorana), and thyme alongside Nile tilapia improves water quality. Basil and mint cultivation resulted in the highest fish productivity with minimal variation, whereas rosemary ponds exhibited a survival rate of 96.25%. Due to their rapid growth and economic value, basil and mint are deemed suitable for integrated cultivation in aquaponic systems [36,167]. Ref. [48] suggested that cilantro, due to its low nutrient requirements, can be easily cultivated in aquaponic systems. However, medicinal plants like Mentha spicata, basil, rosemary, oregano, and thyme, grown with Nile tilapia, compete with fish for oxygen consumption, which can be mitigated by independently supplying oxygen to the plant and fish sections [10].
Experiments involving plants such as basil, mint, and peppermint grown with Nile tilapia indicated jojena as the plant with the highest productivity, serving as an effective water purifier in this cultivation system. The findings highlight that both plants and fish consume significant amounts of oxygen during metabolism, suggesting that system performance can be enhanced with increased water aeration [44].
Ref. [29] noted that mint and basil, when cultivated with Nile tilapia, yield positive outcomes in aquaponic systems. They also mentioned that other herbs could be successfully cultivated under these conditions with improvements in cultivation techniques, such as selecting appropriate plant species, managing water flow, controlling suspended solids, and managing algae [29].

7. Risk and Problem of Aquaponics Associated with Economic Sustainability

Aquaponics faces several economic risks and challenges that could impact its viability and sustainability. A significant issue is the spread of pathogens and diseases within the aquaculture component [168,169,170,171]. Diseases can quickly spread in the closed-loop system, potentially leading to severe losses of fish stock, other aquaculture objects, and plant production, thus affecting the overall productivity and economic feasibility of the operation [172,173]. Implementing stringent biosecurity measures and disease monitoring programs is essential, though these increase operational costs and require careful management [174].
Another crucial economic risk involves the selection of species for aquaculture tailored to specific crops in the hydroponic component. The compatibility of plant and fish species affects nutrient cycling efficiency and system balance. Mismanagement or poor selection can lead to inefficiencies, reduced yields, and increased costs for nutrient supplementation and system adjustments. The initial investment in research to determine the best species combinations also adds to setup expenses and is still the subject of scientific studies [175].
Production conditions in aquaponics, such as energy consumption for water circulation, aeration, and temperature control, significantly contribute to operational costs. These systems are complex and resource-intensive, requiring continuous energy inputs, which can be costly, especially in regions with high energy prices or those affected by harsh climatic conditions. Additionally, labor costs for system monitoring and maintenance are considerable and can impact the overall profitability of aquaponic operations [31].
Furthermore, the disposal of aquaponics waste, including spent water and biomass such as dead plants and fish, poses environmental and economic challenges. Regulatory compliance for waste disposal can be stringent and expensive. Innovative solutions to convert this waste into valuable by-products, such as compost or biogas, may offer economic relief but require high technological costs for grinding and sterilization, as well as standardization and production control of the resulting biofertilizer. Moreover, it is more profitable to use in a closed production cycle [176,177].
In aquaponics systems, the consistency and quality of nutrients are crucial for cultivating medicinal plants, which require precise chemical properties for therapeutic effectiveness [178]. Variations in nutrient levels can impact the phytochemical composition of these plants, altering their medicinal properties [167]. Therefore, maintaining a stable, high-quality aquaculture environment is vital to providing a consistent and balanced nutrient profile necessary for reliable medicinal outcomes. Furthermore, the quality of aquaculture outputs significantly influences the regulatory acceptance of the medicinal plants produced. Thus, the ability of an aquaponics system to consistently generate high-quality outputs is essential for both plant health and compliance with regulatory standards, ensuring the safety and efficacy of the medicinal products [44].
In conclusion, while aquaponics presents a promising sustainable agricultural technique, it entails significant economic risks and challenges that must be carefully managed. Stakeholders must consider these factors when planning and operating aquaponic systems to ensure long-term sustainability and profitability.

8. Conclusions

Aquaponic systems, compared to hydroponic and recirculation systems, offer greater efficiency by simultaneously producing two types of products—fish and plants—with less need for intense monitoring and high-quality water. This technology enables sustainable, year-round production of herbal plants, supporting the pharmaceutical industry and potentially offering strategies to combat antibiotic-resistant pathogens due to human overuse. To date, systematic information on cultivating plants with pharmacological benefits in aquaponic systems remains sparse. Developing aquaponic technology for medicinal plants could prove economically sustainable and reduce environmental impact. Future research should focus on integrating aquaponic systems with other medical studies and assessing how expression conditions affect the quality of medicinal plant materials.

Funding

This research was funded by the Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science (MES) in the frames of the Bulgarian National Recovery and Resilience Plan, Component “Innovative Bulgaria”, Project No. BG-RRP-2.004-0006-C02 “Development of research and innovation at Trakia University in service of health and sustainable well-being”.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Experimental aquaponics system for cultivation and fish and herbs: (A) Fish tank; (B) Filters; (C) Plant cultivator; (D) Water return.
Figure 1. Experimental aquaponics system for cultivation and fish and herbs: (A) Fish tank; (B) Filters; (C) Plant cultivator; (D) Water return.
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Table 1. Herbal plants and fish in the conditions of aquaponic cultivation.
Table 1. Herbal plants and fish in the conditions of aquaponic cultivation.
HerbFishReferences
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L., 1753) and Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L., 1753)Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L., 1758) and Catfish (Clarias gariepinus L., 1758.)[27,28]
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), Parsley (Petroselinum crispum L., 1753), Spearmint (Mentha spicata L., 1753), Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L., 1753), Oregano (Origanum vulgare L., 1753), Dill (Anethum graveolens L., 1753) and Basil (Ocimum basilicum)Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)[29,30,31,32,33]
Basil (Ocimum basilicum),
Oregano (Origanum vulgare) and Spearmint (Mentha spicata), Basil (Ocimum basilicum), Spearmint (Mentha spicata)		Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and Shrimps;
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)		[34,35,36,37]
Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and
Parsley (Petroselinum crispum), Basil (Ocimum basilicum) and Spearmint (Mentha spicata)		Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) × Blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus S., 1864);
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus);
Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and Catfish (Clarias gariepinus)		[38,39,40,41]
Spearmint (Mentha spicata), Basil (Ocimum basilicum) and Peppermint (Menthe piperita L., 1753), Coriander (Coriandrum sativum), Parsley (Petroselinum crispum), Spearmint (Mentha spicata), Thyme (Thymus vulgaris), Oregano (Origanum vulgare), Dill (Anethum graveolens) and Basil (Ocimum basilicum);Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus);
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio L., 1785)		[42,43]
Basil (Ocimum basilicum) and Coriander (Coriandrum sativum), Spearmint (Mentha spicata), Basil (Ocimum basilicum), Rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus L., 1753), Oregano (Origanum vulgare) and Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and Catfish(Clarias gariepinus); Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)[28,44]
Spearmint (Mentha spicata) and Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)[29]
Table 2. The herbs for medicinal purposes cultivated in aquaponics.
Table 2. The herbs for medicinal purposes cultivated in aquaponics.
HerbImpact onReferences
Peppermint (Mentha piperita)Anti-oxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic properties,
functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, effective against harmful bacteria, including E. coli and Listeria;		[91,92,93,94,95,96]
Spearmint (Mentha spicata)Antibacterial, antiparasitic, insecticidal, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-oxidant, diuretic, analgesic, antipyretic, antihemolytic and protective action, depression and asthma, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and sedative, expectorant, antispasmodic and diuretic properties;[97,98,99,100,101,102]
Basil (Ocimum basilikum)Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, and appetite-stimulating effect; used as flavoring additives in food, pharmaceutical products, and cosmetics;
for the treatment of headache, cough, diarrhea, constipation, warts, worms, and kidney failure, antiseptic, carminative, antimicrobial, and anti-oxidant properties; remedy for diarrhea, headache, cough;		[103,104,105,106,107,108]
Oregano (Origanum vulgare)Anti-oxidant effect, therapeutic effect, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic properties;[112,113,157]
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)Anti-oxidant, antidiabetic, antimutagenic, anti-anxiety and antimicrobial actions, antilipidemic, antispasmodic its many health benefits and preservative effect; the field of herbal medicine, treatment of the digestive tract, respiratory tract, stomach disorders, urinary tract infections, protect cells from oxidative damage, the treatment or prevention of bronchial asthma, spasmogenic disorders, peptic ulcer, inflammatory diseases, hepatotoxicity, atherosclerosis, ischemic heart disease, cataracts, cancer and low sperm motility, stimulates the central nervous system, respiration and the musculoskeletal system improve circulation, inhibits the growth of Candida albicans;[114,115,116,118,119,120,122,123,124]
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)Anti-oxidant, antidiabetic, antimutagenic, anti-anxiety and antimicrobial actions, antilipidemic, antispasmodic its many health benefits and preservative effect; the field of herbal medicine; treatment of the digestive tract, respiratory tract, stomach disorders, urinary tract infections, protect cells from oxidative damage. The treatment or prevention of bronchial asthma, spasmogenic disorders, peptic ulcer, inflammatory diseases, hepatotoxicity, atherosclerosis, ischemic heart disease, cataracts, cancer, and low sperm motility. Stimulates the central nervous system, respiration, and the musculoskeletal system, improves circulation, and inhibits the growth of Candida albicans;[96,125,126,127,130]
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris)Antimicrobial properties, anti-oxidants, respiratory diseases such as asthma and bronchitis, and for the treatment of other pathologies antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-oxidant, antiviral, calming nervous agitation, insomnia, headache, and anemia;[131,132,133,134,135]
Parsley (Petroselinum crispum)Diuretic, gastric remedy, abortifacient, treatment of the urinary tract and against the formation of kidney stones, antimicrobial, anticoagulant, antihyperlipidemic, antihepatotoxic, anti-oxidant, laxative effect, treatment of lumbago, eczema, knee pain, impotence, nosebleeds and as a blood pressure regulator, hypoglycemic activity, antidiabetic functions, prevention of intestinal spasms and diarrhea;[118,136,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,158,159]
Dill (Anethum graveolens)Diuretic, heals ulcers, stomachaches, eye diseases, uterine pains; gastrointestinal disorders, and broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Salmonella; antimicrobial properties.[146,147,149,150,151,152]
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Stoyanova, S.; Sirakov, I.; Velichkova, K. Sustainable Production: Integrating Medicinal Plants with Fish Farming in Aquaponics—A Mini Review. Sustainability 2024, 16, 6337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156337

AMA Style

Stoyanova S, Sirakov I, Velichkova K. Sustainable Production: Integrating Medicinal Plants with Fish Farming in Aquaponics—A Mini Review. Sustainability. 2024; 16(15):6337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156337

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stoyanova, Stefka, Ivaylo Sirakov, and Katya Velichkova. 2024. "Sustainable Production: Integrating Medicinal Plants with Fish Farming in Aquaponics—A Mini Review" Sustainability 16, no. 15: 6337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156337

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