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Systematic Review

A Systematic Review of Architecture Stimulating Attention through the Six Senses of Humans

by
Chaniporn Thampanichwat
1,*,
Pratsanee Meksrisawat
1,
Narongrit Jinjantarawong
1,
Somchok Sinnugool
1,
Prima Phaibulputhipong
1,
Pornteera Chunhajinda
1 and
Bhumin Bhutdhakomut
2
1
School of Architecture, Art and Design, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
2
Faculty of Architecture, Rajamangala University of Technology Lanna, Chiang Mai 50300, Thailand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(15), 6371; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156371 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 23 May 2024 / Revised: 25 June 2024 / Accepted: 19 July 2024 / Published: 25 July 2024
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The climate change crisis is negatively impacting the mental health of people worldwide. Attention is a pivotal pathway to healing ourselves and the world, as it is a sensory process that enhances mental health and promotes sustainable behavior. Despite architecture’s potential to captivate all six human senses immediately, there is still a significant gap in research. Thus, this study aimed to identify architectural features that stimulate attention through the six human senses: visual, touch, auditory, olfaction, taste, and emotion. This review article was conducted by searching data from Scopus in February 2024, identifying 4844 related publications. After data screening following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 32 relevant and accessible research works were identified. Finally, data were extracted from the selected articles and analyzed using thematic analysis to explore their relevance to all six senses. The results reveal that the architectural features predominantly eliciting attention are mainly related to visual sensory stimuli. Closely following are the architectural features perceived through the emotional sense. The architecture that promotes attention is minimally associated with touch, auditory, and olfaction senses. Lastly, no architectural features were found to influence attention perceived through the sense of taste. Nevertheless, this study merely synthesizes data from previous research studies. Future research endeavors should validate this study’s findings for broader implications empirically.

1. Introduction

The worsening climate change situation is negatively impacting the mental health of people worldwide [1,2,3]. In 2023, the United Nations (UN) reported numerous mental health issues arising from climate change anxiety [4]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that over 280 million people are currently experiencing depression [5]. Research indicates that direct exposure to natural disasters and experiencing indirect environmental impacts or being informed about ecological news can trigger symptoms of eco-grief [6,7]. The pursuit of finding ways to care for humanity and the planet is of interest to us now.

1.1. The Significance and Approaches to Stimulate Attention

Attention is a pivotal pathway to healing ourselves and our world. Individuals with good attentional abilities can control their emotions to maintain an appropriate state, leading to a more peaceful and contented life [8,9,10,11,12,13]. On the contrary, if an individual loses control over their attention, they are at risk of encountering mental health problems, including anxiety and depression [14,15,16]. Moreover, attentional processes are crucial for stimulating enduring sustainable human behaviors, which rely on thoughtful decision-making and mindfulness [17,18,19]. Therefore, we are studying methods to promote human attention for the next steps.
The definition of attention is a human cognitive process that involves the ability to select what to be interested in, including choosing what to disregard [20,21,22]. Attention is associated with numerous human biological and psychosocial factors [23,24,25]. Numerous studies recommend various methods for attention enhancement. They range from direct training, such as attention state training (AST), to indirect training through video games [26,27,28,29]. However, in recent times, the direction of research has begun to shift.
A study in 2009 demonstrated that the environment could impact attention, as they found that walking in nature promoted attention better than walking in urban areas [30]. In 2018, research utilized 2D images and videos of virtual natural environments to measure attention [31]. Thus, research has demonstrated a trend toward efforts to promote immediate attention rather than training, which requires a long time [32]. These lead us to seek out environments that can immediately improve attention.

1.2. Promoting Attention through Architecture

Some research indicates that architecture can stimulate attention [33,34,35]. This potential stems from the fact that attention is a part of the human cognitive process [36,37], while architecture has the potential to promote human cognition [38,39,40,41]. This approach aligns with the principles of neuroarchitecture, which is gaining significant interest [42,43,44,45]. However, the possibility mentioned above still leaves significant gaps. A recently published systematic literature review emphasizes that information on architectural design that promotes attention remains scarce [46]. Thus, the research gap between architecture and attention is a crucial focus of this study.
Architecture determines the physical environment by designing structures and their immediate surroundings to elicit psychological responses to the physical setting [47,48,49,50,51,52,53]. Previous research has demonstrated that architecture can promptly engage human responsiveness and attention through the human senses, even without direct physical interaction [54,55,56,57]. Therefore, this study aims to explore architectural design approaches that can stimulate attention through human sensory perception.
The literature review aimed to identify human senses relevant to architecture. It is found that the conventional understanding of human sensory perception encompasses the five senses, which include visual, touch, auditory, olfaction, and taste [58,59,60,61,62]. However, recent research increasingly suggests that humans possess an additional sensory perception: emotion [63,64,65]. All six of these human senses are related to architecture and attention, which will be elaborated upon in the following section.

1.3. The Six Senses in Relation to Architecture and Attention

The first part concerns visual sensory perception, which is often considered the most crucial sensory input in architecture [59,60]. This sensory has been associated with architecture from ancient Greek times to the virtual visual world of the future [66,67]. Texture, temperature, and density of materials, along with form, place, orientation, and length of space characteristics, are essential in visual perception [68]. Several studies demonstrate that architecture can most effectively promote attention through visuals [69,70].
The following sequence involves the sense of touch, another essential sensory input for close-range sensation [60]. Tactile perception strongly influences visual perception because tactile surfaces are perceived through touch and visual inspection, allowing texture perception [61]. The surface texture of materials, whether smooth, soft, or rough, all have distinct effects on tactile perception [61,71]. Tactile sensations have the potential to divert people’s attention away from the environment they are currently observing [72].
The sensory systems related to auditory perception are omnidirectional and crucial for creating atmosphere [62]. Whether disruptive noise, musical sounds, or even silence, each impacts humans [62,73]. Architecture designed with consideration for the sensory experience of hearing has been present since Greek theater and continues to be evident in contemporary theaters [74]. An example of using sound to appeal to attention in architecture that is commonly used is music in malls to stimulate customers’ interest [75,76].
Next is the olfactory sense, which possesses the potential to preserve memories and identify locations [59]. Some architects use materials that emit distinctive scents or design features that allow scents from the surrounding environment, such as gardens, to permeate the building, enhancing the sensory experience for the users [77,78,79]. Indeed, the scent of a space is another factor that can capture people’s attention [80].
The sense related to taste perception seemingly does not receive direct influence from the building [81,82]. Although architecture may not directly influence taste sensation, it can still stimulate and evoke taste perceptions [59,83]. A typical example is the use of color in restaurants [84]. In restaurant design, utilizing warm tones such as yellow and red can stimulate attention regarding appetite [85].
Lastly, the sensory aspects of emotion are crucial as people perceive the atmosphere more through emotional rather than intellectual means [65]. The components and space of architecture can influence humans’ moods and feelings [59]. The use of music and color in architecture can impact the emotions and well-being of humans [60]. Furthermore, architecture and its surroundings have the potential to evoke various emotions that lead to capturing people’s attention [86,87,88].
Therefore, it can be summarized that humans’ six senses—visual, touch, auditory, olfaction, taste, and emotion—are likely to be associated with architecture to promote attention.
As previously mentioned, to heal ourselves and our world, it is essential to promote attention, a human cognitive function with the potential to improve mental health and foster sustainable behavior [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19]. Numerous studies have demonstrated the potential of architecture to immediately stimulate human attention [33,34,35]. However, there remains a significant gap in the research on architectural design aimed at stimulating attention [46]. A literature review indicates that architecture can promote attention through the six human senses [54,55,56,57], which include visual, touch, auditory, olfaction, taste, and emotion [58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65]. This research aims to explore architectural design that stimulates attention through the six human senses. The conceptual framework can be represented as depicted in Figure 1. The research question is: What characteristics does architectural design exhibit to stimulate attention through all six senses of humans?

2. Methodology

This systematic review is employed to address the question of what characteristics of architectural design stimulate attention through all six senses of human exhibits. Because there is scarce information available on architectural design to promote attention [46] and due to the rationale that this approach is particularly apt for exploring enhancement strategies in design efficiency [89], in the subsequent section, we delineate the selected database, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.

2.1. Database

The data source chosen for conducting the systematic review is Scopus. Due to the rationale that Scopus is a widely used academic database and the largest repository of scholarly knowledge, it is consistently selected for use [89,90]. The database access for this instance was carried out in February 2024.
To ensure the most relevant data retrieval aligned with the research objectives, the search strategy in the database is guided by the following measures: The search was managed by applying specific keywords in titles, abstracts, and keywords [91], as these areas concisely encapsulate the essential terms from previous studies. The search criteria were limited to documents to ensure that the articles found were most relevant to architecture. They were categorized under architecture and engineering, focusing on content related to architecture published in English [92]. These publications, crucially, must be classified as articles, reviews, conference papers, and conference reviews to ensure the reliability of our research [93]. These types of academic articles are typically comprehensive and peer-reviewed.

2.2. Data Collection

For this study’s synthesis, we meticulously followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a key pillar of our research methodology that ensures transparency and accuracy [94,95,96]. After following the 4 standard PRISMA steps, detailed reporting can be provided as follows:
The first step of this section follows from the PRISMA model called the identification phase. The keywords ‘architecture’ and ‘attention’ are defined to search for architecture that stimulates attention. The search strategy employed in this instance is specific search, which involves searching for information using at least one keyword, excluding synonyms or closely related terms, to ensure the most precise alignment with the research objectives [97,98,99,100,101,102,103]. When combined with the search criteria outlined in Section 2.1, the formula used to search on Scopus is:
TITLE-ABS-KEY ((architecture) AND (attention)) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, “j”) OR LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, “p”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (OA, “all”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (PUBSTAGE, “final”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (SUBJAREA, “ENGI”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “cp”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “re”) OR LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “cr”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”)).
During this step, three undergraduate architecture students who are familiar with architecture carried out and cross-checked the process for validity [104]. A total of 4844 relevant publications were found. Before recording the discovered documents, we examined a thorough review to determine their relevance to architecture. To ensure accuracy, an architecture graduate student experienced in architecture and research article reading evaluated the titles and abstracts of all articles. As a result, 4627 articles were excluded due to their focus on engineering, computers, and mechanics.
For the screening phase, the 217 selected publications from the previous architecture-related step will be reviewed for content accessibility. The 4 articles were removed due to missing or inaccessible documents. This was attributed to the limited access provided by Scopus through KMITL permissions. The architecture graduate student mentioned above responded to this step, as she regularly accesses academic databases.
In the eligibility phase, the first author, with the same graduate student, evaluated the suitability of the remaining 213 documents concerning the review’s objectives, explicitly focusing on architecture that promotes attention. The involvement of two individuals in this phase was due to one being the most experienced researcher on the team, while the other was most familiar with the gathered articles. Of these, 181 articles were excluded as they did not contain relevant content on architectural characteristics promoting attention.
From the initial pool of 4844 articles, only 32 studies met the criteria outlined previously, indicating architectural characteristics that stimulated attention and were accessible. Finally, the inclusion phase concluded, with this review including all 32 publications containing architectural content that promotes attention, as shown in Table 1.

2.3. Data Analysis

The data analysis process is divided into two main steps to address the research question, ‘What characteristics does architectural design that stimulates attention through all six senses of humans exhibit?’.
The first step involves conducting a content analysis to decode the selected articles from the previous step, aiming to identify which characteristics of architecture can stimulate attention. The architectural features that promote attention were extracted from the 32 articles selected from the earlier steps. The content analysis method was chosen because it ensures structured analysis, increased reliability, replicability, and reduced bias in the research process [105,106]. Additionally, content analysis is utilized to decode the data as it can be integrated with the systematic review to provide a clear procedural framework [107,108,109]. A research assistant with a master’s degree in architecture who had not previously been engaged in the data collection process conducted the task to minimize potential biases.
The second step of conducting thematic analysis is based on the rationale that architecture that promotes attention can influence all six human senses, as discussed in Section 1. Thus, the extracted data from the content analysis process was then subjected to thematic analysis using the six senses: visual, touch, auditory, olfaction, taste, and emotion. Thematic analysis will allow for the conclusion regarding the characteristics of architecture that stimulate attention through each of the six human senses. In this step, three researchers, who were experts in architecture, conducted the process independently of each other. Using triangulation with multiple researchers in this instance serves to reduce bias from the researchers [110]. Finally, the first author will summarize the data by selecting only the parts where all three researchers agree.
As previously discussed, this review’s data analysis is summarized as content analysis and thematic analysis. Both methods are qualitative. Content analysis involves decoding the architecture that attracts attention from previous research into words. Given the manageable quantity of decoded results, the findings are summarized qualitatively through description.

3. Results

3.1. The List of Selected Articles

The results of this research have been compiled from 32 articles related to architecture that stimulates attention, obtained from a Scopus search, and selected according to the PRISMA method as outlined in Section 2.1 and Section 2.2. As described in Section 2.3, the publication year, journal, type of architecture studied, and type of attention discussed in the selected articles were detailed before analyzing them to help readers understand their characteristics. The list of selected publications is provided in Table 2.

3.2. The Characteristics of Selected Articles

To help readers better understand the characteristics of the selected articles, this section enumerates the publication year, sources, types of architecture referenced in the articles, and types of attention studied in these articles.
These studies were published between 2011 and 2024, with 2023 having the highest number of research publications on this topic [112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121]. There were 10 articles published in 2023, constituting 31.25% of the total. In 2022, articles were published the second-most frequently, with 6 articles (18.75%) [122,123,124,125,126,127]. In 2020 and 2019, 5 and 3 articles were published, respectively [131,132,133,134,135,136,137]. In 2016, 2017, and 2021, 2 articles were published each year [129,130,138,139,140,141]. In 2011 and 2024, 1 article was published each year that met the specified criteria [111,142]. Before 2011, between 2012 and 2015, and in 2018, no articles containing the keywords ‘architecture’ and ‘attention’ related to architecture stimulating attention were found (Figure 2).
From the total of 32 articles, the journal Frontiers of Architectural Research has published the most, with 7 (21.88%) [114,125,126,130,131,133]. The ‘IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering’ follows it, with 5 (15.63%) [134,135,136,137,138,139]. Other journals have published only a few, as seen in Figure 3.
Upon examining the types of architecture studied in the selected articles, it was found that education buildings [113,115,125,139,142], landscapes [116,117,122,128,132], and residential buildings [125,129,132,134,140] were the most frequently studied. All three types of buildings were mentioned in 5 articles, accounting for 15.63%. Office [123,135,136,141] and religious buildings [118,125,126,133] were the second most studied types of architecture. These two types of buildings were mentioned in 4 (12.50%) articles. Historical buildings [111,120,130], museums [125,134,135], retail spaces [123,137,141], and studies that did not specify a building type [121,124,138] ranked third in frequency. These types of buildings were published in 3 articles (9.38%). Palaces [112,123], hospitals [114,125], and transportation hubs [125,131] were each studied in two (6.25%) articles. Theaters [123], hotels [114], monuments [123], and stadiums [127] were the least studied, each examined in only one article (Figure 4).
Visual attention is the most studied type of attention in articles containing the keywords ‘architecture’ and ‘attention’ related to architecture stimulating attention. Visual attention appears in 27 of 32 articles, accounting for a significant 84.38% [111,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,126,127,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142]. Attention related to architectural space was found in 5 (15.63%) articles. The attention restoration theory was published in 4 (12.5%) articles, ranking third in frequency. Other types of attention are paid to the selected articles in only 1–3 articles each (Figure 5).

3.3. The Analysis Results of Selected Articles

This section presents the results from conducting content and thematic analysis of the 32 selected articles, following the method outlined in Section 2.3. The results comprise architectural characteristics that can stimulate attention through all six human senses, including visual, tactile, auditory, olfactory, taste, and emotional. Under each sensory category, the explanation will be divided into direct architectural features, characteristics of the building’s landscape, and objects related to the building to facilitate understanding.

3.3.1. Architectural Design That Stimulates Attention through the Visual Sense

The architectural features that stimulate attention found in selected previous research predominantly relate to visual perception. A total of 68.75% (n = 22) of the articles chosen identify architectural features that stimulate attention through visual perception. The architectural features perceived through visual observation were found in 13 articles, accounting for 40.63%. The characteristics related to the building’s landscape were found in 8 articles, or 25%. Of the selected articles, those that discuss objects in architecture that stimulate attention through visual perception are included in 14 papers (43.75%). Details can be further elaborated in the following sequence:
In the section on architecture stimulating attention through the visual sense, the exterior of the building, such as exciting and eye-catching form [135], size in large and high [116,123], façade [111,122,140,141], roof [125,138], relationship with the structures [127], location [129], and design of the entrance, including the opening door and window [140]. In the interior, the architecture stimulating attention is the space [137], layout of walls [121], axis space [122], and pathway priority [111]. In addition, luminosity stimulates attention through visuals on arranged interior and exterior areas, especially on façades or media facades, to create a dynamic. The facade appears to be the most intriguing, as it is mentioned in 4 articles, accounting for 12.5%.
The section on landscape stimulating attention through the visual sense has characteristics of natural features: trees [111,129], plants [115,125], indoor environment biophilic design elements [115], and green views: green spaces [114,125,128], landscape belts [122], and natural environments [113,115,125], both outdoor and indoor. It also includes a keyhole-shaped aperture created from natural features and surroundings. In this section, every landscape feature mentioned appears in a relatively similar number of articles. However, ‘green space’ and ‘natural environment’ are discussed the most, appearing in 3 articles each (9.38%).
In the section of objects stimulating attention through the visual sense, objects vary in characteristics of forms [129,135,141], shapes [120,126,135], curves [134], colors [116,121,124,130], contrast of elements [111,130], lighting levels [121], reflection elements [134], visual qualities [130], textures, and materials of elements in the area, including entourage elements or recycled materials such as furniture [121,136], potted plants [115], works of art in a museum [130], water [137], and others. From the above findings, it appears that the color, form, and shape of objects in architecture stimulate attention visually the most, as they are mentioned in 3–4 articles each, accounting for 9.38–12.5% (Table 3).

3.3.2. Architectural Design That Stimulates Attention through the Tactile Sense

Out of the 32 articles, only 7 (21.88%) articles specify architectural characteristics that stimulate attention through tactile interaction. None of these articles have characteristics related to architectural features. There are 6 (18.75%) articles discussing landscapes that stimulate attention through tactile interaction, and there are 2 (6.25%) articles featuring objects in architecture.
No relevant characteristics have been found in the section on architecture stimulating attention through the sense of touch.
The section on landscape stimulating attention through touch categorizes indoor natural features [115], including trees [111,129], plants [125], biophilic design in indoor elements [115], natural environment [113,115,125], and landscape [125,134]. The natural environment appears to be the characteristic that most effectively stimulates attention through tactile interaction. However, since the frequency of discovery for each characteristic does not vary significantly, it is difficult to draw definitive conclusions.
In the section on objects stimulating attention through the sense of touch, the use of natural materials in furnishings, such as furniture made from natural wood [136], stair railings made of birch [136], and handles made of metal [136], was categorized as including little elements like potted plants [115] and flowers [115]. Each characteristic was found in only 1 article (Table 4).

3.3.3. Architectural Design That Stimulates Attention through the Auditory Sense

The architectural feature that stimulates attention is perceivable through the auditory sense to a small extent. Those characteristics were found in 5 out of 32 articles, which accounts for 15.63%.
No relevant characteristics have been found in the section on architecture stimulating attention through the sense of hearing.
In the section on landscape stimulating attention through the sense of hearing, only the natural surroundings or natural environments were considered [113,115,125]. Natural surroundings or environments are important landscape design features that stimulate attention. The identified characteristic is the only one that promotes attention and has been assessed as perceptible through the auditory sense.
The section on objects stimulating attention through the sense of hearing, human audition [122], and the diversity of sound were considered [121]. Both characteristics of objects in architecture that stimulate attention through auditory perception were found in only 1 article (Table 5).

3.3.4. Architectural Design That Stimulates Attention through the Olfactory Sense

When considering olfactory perception that stimulates attention, architectural characteristics related to this were found in only 6 (18.75%) articles. Those articles do not feature distinctive architectural characteristics. Only 1 article discusses objects in architecture, while the rest are related to the landscape of architecture.
No relevant characteristics have been found in the section on architecture stimulating attention through olfaction.
The section on landscape stimulating attention through olfaction involves various natural surroundings [113], environments [113], and features such as trees [111,129], flowers [115], and biophilic design in indoor environments [115,125].
In the section on objects stimulating attention through olfaction, only the term ‘olfactory’ [122] is identified as related to stimulating attention, without any further details provided (Table 6).

3.3.5. Architectural Design That Stimulates Attention through the Taste Sense

All three sections did not find information relevant to architecture stimulating attention through taste.

3.3.6. Architectural Design That Stimulates Attention through the Emotional Sense

The results in this section indicate that when considering architectural characteristics that stimulate attention, emotional appeal is ranked second in importance after visual perception. Out of the 32 selected articles in Section 2.1 and Section 2.2, upon analysis according to the details outlined in Section 2.3, up to 20 (62.50%) articles provide details on architecture perceived emotionally. These articles provide details on architectural design, landscape architecture, and objects in architecture, as will be detailed in the following sequence:
Architecture that stimulates attention is secondarily related to the sense of emotion. In the section on architecture stimulating attention through emotion, there were categorized architecture by space (visual aspect of space, sphere or geometry of architectural space, and urban public space [125,129,138]), architectural components (entrance, door, and window [122,140]), architectural lighting (illuminated area, lit and media façade [111,141], contrast of dark and bright in the region [111]).
The section on landscape stimulating attention through emotion considered various green spaces [125,128], natural surroundings [113], environments [113,115,125], and features such as trees [111,129], green walls [115], green roofs [125], green views [114], and indoor environment biophilic design [115,125].
In the section on objects stimulating attention through emotion, the diversity of elements is genuinely remarkable. Psychological elements [137], such as the order of elements, colors [116,124], lighting levels [121], natural lighting [137], materials, natural features [132], and diversity of sound [121], were all considered to stimulate attention through emotion. This broad spectrum of objects includes sphinxes [111], works of art in museums [127], decorative textiles [130], furniture [121,136], daylight [125], water [137], and flowers [115] (Table 7).

4. Conclusions and Discussion

The climate change crisis is negatively impacting the mental health of people worldwide [1,2,3]. Attention is a pivotal pathway to healing ourselves and the world, as it is a sensory function that improves mental health and sustainable behavior [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19]. In the past, attention enhancement was often attributed to training interventions [26,27,28,29]. However, recent research has demonstrated efforts to stimulate attention instantaneously [30,31,32]. Several research studies have revealed the potential of architecture to enhance human attention [33,34,35]. Despite recognizing such potential, studies on architectural designs that stimulate attention remain relatively scarce [46]. At the outset, it is found that architecture may potentially stimulate attention through all six senses of humans [54,55,56,57], including visual, touch, auditory, olfaction, taste, and emotion [58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65].
A systematic review was the chosen method to search for architectural design development guidelines [46,89]. Through a systematic literature review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [94,95,96], a search on Scopus in February 2024 using the keywords ‘architecture’ and ‘attention’ yielded 32 articles providing information on architectural designs that stimulate attention. Most of these articles were predominantly published in 2023 [112,113,114,115,116,117,120,121] and were primarily disseminated by the journal ‘Frontiers of Architectural Research’ [114,122,125,126,130,131,133]. The most commonly found building types were educational buildings [113,115,125,139,142], architectural landscapes [116,117,122,128,132], and residential buildings [125,129,132,134,140]. The most prevalent kind of attention found was visual attention, accounting for 27 out of the 32 articles [111,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,126,127,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142]. However, the results of this systematic review were constrained by the selected database and the method of article selection, as detailed in Section 2.1 and Section 2.2. Although it represents the most appropriate selection and evaluation, in our opinion, these choices must have limitations as well. Hence, future studies should expand the search results by using additional keywords, selecting alternative data sources, or employing different methods for article screening.
The results of this study stem from decoding all 32 selected articles, which were then subjected to thematic analysis based on the entirety of human sensory categories, encompassing visual, tactile, auditory, olfaction, taste, and emotion. In the following section, the authors summarize the findings, discuss the results, identify the research’s limitations, and suggest future research directions.
Overall, the thematic analysis results indicate that architectural features perceptible through visual perception were the most commonly discovered. The conclusion above suggests that if one intends to design architecture to stimulate attention, emphasis should be placed on visual elements. This conclusion aligns with the review’s findings in Section 1, which revealed that visual sensory perception is the most crucial sensory input in architecture. However, since this study is merely a compilation of data from previous research, future research endeavors should aim to test the hypotheses presented herein once again. The architectural features perceivable through the emotional senses were the second most prevalent. Despite less frequently discussing emotion among sensory perceptions, it holds considerable importance. The results above are consistent with the findings of the literature review, which stated that people perceive the atmosphere more through emotions. However, future research should delve deeper into this topic. Ultimately, the architecture that enhances attention is scarcely associated with the senses of touch, auditory perception, and olfaction. Furthermore, no architectural features were identified as influencing attention perceived through the sense of taste. The author perceives these findings may not be conclusively accurate due to limitations in the research methodology. Therefore, future research should broaden the scope of data collection or conduct experiments in real-world environments.
If the aim of designing architecture is to promote attention through the visual sense, it should feature prominent external characteristics and consider the presence of openings. For interior architectural design, consideration must be given to space and layout. Designing the landscape to attract attention should focus on green spaces. Objects that capture attention through sight depend on various factors, including shape, color, texture, material type, etc. The characteristics of architecture that stimulate attention through tactile sensation often focus on natural elements, including indoor trees. Furthermore, tactile sensation involves interaction with materials and architectural components such as handrails. Architecture should incorporate natural ambiance, including human sounds and various blended noises, to stimulate attention through auditory perception. The details of architecture that stimulate attention through the olfactory sense include natural scents, both outdoors and indoors. No architecture was found to stimulate attention through gustatory sensation. The spatial components and lighting must be considered if architectural design aims to stimulate attention through emotional sensation. Furthermore, similar to other sensations, it involves incorporating natural elements, both outdoors and indoors. Various types of objects in architecture can also evoke exciting emotions.
Natural components are significant for each sensory perception when considering architecture that stimulates attention through all six human senses. Additionally, space layout and objects within the building are found to be substantial factors in architecture for fostering attention. However, this finding is merely a compilation of data from previous research. Therefore, in future studies, the results of this study could be empirically tested through methods such as surveys, experiments conducted in real locations, or any quantitative measurements.
This paper aims to explore architectural design that stimulates attention through the six human senses, as stated in Section 1, utilizing a systematic review approach outlined in Section 2. Therefore, it can be concluded that the results of this study merely involve collecting, decoding, and analyzing data from previous studies without validating these findings. Thus, this study serves as a compilation of architectural features that promote attention, hoping that future research endeavors will empirically test these findings to provide evidence for broader implications.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and methodology, C.T.; data curation, formal analysis, investigation, and validation, C.T., P.M., N.J., S.S., P.P., P.C. and B.B.; writing, C.T. and P.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was financially supported by King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang [Grant Number: 2567-02-02-021].

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data from Scopus were accessed and obtained in February 2024 and extended for analysis in March 2024.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge Pakin Anuntavachakorn, Panyaphat Somngam, Noraphat Jerdkarn (Data collector), Taksaporn Petlai, and Tanagorn Pulsawat (Research assistant), Limpasilp Sirisakdi (English consultant), Manita Jirawongsakorn (English reviewer).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

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  124. Almssad, A.; Almusaed, A.; Homod, R.Z. Masonry in the Context of Sustainable Buildings: A Review of the Brick Role in Architecture. Sustainability 2022, 14, 14734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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Sustainability 16 06371 g001
Figure 1. The conceptual framework of architectural design stimulates attention through the six senses of humans.
Figure 1. The conceptual framework of architectural design stimulates attention through the six senses of humans.
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Figure 2. The distribution of publication years for the selected articles.
Figure 2. The distribution of publication years for the selected articles.
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Figure 3. The distribution of the sources of the selected journal publications.
Figure 3. The distribution of the sources of the selected journal publications.
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Figure 4. The types of buildings studied in the selected articles.
Figure 4. The types of buildings studied in the selected articles.
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Figure 5. The types of attention studied in the selected articles.
Figure 5. The types of attention studied in the selected articles.
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Table 1. Results of data collection according to PRISMA guidelines.
Table 1. Results of data collection according to PRISMA guidelines.
PhasesRecorded ItemsExcluded Records
Identification48444627
Screening2174
Eligibility213181
Including32-
Table 2. The article focuses on architecture that stimulates attention.
Table 2. The article focuses on architecture that stimulates attention.
AuthorsTitleSource
Gargiulo, M.; Carleo, D.; Ciampi, G.; Masullo, M.; Chìas Navarro, P.; Maliqari, A.; Scorpio, M. (2024)Assessment of the historical gardens and buildings lighting interaction through virtual reality: The case of Casita de Arriba de El Escorial [111]Buildings
Zhang, D.; Shan, X.; Zhang, X.; Chen, H.; Zheng, Y. (2023)Spatial feature analysis of the Beijing forbidden city and the Shenyang imperial palace based on space syntax [112]Buildings
Asim, F.; Chani, P.S.; Shree, V.; Rai, S. (2023)Restoring the mind: A neuropsychological investigation of university campus built environment aspects for student well-being [113]Building and environment
Zhong, W.; Schroeder, T.; Bekkering, J. (2023)Designing with nature: Advancing three dimensional green spaces in architecture through frameworks for biophilic design and sustainability [114]Frontiers of architectural research
Fadda, R.; Congiu, S.; Roeyers, H.; Skoler, T. (2023)Elements of biophilic design increase visual attention in preschoolers [115]Buildings
Wang, P.; Song, W.; Zhou, J.; Tan, Y.; Wang, H. (2023)AI-based environmental color system in achieving sustainable urban development [116]Systems
Luo, Y.; He, J.; Long, Y.; Xu, L.; Zhang, L.; Tang, Z.; Li, C.; Xiong, X. (2023)The relationship between the color landscape characteristics of autumn plant communities and public aesthetics in urban parks in Changsha, China [117]Sustainability
Ghouchani, M.; Taji, M.; Roshan, A.H.Y. (2023)Spirituality of light in the mosque by exploring Iranian-islamic architectural style [118]Gazi university journal of science
Chanbenjapipu, P.; Chuangchai, W.; Thepmalee, C.; Wonghempoom, A. (2023)A review article: Fall incidents and interior architecture—Influence of executive function in normal ageing [119]Article
Krastiņš, J. (2023)Nancy art nouveau architecture [120]Article
Kosara Kujundzic; Slavica Stamatovic Vuckovic; Ana Radivojević (2023)Toward Regenerative Sustainability: A Passive Design Comfort Assessment Method of Indoor Environment [121]Sustainability
Pei, W.; Guo, X.; Lo, T. (2022)Pre-evaluation method of the experiential architecture based on multidimensional physiological perception [122]Journal of asian architecture and building engineering
Truspekova, K.K.; Sharipova, D.S. (2022)Architecture of post-soviet Kazakhstan: Key stylistic references in public facilities [123]Civil engineering and architecture
Almssad, A.; Almusaed, A.; Homod, R.Z. (2022)Masonry in the context of sustainable buildings: A review of the brick role in architecture [124]Sustainability
Zhong, W.; Schröder, T.; Bekkering, J. (2022)Biophilic design in architecture and its contributions to health, well-being, and sustainability: A critical review [125]Frontiers of architectural research
Alajmi, M.; Al-Haroun, Y. (2022)An architectural analytical study of contemporary minaret design in Kuwait [126]Frontiers of architectural research
Lianto, F.; Trisno, R. (2022)Discovering the factor of the bird’s nest stadium as the icon of Beijing city [127]International journal on advanced science engineering information technology
Fang, Y.; Que, Q.; Tu, R.; Liu, Y.; Gao, W. (2021)How do landscape elements affect public health in subtropical high-density city: The pathway through the neighborhood physical environmental factors [128]Building and environment
Lee, J.H.; Ostwald, M.J. (2021)Fractal dimension calculation and visual attention simulation: Assessing the visual character of an architectural façade [129]Buildings
Suárez, L.A.F. (2020)Subjective experience and visual attention to a historic building: A real-world eye-tracking study [130]Frontiers of architectural research
Xu, R.; Xia, H.; Tian, M. (2020)Wayfinding design in transportation architecture—Are saliency models or designer visual attention a good predictor of passenger visual attention? [131]Frontiers of architectural research
Sami, Z.; Dincer, M.E.E. (2020)Study of physical, social and functional structures in bagdat Street (Istanbul) as public space [132]Civil engineering and architecture
Szuta, A.F.; Szczepański, J. (2020)Striking elements—A lifebelt or a fad? Searching for an effective way of adapting abandoned churches [133]Frontiers of architectural research
Dutsev, M.V. (2020)Contemporary urban environment: The image of the history and the history of the image [134]IOP conference series: materials science and engineering
Aatty, H.M.S.; Al Slik, G.M.R. (2019)Iconic architecture and sustainability as a tool to attract the global attention [135]IOP conference series: materials science and engineering
Bystrova, T.Y. (2019)Concept of organic architecture in the second half of the xx th century in the context of sustainable development [136]IOP conference series: materials science and engineering
Sadafi, N.; Sharifi, M.A. (2019)A study of the concept of Iranian traditional architecture in bazaars and shopping centres [137]Journal of construction in developing countries
Kłopotowska, A. (2017)Tactile architectural models as universal ‘urban furniture’ [138]IOP conference series: materials science and engineering
Halarewicz, A. (2017)Study of selected components of architectural environment of primary schools—Preferences of adults and analysis of the specialist literature [139]IOP conference series: materials science and engineering
Cho, H. (2016)A study on the comparison of the visual attention characteristics on the facade image of a detached house due to the features on windows [140]Journal of asian architecture and building engineering
Moghaddam, E.V.; Ibrahim, R. (2016)People’s evaluation towards media façade as new urban landmarks at night [141]Archnet-IJAR
Butko, D.J. (2011)The sound of daylight: the visual and auditory nature of designing with natural light [142]WIT transactions on the built environment
Table 3. Architectural design that stimulates attention through the visual sense.
Table 3. Architectural design that stimulates attention through the visual sense.
CategoriesDetails
ArchitectureMain pathway, the strong contrast between dark and the bright, the order of element, Escorial monumental complex in Spain, secondary pathway, façade, the lit façade, the angle space in the distance, large single building, expressive silhouette, layout of walls, the axis space design, the horizontal corridor in axis space, façade of the main building, vision, building entrance, school gate stone, high-rise building, relationship between architecture and structures, particular location, illuminated area, luminosity, wayfinding, exciting and eye-catching form, visual aspect of space, physical aspect of space, unfamiliar perspective presenting roofs, opening area (windows or doors), façade component, exterior façade lighting, the dynamic character of contents for media façades
LandscapeTree, natural surrounding, natural environment, green views, indoor nature, biophilic design in indoor, environments, keyhole-shape aperture, plant landscape belt, plants, green roofs, landscape, urban green spaces, green spaces, natural feature, line of the landscape
Objectsphinxes, otted plant, flowers, environment object, close-range object, variety of bright color, lighting levels, color, furniture, sone carving on the ground, brick of various colors, daylight, well-balanced symmetrical shape, geometric characteristic of forms, geometric characteristics of images, entourage elements, salient proto-objects, Visual qualities of objects, contrasting element, works of art in a museum, decorative textiles, external element, curves, light reflection, forms, shapes, furniture is from natural wood, stair railings are made of birch, handles are of metal, recyclable materials, water, reflecting window, uniform lighting, exterior lighting, the element located on the way
Table 4. Architectural design that stimulates attention through the tactile sense.
Table 4. Architectural design that stimulates attention through the tactile sense.
CategoriesDetails
Architecture-
LandscapeNatural surroundings, natural environment
ObjectDiversity of sound, audition
Table 5. Architectural design that stimulates attention through the auditory sense.
Table 5. Architectural design that stimulates attention through the auditory sense.
CategoriesDetails
Architecture-
LandscapeLandscape, tree, indoor nature, green walls, biophilic design in indoor environments, natural environment, landscape, plants
ObjectPotted plants, flowers, furniture, touch, furniture is from natural wood, stair railings are made of birch, handles are of metal
Table 6. Architectural design that stimulates attention through the olfactory sense.
Table 6. Architectural design that stimulates attention through the olfactory sense.
CategoriesDetails
Architecture-
LandscapeLandscape, tree, natural surroundings, flowers, biophilic design in indoor environments, natural environment
ObjectOlfaction
Table 7. Architectural design that stimulates attention through the emotional sense.
Table 7. Architectural design that stimulates attention through the emotional sense.
CategoriesDetails
ArchitectureThe strong contrast between dark and the bright, the lit façade, building entrance, high-rise buildings, the sphere of architectural space, illuminated area, visual aspect of space, urban space of public spaces and squares, opening areas (windows or doors), exterior façade lighting, the dynamic character of contents for media façades
LandscapeTree, natural surroundings, natural environment, green views, indoor nature, green walls, biophilic design in indoor environments, green roofs, landscape, urban green spaces, green spaces, natural features
ObjectSphinxes, potted plants, flowers, variety of bright colors, lighting levels, color, furniture, diversity of sounds, daylight, plants, contrasting element, works of art in a museum, decorative textiles, furniture is from natural wood, natural lighting and properties, psychological elements, water uniform lighting, exterior lighting, the order of elements
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Thampanichwat, C.; Meksrisawat, P.; Jinjantarawong, N.; Sinnugool, S.; Phaibulputhipong, P.; Chunhajinda, P.; Bhutdhakomut, B. A Systematic Review of Architecture Stimulating Attention through the Six Senses of Humans. Sustainability 2024, 16, 6371. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156371

AMA Style

Thampanichwat C, Meksrisawat P, Jinjantarawong N, Sinnugool S, Phaibulputhipong P, Chunhajinda P, Bhutdhakomut B. A Systematic Review of Architecture Stimulating Attention through the Six Senses of Humans. Sustainability. 2024; 16(15):6371. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156371

Chicago/Turabian Style

Thampanichwat, Chaniporn, Pratsanee Meksrisawat, Narongrit Jinjantarawong, Somchok Sinnugool, Prima Phaibulputhipong, Pornteera Chunhajinda, and Bhumin Bhutdhakomut. 2024. "A Systematic Review of Architecture Stimulating Attention through the Six Senses of Humans" Sustainability 16, no. 15: 6371. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16156371

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