2.1. Theory of Basic Human Values and the Value–Attitude–Behavior Model
Values are viewed as enduring beliefs about desired end-states or modes of conduct that guide human behavior [
20,
24,
25]. Values can be guiding principles in the life of a person or a group. Personal values reflect individual conceptions about what is important to that person, while cultural values reflect what tends to be important to groups. One of the most influential theories of personal values is Schwartz’s theory of basic human values. Schwartz and Bilsky [
19] developed a theory of how personal values are interrelated within a universal value system, or how the clustering of values are integrated or closely connected. Following an analysis of data on 56 values obtained from samples across 44 countries, the researchers identified ten universal values, which they represented as value clusters located within a two-dimensional circumplex model. In the theory, values in opposite axes are hypothesized to be conflicting, as behaviors that satisfy one goal may come at the expense of the opposing value. The subsequent testing of this theory in multiple countries supports the near-universal organization of values along these motivational dimensions and the hypothesized interrelationships between oppositional value clusters [
20,
21]. The first dimension, “openness to change/conservation” represents conflict between the desire for new experiences versus tradition and conformity. The second dimension, “self-enhancement/self-transcendence”, represents the conflict between individual or egoistic concerns and concerns for others and nature. Schwartz [
20] designated these two dimensions as higher-order value clusters that differentiate whether an individual’s primary motivation is to promote self-interests (i.e., self-enhancement) or to promote the welfare of society and the environment (i.e., self-transcendence).
Personal values are theorized to influence attitudes and behaviors [
22,
26]. Values are central to one’s self-concept [
24], and as central components of belief systems, they represent energizing forces for expressing personal goals [
27]. Conversely, attitudes are oriented toward specific stimuli and are seen as expressions of or subordinate consequences of values in the hierarchical value–attitude–behavior model [
22]. Behaviors are also systematically related to values in that people are prone to act in a self-congruent manner with their value systems [
24]. However, the influence of personal values on behavior is theorized not to be as strong as more proximal sources of motivation, such as attitudes [
22,
28]. According to the hierarchical value–attitude–behavior model of value-motivated behavior [
22], influence should flow sequentially from highly abstract values to value-relevant attitudes to specific behaviors within any given context. For instance, in a test of the theory, Homer and Kahle [
22] found that values predicted consumers’ attitudes toward natural foods and that these attitudes, in turn, predicted shopping behaviors for natural foods. Attitudes toward natural foods mediated the relationship between values and shopping behaviors.
A handful of studies have examined the relationship between personal values and sustainable clothing behaviors. All support a positive influence of pro-environmental or socially conscious values on consumers’ use or purchase of sustainable clothing products. Studies also reveal that egoistic values or factors associated with self-interests can positively influence consumers’ attitudes and behavior toward sustainable clothing products. For instance, Bhatt et al. [
10] found that environmental concern positively influenced consumers’ interest in learning upcycling techniques and purchasing upcycled clothing products. However, individual concerns such as consumer creativity and fashion consciousness, or awareness, also influenced consumers’ interest in upcycling. Park and Lin [
15] found that self-expressiveness positively influenced consumers’ interest in purchasing upcycled fashion in addition to environmental concerns. However, the same was not true for interest in purchasing secondhand goods. They attributed these results to the perception that upcycled fashion products are more innovative or unique than recycled goods sold in secondhand clothing stores. Qualitative research with sustainable fashion consumers reveals similar findings. Lindblad and Davies [
29] used a laddering technique with 39 sustainable fashion consumers to uncover values driving their behavior. They found that both self-transcendence and self-enhancement values, especially those associated with accomplishment, individuality, and self-esteem, motivated sustainable clothing behaviors. Personal values have also been shown to influence value-relevant or clothing attitudes. In another laddering study with 98 ethical clothing consumers, Jägel et al. [
30] discovered multiple values were positively associated with ethical and sustainable attitudes toward clothing. These included not only environmental and altruistic values, but also individual motives related to values of money and personal image. In summary, research shows that consumers who purchase sustainable clothing products do so to express a complex mix of end-goals, including concern for the environment, altruism, clothing longevity, self-expression, creative satisfaction, and attitudes toward appearance.
2.2. Psychological Models of Fashion and Clothing Style Confidence
Socio-psychological theories of fashion theorize that individuals use clothing to construct and express self-identity and to communicate identities to others [
31,
32]. The fashion theory literature proposes that diverse psychological motivations underlie people’s clothing choices and fashion consumption orientations. These varied motivations can be classified into two basic models: individualism-centered models and conformity-centered models [
23]. Individualism-centered models [
33] emphasize motives related to self-enhancement and individuality, such as distinctiveness, prestige, excitement, rebellion against convention, values, attitudes, and creative expression. Conformity-centered models emphasize how social pressures to conform to prevailing styles of dress influence style choices [
34]. Research shows that individuals interested in clothing are more likely to have a heightened awareness of clothing’s social meanings and ascribe higher importance to personal appearance [
33,
35].
The body becomes a malleable form of self-expression through clothing and other forms of body adornment, such as tattoos or hairstyles [
33]. The symbolic-interactionism theory of fashion [
36] describes how self-identity is constructed through the appearance management process. Individuals convey aspects of self to others through their clothing selections, which represent external symbols of shared meaning that express values, feelings, and beliefs understood within social contexts [
37]. Social interactions provide information that the person then uses to self-reflect on others’ inferred perceptions of their self-symbolizing with clothing. This self-reflection process can fortify internal self-identity or prompt modifications in clothing selections that enable the person to reflect their desired self-image more closely.
Social approval is a powerful force motivating the growth of fashion trends. The accelerated pace of fashion change epitomized by fast fashion contributes to clothing overconsumption [
38]. Many consumers feel compelled to conform to current fashion trends to maintain a trendy self-image. These consumers, sometimes called “fast fashion” or “fashion-oriented” consumers, are more outward-oriented, using clothing for social positioning [
39,
40]. Fashion-oriented consumers are more aware of fashion trends and make more frequent clothing purchases to keep up with increasingly short-lived fashion trends [
40]. Conversely, “slow fashion” or “style-oriented” consumers are less concerned with trendiness [
39]. Instead, these consumers are motivated to use clothing for self-expression and value authenticity, uniqueness, and quality over quantity [
40,
41]. Style-oriented consumers want to look and feel good in their clothing, but their motives are internally rather than externally driven. Research shows they are less materialistic and care more about clothing longevity [
40].
Clothing style confidence, or confidence in one’s ability to use clothing to express oneself using clothing [
16], has been viewed by some scholars as a potential motivator for engaging in sustainable clothing consumption behaviors. Cultivating a unique, personal clothing style frees consumers from the need to continually monitor fashion trends. Because self-identity evolves more slowly through self-awareness, style confidence may promote mindful consumption behaviors that increase clothing longevity, such as upcycling [
41]. Fletcher and Grose [
42] argue that a lack of self-confidence in expressing identity through clothing leads consumers to blindly follow fashion dictates without considering the environmental impact of their excessive clothing consumption. Bly and her colleagues [
17] were among the first to uncover a positive relationship between sustainable fashion behaviors and personal style confidence. Participants in their qualitative investigation described how their sustainable clothing behaviors, like upcycling their own clothing or buying secondhand clothing, facilitated self-expression and contributed to their happiness and well-being. Two traits frequently cited by sustainable fashion consumers as essential for developing personal style were creativity and self-awareness. Cho et al. [
18] also identified style-oriented consumption as a potential avenue for promoting sustainable clothing consumption. In an online survey with 586 consumers, Cho et al. [
18] found that style consumption was motivated by ecologically conscious consumption, fashion consciousness, and frugal apparel consumption. In turn, style consumption was positively associated with purchasing environmentally friendly apparel.
Only a handful of studies have quantitatively studied personal style and its influence on sustainable clothing. This is partly because, until recently, the concept was vaguely defined, and valid measures did not exist. Joyner Armstrong et al. [
16] conceptualized clothing style confidence (CSC) as a multidimensional attitude representing people’s confidence in expressing personal style through clothing choices. These authors developed a 22-item scale for measuring CSC composed of five affective, cognitive, and behavioral attitudinal dimensions: (1) style longevity, or preference for timeless styles; (2) aesthetic perceptual ability, or knowledge about what looks good on them; (3) creativity, or interest in experimenting with one’s wardrobe; (4) appearance importance; and (5) authenticity, or how well their clothing style reflects their “true” self. Initial scale items were developed through interviews with a small sample of individuals who self-identified as “style confident”. Subsequent versions of the scale were tested in Internet surveys conducted with two different samples of adults to purify items and validate the scales’ nomological and predictive validity. Each dimension of CSC was significantly correlated with two criterion behaviors associated with sustainable clothing consumption: wardrobe engagement (i.e., knowing what is in one’s wardrobe and keeping it organized) and wardrobe preservation (i.e., paying attention to the condition of one’s wardrobe). The scale authors proposed that CSC would likely predict other sustainable clothing behaviors, but they did not empirically validate this claim.
Based on the hierarchical value–attitude–behavior theory described in the previous section and the prior literature reviewed above, CSC is expected to mediate the relationship between personal values for self-transcendence and self-enhancement and consumers’ interest in upcycled clothing. These expectations are formally stated below in the study hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1 (H1). Self-transcendence values will positively influence clothing style confidence.
Hypothesis 2 (H2). Self-enhancement values will positively influence clothing style confidence.
Hypothesis 3 (H3). Clothing style confidence will positively influence interest in upcycled clothing.
Hypothesis 4 (H4). Clothing style confidence will mediate the relationship between self-transcendence values and interest in upcycled clothing.
Hypothesis 5 (H5). Clothing style confidence will mediate the relationship between self-enhancement values and interest in upcycled clothing.
The conceptual model for the study appears below in
Figure 1.