Water Savings in Places of Worship: A Case Study for St Mary’s Mosque in Australia

Abstract

Water is used for various religious purposes, including ablution for billions of Muslims around the world. Water savings in ablution can make a positive contribution towards achieving the water-related sustainable development goals (SDGs). A survey-based study was conducted at St Mary’s Mosque in Sydney, Australia, to understand the water usage during ablution and how water can be saved by Muslims in mosques. It has been found that the participants of the survey use 4 to 8 L of water to perform one ablution. About 82% of the participants are careful about saving water in ablution. It has also been found that about 70% of the participants believe that wastage of water during ablution is ‘haram’ (unlawful). Some 95% of the participants believe that religious motivation can play a significant role in saving water during ablution, and Imams can make a notable positive difference by encouraging their followers to save water during ablution. It has also been found that 64% of the participants are willing to use harvested rainwater for ablution. The findings of this study will help Muslims in Australia and around the globe to save water and contribute to the circular economy, as saving potable water (by reducing water use during ablution and using harvested rainwater at the source of water collection) saves energy and encourages responsible consumption.

1. Introduction

There are water usages specific to religions, for example, the use of holy water for baptism, daily bathing by Buddhists, and bathing by Hindus in the Ganges [1]. In Islam, ablution (washing the hands, face, and legs) is required to attain the state of purity, a prerequisite for performing various religious rituals, including prayers, circumambulation of the Kaabah, and touching the Holy Quran.

The quantity of water to be used during ablution is an important consideration, as some people use too much water during ablution. Sometimes, the water tap is kept running during ablution, and a large volume of water is wasted [2]. It has also been found that, generally, over 50% of the tap water during ablution may go into the drain without any use [3]. Since Islam is the second largest religion in the world, having over 2 billion followers, water savings during ablution is an important issue. Many Muslims live in developing countries that have limited clean water resources, and, for them, water savings in ablution is quite important. For example, if a Muslim performs ablution five times in a day before the five obligatory prayers, and if one ablution requires 5 L of water, they use 25 L of water for ablution in a day. If a person is careful, about 50% of this water can be saved. This can assist in achieving water-related sustainable development goals (SDGs) such as ‘SDG 6 Clean Water and Sanitation’. It can reduce the demand for municipal water among Muslims and promote sustainable water use, such as the use of harvested rainwater. As noted by Bhattacharya et al. [4], the use of harvested rainwater contributes to the circular economy and responsible consumption as it saves municipal water, which needs energy to treat and transport, whereas rainwater needs little treatment and can be collected and saved at the site of interest.

It has been reported that the amount of water the Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him (PBUH)) used in his ablution was one ‘mudd’ (0.54 L) [5]. One study showed that Muslims in many countries use much more water for ablution than they need [5]. To understand how much water a Muslim needs for their ablution and how much they use, a survey was conducted in 40 mosques in Saudi Arabia, including the two Holy Mosques of Makkah and Madinah, which found that most of the participants used 3–7 L of water for one ablution [6]. In another study, it was found that a Muslim used around 10 L of water for one ablution in the Gulf countries [7]. Therefore, the authors suggested installing a metal water pot with a capacity of less than 1 L of water inside the ablution basin. They expected that the use of this water pot would reduce the wastage of water during ablution in the Middle East and many other countries. Johari et al. [8] stated that in Malaysia, some Muslims use around 9 L of water for one ablution.

A shortage of clean water and waste of ablution water are two problems in many Muslim-majority countries. For example, Oman has been facing a severe water shortage for many years [9]. To find out the reasons for this water shortage and whether there is any wastage of water, a 41 key information-based interview was conducted among the visitors of mosques in Oman, as reported by Al-Alawi et al. [9]. This study found that due to the shortage of water, some Muslims could not complete their ablution and perform their obligatory prayers at their mosques [9]. It also showed that a Muslim in Oman uses around 7 L of water during a single ablution. It was also mentioned that Muslims’ attitudes towards water use should be changed, and awareness of the use of recycled water should be created. Besides this, due to the shortage of daily water needs in Oman’s mosques, they suggested the ‘Ablution, Water, and Works’ (WWW) formula to treat the ablution water and reuse it in their mosques [10]. The above WWW principle included a sand trap, an ablution water collection tank, a filtration unit, a chlorination chute, and a treated water collection tank. Another suggestion provided to Oman’s mosque management was to collect graywater and reuse it after proper treatment [11]. Similarly, another study found that the Muslims in Oman use eight times more water than the Prophetic amount of water for ablution (about 0.6 L). This amount of wastage can be reduced by special taps and by educating the people on the purpose of ablution and water conservation [12].

Research also shows that human behaviour is another key factor in wasting water during ablution [13]. A person needs regular reminders and motivation to save water during ablution. If not, a Muslim might be using double the amount of water compared to the quantity that should be used [13]. It has also been found that because of different human attitudes, many techniques and policies have been implemented in different mosques across the globe, such as special ablution taps to reduce the wastage of water. Similarly, low-maintenance water treatment systems have been constructed to store, treat, and reuse ablution water in several countries [3].

In the case of a shortage of water, Islam allows using treated water. For example, the higher authority of leading Islamic Scholars of Saudi Arabia permitted the use of treated wastewater in 1978. The official fatwa mentioned that if the treatments are at the required level and the treated wastewater does not cause any adverse public health effects, it can be used for ablution [14]. Similarly, Islamic religion consider natural water, including rainwater, to be pure and usable for ablution [15]. Encouraged by the above fatwa and reference and greater environmental awareness, some countries have installed rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems at their mosques. For example, the Malaysian government is the pioneer in introducing RWH systems at their mosques under government funding [16]. There are some other countries that have installed RWH systems in their mosques, such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and Pakistan [17]. Moreover, the Indian Masjidul Ihsan in Tamil Nadu have also started using RWH systems in their mosques. Furthermore, Cambridge Central Mosque is the first European mosque that adopted RWH and became the first ecofriendly mosque in the world. In Australia, Toowoomba Mosque in Southern Queensland installed a RWH system for water saving.

Australia is one of the Muslim-minority countries, with about 813,000 Muslims. A study showed that there are around 200 mosques in Greater Sydney, and about 22,000 Muslims visit a mosque for their daily prayers. On a Friday, approximately 35,000 Muslims attend a mosque for the Jumua prayers, and around 63,000 people observe the annual Eid Festivals [18]. If a Muslim needs five L of water for each ablution [3,6], mosques in Greater Sydney would require about 110,000 L of water for each prayer. Muslims are obliged to pray five times a day; hence, the quantity of ablution water would be substantial. This ablution water need would be even greater on Fridays and during annual Eid festivals.

As mentioned above, there have been a few previous studies on ablution water saving. However, most of these studies were conducted in Muslim-majority countries such as Saudi Arabia, Oman, Malaysia, Indonesia and Pakistan. Among Muslim-minority countries, there have been only a few studies on ablution water use, such as in India, and there is no such study in Australia. To fill the current knowledge gap, this study aims to examine the perception of the visitors of a mosque in Sydney, Australia (St Mary’s Mosque) on ablution water use and RWH. It is also important to note that the study does not merely focus on ablution but rather on other usages like drinking and landscaping using roof-harvested rainwater. Hence, the findings of this study are likely to contribute towards circular social consumption.

To understand the perspectives of Muslims on their daily water use in ablution and relevant water conservation, this study conducted a survey at St Mary’s Mosque, New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Water conservation through motivation and behavioural aspects was investigated in Japan, India, Malaysia, Mexico, and Australia. For example, 625 international students participated in a survey in Japan, and it was found that water conservation awareness was highly related to participants’ attitudes, cultural background, and overall responsibility [19]. This study argued that the most effective way to save water is to create awareness and accountability for water usage and its environmental impacts. Another survey was conducted in Mexican cities, engaging 510 participants to investigate the general beliefs about water conservation and natural resources. The researchers found a tri-factorial structure, including beliefs to maintain the ‘balance’ with nature, imposing ‘limits’ to human development, and the ‘human exception’ paradigm. They also discussed the ‘failed models’ and emphasised that human behaviour is the most important factor in water conservation [20].

It has been found that a lack of effective engagement between conservationists and religious groups undermines water conservation [21]. Therefore, active partnerships between religious and non-religious groups are necessary for water conservation to be successful [21]. Similarly, a behavioural study on ablution rituals among Malaysian Muslims was conducted with 20- to 40-year-old participants using several questionnaires [8]. In Australia, a national survey was conducted with various Muslim individuals and organisations to understand their typologies [22]. More than ten groups of Muslims were identified based on different backgrounds and socio-religious factors. The survey participants were both Australian citizens and permanent residents. It was found that their background was a crucial factor in their responses towards nature. Finally, this study is expected to generate new knowledge towards water use and conservation of Muslims based on their religious beliefs and behaviour, which would assist in water savings in many mosques around the globe.

2. Methodology

2.1. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework underpinning this study was constructed based on Ajzen’s model, known as the ‘Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)’, proposed in 1985. Ajzen’s theory explains human behaviours and examines the underlying beliefs before actions [23]. It also interprets the decision-making process of an individual and describes the human attitude that can be predicted quite reasonably. The theory assumes that a person carries out an act with his or her formulated plan, and the behaviour is generally goal-oriented. This concept is popular among researchers and has been adopted in many other studies, including ‘Exploring the Influence of Faith on Water Saving Behaviours among Christians in Jordan’ [24], ‘Water conservation behavior: Exploring the role of social, psychological, and behavioral determinants’ [19], and ‘Environmental beliefs and water conservation: An empirical study’ [20]. Figure 1 shows a simplistic representation of the theoretical framework for the planned behaviour. It shows three different dimensions of behaviour and how it can be changed. Ajzen’s theory relating to this study is very similar, which explains that people’s attitudes, perceived behaviours, and subjective norms towards water are fixed from the very beginning. However, they can be changed through motivation and Islamic education, as found in the present study.

2.2. Proposed Model for This Study

Based on Ajzen’s theory, this study developed a framework to investigate the impact of different approaches related to Muslim faith tradition on water conservation, particularly at St Mary’s Mosque, Sydney, Australia. The adopted framework contains the typical elements of the theory like ‘understanding’, ‘cultural background’, ‘subjective norms’, ‘attitude’, and ‘action’. This study also adopted the cultural and religious behaviour and their influences in three groups, which was proposed by Li and Zhang [25]. After studying the cultural background and experience, participants were categorised into ‘Regular’, ‘Conscious’, and ‘Very Concern’ groups (based on water usage rate during ablution). The suggested framework is depicted in Figure 2, which explains water conservation through four different methods and the specific power the Islamic motivation can provide as compared to others. All four methods have a strong and positive impact on water conservation and change people’s attitudes; however, motivation by the Imam through Islamic lecture/khutba has a greater impact than others.

To understand a Muslim’s’ perspective towards their daily water use in ablution and associated water-conservation issues, this study selected St Mary’s Mosque in Sydney, Australia. The reasons for selecting St Mary’s Mosque were its close proximity (about six km) to the authors’ university campus (Western Sydney University, Penrith Campus) and the higher proportion of Muslims living in this area (as per 2022 data, Muslim population is 5.6% in this area). A survey was conducted among the visitors of this mosque. This survey consisted of twenty questions, which are provided in Supplementary Material. The selected questions reflect the key variables associated with ablution water use and relevant water-conservation issues, such as the installation of a rainwater-harvesting (RWH) device in the mosque. This survey maintained the ethical considerations and requirements of Western Sydney University through formal ethics approval process. It also satisfied the rules and regulations of Section 1 and Section 4 of the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research in Australia [26].

To be eligible to participate in the survey, a person had to be a Muslim, at least eighteen years old (male/female), and a visitor of St Mary’s Mosque. The participants were selected based on a ‘convenience sampling method’, i.e., from the present visitors at the mosque during the survey period. Despite the difference in cultural background, only the English language was used for this survey, and no translation was required as all the participants understood English.

A survey participant was asked to indicate the age group he/she belongs to, and there were five categories: below 30 years, 30 to 40 years, 41 to 50 years, 51 to 60 years, and 61 years and over. A participant was also asked to select his/her cultural background from eight groups: Australian, Arabian, Bangladeshi, Indian, Indonesian, Pakistani, Turkish, and other. Among 20 questions, 17 were not open-ended and used Likert scales to measure a participant’s perception of ablution water use and associated water-conservation issues. For only 3 questions, a participant was asked to provide further explanation regarding his/her responses. For example, if a participant responded that religious motivation could influence water saving, he/she was then asked to explain the reason.

About 25–30 min was needed to complete the survey by a participant. For this study, online survey was chosen as it is generally more effective, and many researchers have used it previously [27]. Online survey is also suitable for minority studies [28], and in this regard, it should be noted that Muslims are minority in Australia, representing only 3.26% of the Australian population [29]. Figure 3 illustrates the adopted methodology.

The process of joining this survey by a participant was straightforward. It was conducted via university-approved Qualtrics software (November 2022 version) (https://www.qualtrics.com/strategy/research/survey-software/, accessed on 1 November 2022). The survey link and the QR code for the survey were shared with the visitors of St Mary’s Mosque in a flyer designed for this study and via four approved WhatsApp and Viber groups. The survey posters with the QR code were attached to the mosque’s public space to attract the visitors’ attention. As per the ethics guidelines, the survey was officially announced at the Mosque. It was open to all the Muslim visitors of the Mosque who were over 18 years old. The survey was conducted from first week of October 2022 to the end of November 2022. During this period, a total of 286 responses were received. However, after discarding the incomplete responses, only 250 responses were found to be fully completed and suitable for further analysis.

The survey was systematically structured and divided into several sections and it was compiled by using factors identified in the background study. The main questions covered several perceptions regarding Muslims’ behaviours in performing ablution and their understanding of saving ablution water. For data analysis, Qualtrics software and Statistics Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, Version 26) were used.

Power analysis plays a significant role in designing a proposed study [30]. It helps a researcher to determine the minimum sample size required to detect a certain effect or relationship in statistical hypothesis testing. Power analysis is important because it ensures that a study has a reasonable chance of detecting an effect if it truly exists, thereby increasing the credibility and reliability of the research findings. In statistical hypothesis testing, a researcher typically sets up a null hypothesis (H₀) and an alternative hypothesis (H₁). The null hypothesis assumes that there is no effect or relationship, while the alternative hypothesis suggests that there is an effect. The goal of hypothesis testing is to determine whether there is enough evidence to reject H₀ in favour of H₁. To achieve the 90% power at 5% level of significance, this study required 275 samples, as per Equation (1). Considering 15% nonresponse rate with 87% power at 5% level of significance, the sample size is 250.

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{Z^2\times p\times (1-p)}{e^2}}$$

(1)

where Z is level of confidence measure (1.96), e is error margin (0.05), p is prevalence of using RWH for ablution = 0.10, and expected response rate = 0.85.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Groups of Muslims Based on Water Use during Ablution

As mentioned before, based on Ajzen’s theory, a question asked the participant which group he/she is considered (i) Regular/Moderate (using about 8 L of water in one ablution), (ii) Conscious (stopping water tap during various steps of ablution and using about 6 L of water), and (iii) Very Concerned (reducing water speed and using about 4 L of water). Figure 4a shows that 40.35% of participants fall in the ‘Conscious’ group, 41.67% of participants fall in the ‘Very Concerned’ group, and only 17.98% participants fall in the ‘Regular/Moderate’ group. Indeed, it is a good sign that the majority of the participants (about 80% who identify themselves in the ‘Conscious’ and ‘Very Concerned’ groups) were very thoughtful in using water for their regular ablutions, even though Australia has been blessed with the best facilities for providing enough water for different purposes [31].

In a subsequent question, it was asked ‘How many litres (L) of water do you need for one ablution’. There were four possible answers to this question: (i) 4 L; (ii) 6 L; (iii) 8 L; (iv) Not sure. The response to this question is illustrated in Figure 4b, which shows that 75.61% of the ‘Regular/Moderate’ group of participants are ‘Not Sure’ how much water they use for one ablution, which indicates that they pay little attention to water savings during ablution. Figure 4b also shows that 35.87% of ‘Conscious’ and 61.05% of ‘Very Concerned’ participants use only 4 L of water for one ablution. It is interesting to note that 36.96% of ‘Conscious’ participants are not sure how much water they use for one ablution.

Like this survey, few studies have been conducted (e.g., [8,32]) to understand the local Muslims’ behaviour regarding ablution water use and the concept of wastage of water during ablution. The Malaysian survey found that most of the participants were using around 9 L water in one ablution, which is higher than they need. It was also found that Malaysian male Muslims are happy to use 3 L of water for their ablution. They also acknowledged that any extra water (more than 3 L) can be considered a wastage and should be avoided. However, the women in Malaysia did not fully agree to consider the extra water (more than 3 L) in one ablution as a waste.

The relationship of the groups of participants (‘Regular/Moderate’, ‘Conscious’, and ‘Very Concerned’) with cultural background is illustrated in Figure 5. This reveals that the participants having Australian, Arab, and Turkish backgrounds are mostly conscious of their water use. The ‘Concerned’ group of participants is dominated by Indians (60%), followed by Arabs, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Australian backgrounds. The ‘Regular/Moderate’ group is dominated by Turkish, Bangladeshi, Arab, and Pakistani backgrounds. It is interesting to note that Arab and Indian backgrounds do not have any participants in the ‘Regular/Moderate’ group, and Turkish backgrounds do not have any ‘Conscious’ participant.

3.2. Wastage of Water during Ablution

Wastage is an immoral practice in all the sacred texts, and it is haram (unlawful) in Islam. The wastage of water is an immoral practice in Islam. The Quran commands the believers not to spend wastefully and mentions that the ‘wasteful are brothers of devils’ [33]. To understand whether excessive water use during ablution is perceived as haram, a question was asked of the participants, ‘Do you think that wasting water during ablution can be considered haram?’ There were three possible answers to this question: (i) Yes, (ii) No, and (iii) Not Sure. Figure 6a shows that 70.18% of the participants answered positively by responding ‘yes’. This means that they recognised that wastage of water in ablution is ‘haram’. Only 7.02% of the participants selected ‘No’, which means only a small percentage of the participants believed wasting water during ablution is not ‘haram’. A total of 22.8% of the participants are ‘Not Sure’ whether water wastage during ablution is ‘haram’.

Figure 6b shows the age groups of the responses to this question. It can be seen that in the below 30 years, 51–60 years, and over 60 years age groups, a relatively greater number of participants believe that wasting water during ablution is ‘haram’ compared to the middle age groups.

3.3. Religious Motivation to Preserve Ablution Water

In a subsequent question, the participants’ view on water-saving methods was sought. They were asked which of the four methods is more effective in saving water, in line with O’Connor et al. [34]: (i) legal enforcement, (ii) technical, (iii) social awareness, and (iv) religious motivation. While social awareness includes aspects of the impact of our actions on other people and the world around us (a passive outcome), religious motivation influences us directly to act in a way that would be beneficial for society and a spiritual person in this world and hereafter (an active outcome). An example of social awareness is showing concern for the feelings of others, whereas an example of religious motivation is removing a harmful thing from the road to protect others and accumulate rewards in the afterlife.

Table 1. Participants’ views on more effective methods of saving water.

#	Answer	%
1	Religious motivation	53.07%
2	Technical: reduce evaporation, shade, auto-stopping tap	29.82%
3	Social awareness/Encouragement	11.84%
4	Legal enforcement: fine/cutoff line/punishment	5.26%

shows that 53.07% of the participants regarded ‘Religious motivation’ as more effective in saving water than the remaining four methods. This means that the Imam’s sermons and religious teachings can motivate people to save water. The second most useful tool was technical support (29.82%), followed by social awareness (11.84%) and legal enforcement (5.26%). Therefore, it may be argued that religious and social awareness are more effective (together, they account for 64.91% of participants) in saving water than technical and legal enforcement. Technical measures such as automated ablution machines can save a good volume of ablution water, as noted by Zaied [5] and Rajendra [35], and as found in this study (about 30% of participants believe that this is an effective method of saving water).

To be more specific about the role of religious motivation in saving water, a subsequent question was asked: ‘Do you think religious motivation can influence its followers to save water?’ Figure 7 shows that 94.67% of the participants confirmed the answer by saying ‘Yes’, which indicates that religion can play a significant role in motivating its followers to preserve ablution water. Subsequently, when they were asked the reasons for this influential power of religion to preserve water, the most common comments included ‘the fear of Allah’, ‘because people listen to them’, ‘wasting water is totally illegal in Islam’, and ‘it is the teaching of Islam’. On the other hand, for the participants who replied ‘No’ to this question (only 5.33%), the main stated reasons included ‘auto stopping tap will be more effective than religious influence’, ‘Religious motivation does not last long’, ‘Need a continuous reminder’, ‘It is not a permanent solution’, ‘Unfortunately most Muslims do not adhere to the major commandments of Allah’, and ‘I do not think saving water would be on their priority list’.

Another relevant question on religious motivation was, ‘Do you think that the Imam as religious leader, can inspire people to save water?’ Figure 8a shows that almost every participant (96.05%) responded ‘Yes’. This means that religious motivation spurned by the Imam has a great impact on saving water. All three groups of participants (‘Regular/Moderate’, ‘Conscious’, and ‘Very Concerned’) responded ‘Yes’ (94% to 97% cases), which means that all three groups of participants were attesting that the Imam’s motivation plays a significant role in saving water.

3.4. Using Harvested Rainwater as Ablution Water

Since harvested rainwater is being used in the mosques of several countries, to understand the view of the participants of this study on rainwater use, the following question was asked: ‘Do you know that instead of tap water, what other sources can be used for ablution?’ The possible responses were (i) rainwater, (ii) treated wastewater/river water, and (iii) others. A total of 71.49% of the participants responded ‘Rainwater’, and 23.68% of the participants responded ‘Treated wastewater/River water’ as the alternative source of water for ablution. This shows that a significant portion of the participants are aware that rainwater can be used as an alternative source of water for ablution. To be more specific, another question was asked: ‘Would you mind using harvested rainwater to make your ablution’. The possible responses were (i) yes, (ii) no, and (iii) not sure. Figure 9a shows that 64.04% of the participants responded ‘No’, which means that they do not mind using harvested rainwater to perform ablution. This means that the majority of the participants are open to using harvested rainwater as an alternative source of water for ablution. When this result was compared with the three groups of participants in Figure 9b, it reveals that 65.85%, 72.83%, and 72.63% of ‘Regular/Moderate’, ‘Conscious’, and ‘Very Concerned’ participants, respectively, would like to use harvested rainwater for their ablution. This shows that all three groups of participants have a positive attitude towards the use of rainwater for ablution, which could save a substantial volume of mains water in a mosque.

The next question relating to RWH was more general; the question asked of the participants was ‘Can we save mains water by using harvested rainwater?’ The answer to this question is presented in Figure 10, which shows that 88.55% of participants answered ‘Yes’. Only 1.76% of participants responded ‘No’ to this question, and there were 9.96% of participants who were ‘not sure’ whether it could save mains water. It is clear that the majority of the participants believe that the use of harvested rainwater can save mains water, which is a positive response towards the adoption of RWH at the St Mary’s Mosque. A study conducted by Kapli et al. [36] showed the feasibility of using harvested rainwater for ablution purposes and its impact on water saving. This study concluded that the implementation of the RWH system could help the water-shortage crisis.

In rural areas of Australia, many people drink untreated harvested rainwater. The next question asked the participants whether they were ready to drink treated harvested rainwater at St Mary’s Mosque. This question was framed as, ‘In rural Australia, many people drink harvested rainwater without any formal treatment. Will you be ready to drink treated harvested rainwater at St Mary’s Mosque?’ It should be noted that this question and the following few questions are not directly related to ablution water use; however, these questions were asked to understand the participants’ general attitudes towards rainwater use from a broader perspective. The responses to this question are summarised in Figure 11, which shows that 57.46% of people answered ‘Yes’, i.e., they are happy to drink treated harvested rainwater at St Mary’s Mosque. However, 22.37% of participants answered ‘Not Sure’, and 20.18% of participants answered ‘No’ to this question. Overall, the majority of the participants showed a positive attitude towards drinking treated harvested rainwater; however, there is a good number of participants (20.18%) who do not like to drink treated harvested rainwater. Since St Mary’s Mosque is connected with mains water, drinking harvested rainwater is not an important issue, unlike rural Australian areas, where mains water is generally unavailable.

In urban areas, harvested rainwater is used in many cases for landscape irrigation to save mains water, which generally does not pose any significant health risk. To determine the view of the participants on using harvested rainwater for landscape irrigation at St Mary’s Mosque, the following question was asked: ‘Do you have any health concerns about the quality of harvested rainwater at St Mary’s Mosque, which may be proposed for landscape irrigation?’ Figure 12 shows that most of the responses (60%) to this question were ‘No’, which means that they do not have any health concerns regarding using harvested rainwater for landscape irrigation. However, 18% of participants responded as ‘Yes’, i.e., they have concerns about using harvested rainwater for landscape irrigation at St Mary’s Mosque, and 22% of participants were ‘Not Sure’. Overall, the majority of the participants are open to using harvested rainwater for landscape irrigation at St Mary’s Mosque, which could save a significant volume of mains water to keep the lawn green within the Mosque area.

To determine the view of the participants on whether RWH at St Mary’s Mosque would encourage them to save water in their own households, the next question was framed as ‘Do you think that the demonstration of rainwater harvesting at St Mary’s Mosque will encourage you to use less water in your household?’ Figure 13a shows that 195 participants (i.e., 85.53%) responded ‘Yes’. This means that the lessons and the benefits found in using the RWH at the Mosque would motivate the majority of the participants to use less water in their households. Comparing this result with the three groups of participants (‘Regular/Moderate’, ‘Conscious’, and ‘Very Concerned’), Figure 13b shows that the ‘Yes’ answer is dominated by both the ‘Very Concerned’ and ‘Conscious’ groups of participants. Among the ‘Regular/Moderate’ group, 32 participants said ‘Yes, and of the ‘Conscious’ and ‘Very Concerned’ participants, 163 participants answered ‘Yes’. Only 7 participants (3.07%) responded ‘No’, and 26 participants (11.4%) answered ‘Not Sure’ to this question. Overall, the majority of the participants would be influenced positively by their use of harvested rainwater at St Mary’s Mosque, which would influence them to save water in their own households.

To determine the view of the participants on whether RWH can save money, the next question was framed as ‘Do you think rainwater harvesting at St Mary’s Mosque will save money?’ In the response to this question, as illustrated in Figure 14, it was found that 85.09% of the participants believe that RWH can save money, 13.16% of participants are ‘Not Sure’, and only 1.75% of participants answered negatively. Overall, the majority of the participants agreed that RWH can save money as it can save a significant volume of mains water, resulting in reduced water bills.

The next question was asked to explore whether revenue can be generated from harvested rainwater at St Mary’s Mosque, and this was framed as ‘Do you like to use harvested rainwater at St Mary’s Mosque to clean your car and provide some donations to the Mosque’s fund?’ Figure 15 shows that 75.44% of participants said ‘Yes’, 18.86% said ‘Not Sure’, and only 5.70% responded ‘No’. This result demonstrates that the majority of the people would like to utilise harvested rainwater at St Mary’s Mosque to wash their cars and would like to donate money to the mosque fund, which is quite positive and presents an alternative source to generate funding to run a mosque, which generally depends fully on charity. It should be noted that to harvest enough rainwater, a large tank would be needed to provide car washing to a good number of people, which would result in increased capital costs to install a RWH system.

Table 2. Examples of mosques that use RWH in different countries.

No	Name of the Mosque	City	Country
1	Masjid Jamek Riadus Salehin	Johor Bahru	Malaysia
2	Nurul Iman Mosque	Lampung	Indonesia
3	Jame Mosque	Western	India
4	Masjid As Siddique	Perak	Malaysia
5	Cambridge Central Mosque	Cambridge	UK
6	Bukit Indah Mosque	Selangor	Malaysia
7	State Mosque	P. Pinang	Malaysia
8	Shahi Mosque	Hyderabad	India
9	Coimbatore mosque	Tamil Nadu	India
10	King Faisal Mosque	Islamabad	Pakistan

shows examples of mosques that have embraced RWH to save water. The purpose of using RWH at a mosque is to promote water conservation and to encourage people towards alternative water use. It also leads to the eco-friendly design and green mosque concept globally. The findings of this survey indicate that the majority of the participants would like to use harvested rainwater at St Mary’s Mosque. If the RWH system is implemented at St Mary’s Mosque, other mosques in Australia would be encouraged to embrace this sustainable technology.

3.5. Using Water Pot to Reduce Ablution Water Use

Based on the Islamic tradition that the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH)) used a water pot for measuring and reducing water use during ablution, the participants were asked the following question: ‘In the time of the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH), people used to use water pot for making ablution, which only needs about 1.5 L of water per ablution. If we facilitate this type of water pots at St Mary’s Mosque, will you be ready to use it?’ Figure 16 shows that 75% of the respondents said ‘Yes’ and welcomed the idea of using the water pot at the mosque. This means that if it is available at St Mary’s Mosque, a good number of visitors will be happy to use this water pot for their ablution. It also shows how the Islamic tradition can influence its followers to reduce the use of water. Similarly, a water pail has been recommended in Middle Eastern countries to avoid unnecessary water use during ablution [3].

4. Conclusions

This study examines the use of ablution water by the visitors of St Mary’s Mosque in Sydney, Australia, through a survey. The results show that about 40% of participants considered themselves as ‘Conscious’ in terms of ablution water use. They stop the water tap several times during the various steps of ablution and use about 6 L of water per ablution. Another 42% of participants considered themselves as ‘Very Concerned’. They reduce the speed of tap water and use about 4 L of water per ablution. Only 18% of the participants categorised themselves as ‘Regular’ and used about 8 L of water per ablution. This study also found that about 70% of the participants believe that the wastage of water during ablution is ‘haram’. About 95% of the participants believe that religious motivation can play a significant role in saving water during ablution, and the role of the Imam is identified to be a major factor in this regard. Furthermore, 64% of the participants do not have any objection to using harvested rainwater for ablution. Also, 75% of participants positively responded to using the water pot to reduce water use during ablution, which needs only about 1.5 L of water per ablution. This shows that most of the participants of this study are very mindful of saving water during their ablutions. The findings of this study can encourage Imams of different mosques in Australia and other countries to motivate their followers to save water during ablution. Also, this can encourage mosque authorities to embrace rainwater harvesting in their mosques, which can save mains water.

The limitations of this study include the fact that the survey did not distinguish between male and female participants. Further studies should be conducted considering the male and female participants that would provide greater insights into the use of water during ablution by each group. It is important to note that this study was conducted at St Mary’s Mosque in Sydney, Australia, and hence caution should be exercised to apply the findings of this study to other mosques. Part of this study might be replicated in other Arabian and Islamic countries; however, climate and human behaviour change significantly from one region to another. Therefore, careful consideration must be given to these areas when designing future studies.

Household water use should be examined closely to see how much water is used by a Muslim for ablution/religious purposes and whether religious motivation can achieve water savings in these households. A study like Abu-Bakar et al. [37] could be designed to investigate household water use between Muslim and non-Muslim households. Such a study will encourage water savings and would contribute towards a circular economy, as savings of potable water (by reducing water use during ablution and using harvested rainwater at the source of water collection) save energy and encourage responsible consumption. It is also important to note that the centrality of the religiosity scale is not considered in this study, which has introduced a degree of uncertainty in the results/findings. It should be noted that there is an uncertainty associated with the quantity of water used by the survey participants during ablution since the categorisation of the participants into ‘regular/moderate’, ‘conscious’, and ‘very concerned’ are quite arbitrary in nature. It should also be noted that the behaviour of a religious person differs from a non-religious person, which cannot be fully explained by the rational choice theory. The ‘Theory of Planned Behaviour’ does not fully capture the impact of attitudes, emotions, and cultural and especially religious aspects on water-conservation behaviours in a religious context. In this study, the participants are considered to be religious as they visited St Mary’s mosque (the study site). If the same study had been conducted by selecting participants from a place other than a mosque, the results might have been quite different.