A Strategy for the Sustainability of Peru’s Blueberry Exports: Diversification and Competitiveness

Abstract

The study examines how Peru could maintain the sustainability of its blueberry exports through market diversification and competitiveness. Using a quantitative approach, the Herfindahl–Hirschman Index (HHI) and the Balassa Index were calculated. The results showed impressive growth in key markets such as the United States, where exports grew by an average of 115.03% annually, and robust growth in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Despite these increases, the study identified a high concentration in specific markets, particularly in the United States, where the HHI ranged from 2896 to 3828 throughout the evaluated period, indicating significant dependence. Regarding the RCA, the values showed that Peru has maintained a solid comparative advantage, especially towards the United States, where the values fluctuated between 0.09 and 0.55 throughout the study, indicating specialization and efficiency in the export of blueberries to this market. The conclusions highlight that, although Peru has achieved remarkable growth in its blueberry exports and has demonstrated competitive capabilities, it faces the challenge of effectively diversifying its export markets. Recommendations include expanding the exploration of new markets and improving logistic infrastructure and agricultural practices to foster environmental sustainability, as well as adapting marketing strategies to meet the demands of emerging markets and international regulations.

1. Introduction

The expansion of Peru’s blueberry cultivation has reinforced its presence in the global market, showcasing the country’s ability to adapt and leverage its comparative advantages. This strategic response to globalization and diverse market demands is evidenced by various studies on agricultural products [1]. Initially focused on markets in the United States and Europe, Peru has extended its reach to Asia and other Latin American countries, enhancing its stability against regional economic fluctuations [2]. Diversification is not limited to geography but also includes different regions within Peru, each utilizing distinct climatic and soil conditions to ensure a continuous, high-quality supply of blueberries [3,4].

This study is of utmost importance, as it highlights the development of these two indicators over time, presenting them as a strategy for the export growth of blueberries. This approach can be used to analyze and understand the commercial reality of other products. By understanding this reality, strategies can be implemented to continue export growth and consolidate products in international markets. Moreover, the human aspect of sustainability in agricultural practices in Latin America and many parts of the world is crucial but often overlooked [5]. Intensive production practices frequently compromise worker welfare and social responsibility towards local communities. Poor working conditions, low wages, and lack of access to basic services like healthcare and education are common. Additionally, a lack of commitment to local communities can lead to social and economic conflicts, negatively affecting both workers and surrounding populations.

• General Problematic Reality

Sustainability presents a multifaceted problem encompassing environmental viability and economic competitiveness. One major global concern is the environmental impact of intensive blueberry cultivation [6]. Blueberries require specific soil and climate conditions for optimal growth, leading to practices such as artificial soil acidification and intensive water use [7]. Prolonged monoculture of blueberries can result in soil degradation, biodiversity loss, and imbalances in local ecosystems [8].

Furthermore, export commercialization is characterized by its dependence on volatile and highly competitive markets for agricultural products and their processed derivatives [9]. Global blueberry consumption is growing, driven by population and income increases, which generate greater food demand and seek solutions to enhance productivity and reallocation to meet future demands [10]. Additionally, the consumption of ultra-processed foods is linked to higher risks of overweight and obesity across different geographic populations, highlighting the need for policies to control these conditions through dietary and nutritional strategies [11]. This global context underscores the importance of blueberries and other foods in the global diet, along with the rising demand for organic products [12,13,14].

Similarly, increased supply can lead to market saturation and subsequent price drops, directly affecting producer profitability. This phenomenon is observed in various sectors, including agriculture [10]. In agriculture, rising prices of raw materials, such as fuel and fertilizers, can significantly impact the economic efficiency of production activities [15]. Dependence on a limited number of export markets increases producers’ vulnerability to external changes [16]. Research indicates that diversified exports reduce economic vulnerability and that the threshold of natural resource dependence affects this relationship [17]. The Herfindhal index quantifies vulnerability, showing that countries with less diversified exports face fragility due to high concentration in specific sectors [18]. Overall, diversification plays a crucial role in mitigating risks associated with limited export markets.

Logistical and supply chain challenges represent significant barriers to achieving sustainable exports [19]. These challenges include market vulnerability, uncertainty, and risk, which are particularly pronounced in developing countries [20]. The green supply chain management also faces challenges, such as the need for reverse logistics knowledge and a shortage of skilled workers, reducing the industry’s potential for sustainable growth. Efforts to improve logistics and support commercialization in the supply chain for exports face dynamic market challenges and consumer preferences, necessitating a more integrated marketing and logistics approach [21].

On the other hand, blueberries are highly perishable, requiring very efficient and rapid transportation and storage logistics to maintain fruit quality until its final destination [22]. Inadequate infrastructure in some producing countries, along with reliance on long and disruption-prone transportation routes, can result in significant product losses. Additionally, transportation and refrigeration costs are high, which can reduce the competitiveness of blueberries in markets where similar products can be produced locally at lower costs [23].

• Problematic Reality in Different Countries

Chile stands out as one of the world’s largest exporters of blueberries. The sustainability of this industry has been strengthened by market diversification and investment in agricultural technology [24]. In addition, Chile has developed blueberry varieties that are better adapted to local climatic conditions and have greater resistance to diseases. Despite these advances, it faces the challenge of maintaining its competitiveness against emerging producers such as Peru and Mexico, who offer fruit during market windows in which Chile is not competitive [25]. Furthermore, water sustainability has become a critical issue due to the recurrent drought affecting major growing areas, necessitating more efficient and technologically advanced water management [26].

In the United States, the sustainability of exports has also focused on innovation. Research and development in new cultivation and harvesting technologies, along with marketing strategies that promote both local and international consumption, have been key, like the situation in China [27]. The United States leverages its domestic market to test varieties that can be well received globally and gradually adapt to different climates [28]. However, competition with countries that have lower production costs, such as those in South America, and increasing environmental regulations are constant challenges. Conversely, the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices has enabled U.S. producers not only to maintain but also to expand their markets by improving consumer perceptions of their products.

Spain’s blueberry exports, particularly from Huelva, have been significant over the past decade, driven by the region’s climatic conditions that favor early production and the availability of established marketing channels for strawberries, which have been adapted for blueberries [29]. However, this rapid expansion has not been without problems. One of the main challenges is the environmental impact of intensive agriculture, which includes significant landscape alterations and the generation of waste that is often inadequately managed [30]. The COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted the precarious conditions of agricultural workers in the berry industry, underscoring their key role while also bringing attention to efforts to improve working conditions [31]. Finally, technological challenges related to quality inspection and sorting based on quality characteristics also affect the export potential of blueberries [32].

• Problematic Reality in Peru

The sustainability of blueberry exports in Peru has become a priority given the rapid expansion of this sector in recent years [33]. The Peruvian strategy to sustain and increase its blueberry exports is primarily based on market diversification and improving competitiveness through technological innovations and advanced agricultural practices [34]. Peru has actively sought to diversify its export destinations for blueberries. Traditionally, the United States has been the main market, but recently, markets in Europe and Asia, especially in China, where demand for high-quality fruit is increasing, have been opened or expanded [35]. This diversification helps reduce dependency on a single market and mitigates risks associated with demand fluctuations or adverse trade policies of a specific country.

To maintain its competitiveness, the Peruvian blueberry sector has significantly invested in cutting-edge technology and advanced cultivation techniques [36,37]. The use of advanced irrigation systems and the adoption of precision agriculture practices are examples of how Peru is optimizing its natural resources and improving productivity [4]. These technologies not only increase yield per hectare but also improve fruit quality, a decisive factor in export markets. The focus on certification of sustainable agricultural practices is another key component. International certifications such as Fair Trade and Rainforest Alliance are increasingly important to global consumers and can be a critical differentiator in saturated markets [38]. By adhering to these standards, Peru not only enhances its image as a supplier of high-quality blueberries but also ensures access to premium markets.

Despite these advances, the sector faces challenges such as water scarcity and climatic variations that could impact production. To mitigate these risks, strategies such as improving water efficiency and utilizing blueberry varieties more resistant to extreme climatic conditions are being implemented [39]. Ultimately, the sustainability of Peru’s blueberry exports is firmly supported by market diversification and the adoption of advanced technologies that enhance competitiveness. However, continuous adaptation to new global market conditions and environmental challenges will be essential to maintain and expand its presence in the international blueberry market.

Based on the outlined issues, the research question arises: What is the analysis of the concentration and performance of the industry? This involves objectives such as describing the development of blueberry exports in Peru, analyzing export diversification, and assessing competitiveness through the Balassa index. The development of these objectives justifies the research at different levels. From a theoretical perspective, it is grounded in international trade theory and competitive advantage models. Market and product diversification can help mitigate risks associated with dependency on a single market or product, while competitiveness provides an indicator of the attractiveness of the market to which exports are directed. Methodologically, the research proposes an analysis to evaluate a specific product, which can be replicated for other products in the sector. Practically, the results could offer clear guidelines for producers and exporters regarding the export reality of Peru. Additionally, they will provide the current government with valuable information on how to better support the blueberry industry, promoting practices that seek not only economic benefits but also environmental protection and social equity. Finally, hypotheses are proposed that the export destinations of Peru’s exports are concentrated, while Peru’s exporting companies are diversified.

• Literature Review

The literature review comprehensively addresses diversification across multiple geographical and product contexts, highlighting the recurrent use of the Herfindahl–Hirschman Index to measure market concentration. For instance, [40] examines the diversification of asparagus exports in Peru, identifying a considerable dominance in the U.S. market and a trend toward increased market concentration despite a decline in the number of exporting companies. This study complements the findings of [41], who analyzed Peruvian fresh grape exports, finding growth in export value and volume and effective diversification in destination markets, though with a significant concentration still in the U.S. In a different context, [42] explores how economic integration and disintegration affect the diversification of Ukraine’s exports, highlighting a decrease in product and market concentration due to trade liberalization with the EU and the imposition of trade barriers with Russia. This study underscores the importance of trade policies in shaping export diversification strategies. These studies undoubtedly illustrate the critical relevance of effective diversification strategies to reduce dependencies and increase competitiveness in volatile global markets. The literature suggests that greater diversification can significantly contribute to economic resilience and development, providing nations and companies with essential tools to better manage market fluctuations and trade barriers.

• Theoretical Framework

Furthermore, various studies have employed the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) Index and other related indices to assess the competitiveness and performance of exports across different sectors and countries. The study by [43] analyzes the comparative advantage and competitiveness in the foreign trade of agricultural products in India, using indices such as the RCA index and the trade specification coefficient index. The results indicate that India’s spice exports enjoy a favorable competitive scenario, highlighting the importance of strategies aimed at exploiting comparative advantages in the international market. On the other hand, the analysis conducted by [44] focuses on the competitiveness of Indonesia’s fishery products, noting an improvement in competitiveness following the implementation of policies against illegal fishing. This study also uses the RCA index, showing that most of the competitive advantage indices for fishery products are above one, suggesting strong competitiveness in international markets. Additionally, the study by [45] addresses the competitiveness of Indonesia’s export industries, using the RCA index among other methods to identify leading industries and map strategies to improve export competitiveness. These findings highlight the relevance of appropriate policies and capacity development to enhance export competitiveness. Finally, the article by [46] investigates the competitiveness of the textile and clothing industry in Romania, using revealed comparative advantage indices to examine fluctuations in competitiveness and trade advantages over time. These studies reflect the utility of the RCA index in assessing competitiveness and trade advantages in various geographical and sectoral contexts. The integration of these indicators is essential to understand the dynamics of Peruvian blueberry exports in terms of diversification and competitiveness.

2. Material and Methods

The research adopts a quantitative approach, enabling a systematic analysis of Peru’s blueberry exports, thereby measuring their sustainability over time. This methodology facilitates objectivity and the replicability of results in other agricultural products or important sectors in Peru. The scope is descriptive, which implies it focuses on describing the current characteristics of the sustainability of Peru’s blueberry exports, with a particular emphasis on diversification and competitiveness. The research design is non-experimental, as it is based on observing phenomena in their natural context without deliberate manipulation of variables. Thus, the study aims to collect existing and real data that reflect the current situation of the blueberry industry in Peru, without intervening in market dynamics or the export policies implemented.

The study population includes all data recorded in the customs declarations of goods from all blueberry exporting companies in Peru under national subheading 0810.40.00.00 [47]. The techniques will include descriptive analysis to summarize the main characteristics of the data. This study is committed to adhering to strict ethical standards.

The Herfindahl–Hirschman Index (HHI) has established itself as an essential tool for assessing market structure and competition in various areas of the economy, including international trade [48,49,50,51,52,53]. This index, developed by Orris C. Herfindahl and Albert O. Hirschman, allows for analyzing the distribution of a country’s exports among its various products and trading partners, providing a quantitative measure of the concentration or diversification of foreign trade. HHI values range from 0 to 10,000, providing a broad range for evaluating different degrees of concentration. A value of 0 indicates perfect diversification, where each unit has an insignificant share of the total market, while a value of 10,000 corresponds to absolute concentration, where a single unit dominates the entire market [54]. The intermediate value of 1800 is significant. This threshold is often used as a reference to distinguish between moderate diversification and significant concentration. An HHI below 1800 suggests that although there is some concentration, the level of diversification is sufficient to mitigate risks associated with excessive dependence on a few products or markets. In contrast, an index above this value may signal the vulnerability of a country’s foreign trade to fluctuations in specific markets [55]. Beyond mere numerical interpretation, the HHI has significant practical and strategic implications. In an increasingly interconnected global context, export diversification has become a crucial objective for many economies, especially developing ones. High concentration in exports can expose a country to considerable economic risks, such as price fluctuations in international markets, changes in the trade policies of key partners, or external economic shocks. The use of the Herfindahl–Hirschman Index is not limited to evaluating the structure of exports. It is also applied in the analysis of internal market concentration, competition in various industrial sectors, and the assessment of antitrust policies. Additionally, in the field of trade policy, governments can use the HHI to design strategies that promote the diversification of their economies.

Moreover, the revealed comparative advantage, calculated through the Balassa index, serves as an indicator to determine how competitive a country is in a foreign market relative to its total exports. This indicator has been studied and demonstrated in various international trade studies [43,56,57,58,59,60]. The interpretation of the Balassa index can be better understood by dividing it into three specific categories [61]. Firstly, an index ranging from −0.33 to −1 indicates that the country faces a significant comparative disadvantage. This implies that, in terms of exporting that product, the country is less competitive globally compared to other countries. Its ability to export this good is limited, possibly due to factors such as lower production efficiencies, higher costs, or a lack of innovation in that sector. Secondly, an index situated between +0.33 and +1 reveals that the country possesses a clear comparative advantage. This range indicates that the country is not only competitive in the production and export of that good but has also developed a specialization in that sector. This advantage could be due to various factors, including advanced technology, skilled labor, abundant natural resources, or favorable policies that incentivize the production and export of that specific product. Finally, an index value between −0.33 and +0.33 suggests a trend towards intra-industry trade. In this category, the country participates in both importing and exporting similar products. This trade behavior indicates a level of integration or complementarity with international markets in that specific sector. In other words, the country exchanges products within the same industry, which could reflect the existence of competitive advantages at different stages of the production process, product differentiation, or adaptation to the specific demands of different international markets.

3. Results

The exports in

Table 1. Destination Of Peru’s Blueberry Exports in USD Millions, FOB.

Country	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018
United States	12.94	53.79	126.47	164.50	276.67
Netherlands	7.22	26.99	55.96	100.41	120.48
United Kingdom	3.15	12.18	34.97	39.18	56.45
China	0.00	0.00	0.01	33.25	33.28
Spain	0.38	0.52	3.25	5.25	21.08
Canada	0.00	0.29	5.09	7.59	13.86
Hong Kong	5.92	1.33	4.41	13.96	11.62
Germany	0.09	0.15	1.59	0.51	2.49
Thailand	0.01	0.02	0.55	0.90	1.14
Others	0.52	1.52	5.45	3.77	3.08

Note. Data taken from the DAM registered in SUNAT (2024).

highlight that the United States leads with an impressive average annual growth of 115.03%. Closely following, the United Kingdom shows solid growth with a rate of 105.75%. This growth reflects a similar upward trend, albeit slightly more moderate compared to the United States. The Netherlands has also experienced a significant increase in imports of Peruvian blueberries, with an annual growth of 102.11%. This figure underscores the strengthening of trade relations and the product’s acceptance in the European market. In the case of China, the jump to USD 33.28 million in 2018 is notable. This dramatic increase signals the rapid development of a new market for Peruvian blueberries in Asia.

Table 2. Destination Of Peru’s Blueberry Exports in USD Millions, FOB.

Country	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
United States	814.56	983.16	1185.50	1319.68	1574.43
Netherlands	178.89	248.90	275.83	296.17	338.66
China	70.48	73.98	65.76	133.06	117.22
United Kingdom	64.11	69.29	67.56	70.81	79.00
Hong Kong	17.49	42.66	104.13	78.85	74.68
Canada	7.61	8.24	15.83	10.55	15.30
Spain	7.35	6.96	9.48	12.97	10.28
Germany	0.00	1.46	2.41	9.79	8.97
Thailand	1.49	1.89	2.46	3.66	5.12
Others	0.01	0.02	0.55	0.90	1.14

Note. Data taken from the DAM registered in SUNAT (2024).

shows that in the United States, exports have experienced growth with an average annual increase of 17.91%. This figure highlights the strong demand and solid positioning of Peruvian blueberries in the U.S. market, reaffirming the United States as the main destination for these exports. Closely following, the Netherlands records an annual growth of 17.30%, indicating ongoing acceptance and a growing appreciation for Peruvian blueberries in the European market. This growth, nearly parallel to that of the United States, reflects the strength and appeal of the product in Europe. In China, the annual growth is 13.56%, somewhat more moderate compared to the United States and the Netherlands, suggesting that while the Chinese market is expanding, it is doing so at a slower pace due to its emerging nature. The United Kingdom, on the other hand, shows an annual growth of 5.36%, the lowest among the four countries. Although positive, this more moderate rate indicates more intense competition or a more saturated market for Peruvian blueberries in the United Kingdom.

From 2014 to 2018, as shown in

Table 3. Destination Of Peru’s Blueberry Exports in Thousands of Tons.

Country	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018
United States	1.32	5.61	14.81	18.73	38.87
Netherlands	0.69	2.88	6.74	11.28	15.30
United Kingdom	0.30	1.40	3.70	4.63	7.24
China	0.00	0.00	0.00	4.08	4.62
Spain	0.04	0.05	0.34	0.58	2.28
Canada	0.00	0.02	0.58	0.84	1.95
Hong Kong	0.49	0.14	0.46	1.71	1.69
Germany	0.01	0.02	0.17	0.08	0.30
Thailand	0.00	0.00	0.06	0.11	0.15
Others	0.05	0.17	0.67	0.49	0.43

Note. Data taken from the DAM registered in SUNAT (2024).

, exports saw significant growth in the quantity exported to several key markets. The United States led this growth with an annual increase of 132.95%, reflecting robust and increasing demand in this market. The Netherlands also experienced strong growth at 117.00%, indicating a solid presence and acceptance of Peruvian blueberries in Europe. The United Kingdom exhibited similar growth at 121.64%, showing an expanding market for Peruvian blueberries. Meanwhile, China, although starting to import later, recorded extraordinarily rapid growth of 363.62%. This high percentage, driven by a low initial value, signals an emerging market with significant growth potential for Peru’s blueberry exports.

Between 2019 and 2023, as shown in

Table 4. Destination Of Peru’s Blueberry Exports in Thousands of Tons.

Country	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
United States	71.24	85.44	113.67	148.27	112.45
Netherlands	27.77	43.25	48.59	68.38	45.62
China	10.34	10.56	9.86	22.54	16.60
United Kingdom	9.71	10.66	11.08	13.62	12.82
Hong Kong	2.80	6.08	16.29	13.55	9.51
Canada	1.18	1.29	2.61	1.90	1.70
Spain	1.10	1.14	1.61	3.00	1.40
Germany	0.00	0.22	0.36	1.74	1.30
Thailand	0.20	0.27	0.40	0.63	0.72
Others	0.70	2.04	1.92	2.02	4.05

Note. Data taken from the DAM registered in SUNAT (2024).

, exports experienced significant growth in several key markets. The United States saw a steady increase with an annual growth rate of 12.09%, reflecting sustained and strong demand in this market. The Netherlands recorded a slightly higher growth of 13.21% annually, indicating the increasing popularity of Peruvian blueberries in Europe. China, starting from lower volumes, showed steady growth of 12.56% annually, indicating an emerging market with growing interest. On the other hand, the United Kingdom experienced more moderate growth of 7.19% annually, becoming a more mature market with more intense competition.

Table 5. Herfindahl–Hirschman Index by Destination Market.

HHI in Value	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018
	2896	4027	3612	2937	3295
	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
	3846	3545	3512	3428	3828
HHI in Quantity	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018
	3043	3939	3684	2877	3451
	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
	3875	3643	3704	3626	3591

shows that the HHI, both in value and quantity, has consistently remained above 2500 points from 2014 to 2023, indicating a high concentration in the Peruvian blueberry export market. This means that a few nations dominate this market, indicating vulnerability in terms of market dependence. This is evident knowing that the United States is the main destination for Peru’s blueberry exports, both in value and quantity. The average annual growth in this market is significant, as reflected in Table 2 and Table 4. This dominance in the U.S. market aligns with the high HHI, suggesting a strong dependence of the Peruvian blueberry market on the United States. Similarly, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom showed considerable growth, but the pace in the United Kingdom was more moderate compared to the Netherlands and the United States. This diversity in growth rate, although positive, seems insufficient to significantly reduce market concentration, as indicated by the high HHI. On the other hand, China, while showing rapid growth, especially in quantity (Table 4), still represents a minor fraction compared to the markets of the United States and the Netherlands. The rapid growth in China suggests potential for market diversification, but it has not yet reached a point to significantly reduce market concentration.

Table 6. Blueberry Exporters in USD Millions, FOB.

Companies	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
Camposol	12	40	91	115	170	183	149	171	225	224
Hortifrut—Perú	0	0	0	0	69	102	147	165	159	160
Agricola Cerro Prieto	0	0	2	7	20	45	46	65	77	126
Agroindustrial Beta	0	0	2	6	12	37	60	70	88	124
Agrovision Perú	0	0	0	4	17	50	72	117	121	84
Exportadora Fruticola Del Sur	0	1	3	6	6	12	22	53	52	68
Hass Perú	0	2	8	22	24	37	38	42	44	65
Danper Trujillo	0	0	1	1	11	23	43	46	50	62
Sociedad Agricola Drokasa	0	0	0	0	2	4	9	20	24	56
Los Demás	18	53	132	208	209	323	398	437	479	607

Note. Data taken from the DAM registered in SUNAT (2024).

shows that Camposol has consistently been the largest exporter, with solid growth, demonstrating maturity in its export operation and a strong market position. Hortifrut—Peru had no exports until 2018, but since then has shown impressive growth reflecting a successful market entry and significant growth over a relatively short period. Agrícola Cerro Prieto and Agroindustrial Beta have also experienced notable growth, demonstrating rapid and effective market expansion.

In

Table 7. Blueberry Exporters in Thousands of Tons.

Companies	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
Camposol	1	4	12	13	25	29	26	31	46	33
Hortifrut—Perú	0	0	0	0	10	18	24	31	35	23
Agricola Cerro Prieto	0	0	0	0	2	8	12	19	23	18
Agroindustrial Beta	0	0	0	1	1	5	11	13	20	15
Agrovision Perú	0	0	0	1	2	5	6	10	16	14
Exportadora Fruticola Del Sur	0	0	0	1	1	1	3	7	9	9
Hass Perú	0	0	1	2	3	5	6	7	9	8
Danper Trujillo	0	0	0	0	0	1	3	7	7	7
Sociedad Agricola Drokasa	0	0	0	0	1	3	7	8	12	7
Los Demás	2	5	14	25	28	49	63	72	99	73

Note. Data taken from the DAM registered in SUNAT (2024).

, Camposol has maintained a dominant market position. Hortifrut-Peru, on the other hand, has experienced impressively rapid growth, an increase due to rapid expansion followed by an adjustment in its market or production strategy. Agrovision Peru has also shown significant growth. These companies have demonstrated a remarkable ability to increase their production and market presence in a relatively short period. Camposol has shown a more stable growth pattern, while Hortifrut-Peru and Agrovision have exhibited faster growth since entering the market. The rapid growth of Hortifrut-Peru and Agrovision Peru was due to an aggressive market capture strategy, followed by a consolidation phase.

Table 8. Herfindahl–Hirschman Index by Exporting Company.

HHI in Value	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018
	4233	3360	2623	1835	1426
	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
	953	723	697	718	594
HHI in Quantity	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018
	4084	3368	2826	1862	1587
	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
	1024	751	720	717	677

reflects market concentration in the blueberry export industry, showing a clear trend toward a decrease in market concentration from 2014 to 2023. This evolution can be better understood by considering the competitive dynamics and individual market shares of exporting companies, as detailed in Table 6 and Table 7. Between 2014 and 2016, the HHI, both in value and quantity, was high, indicating significant market concentration. During this period, a few companies, like Camposol, had a large market share, reflected in their dominance in Table 6 and Table 7. This initial high concentration was evidenced by HHI values above 2500 points, an indicator of a highly concentrated market. However, from 2017 onwards, there was a gradual decrease in HHI. This trend towards lower concentration coincided with the entry of new competitors into the market, such as Hortifrut—Peru and Agrovision Peru, which began to capture a significant market share. These companies, initially with minimal or no presence, grew rapidly. Their growth and the entry of other new actors reduced the market share of established companies, thereby diversifying the market and reducing concentration. By 2023, the HHI had significantly decreased. This decrease in market concentration directly reflects market diversification and increased competition among blueberry exporters.

Table 9. Herfindahl-Hirschman Index by Exporting Company.

Years	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
Countries	18	20	27	31	29	36	35	35	33	44
Companies	19	24	48	59	65	70	84	71	78	114

Note. Data taken from the DAM registered in SUNAT (2024).

illustrates the number of countries and exporting companies from 2014 to 2023. In percentage terms, the greatest growth in the number of countries occurred in 2023, with an increase of 33.3% compared to the previous year. Conversely, the year with the lowest standard deviation in the number of countries was 2015, indicating less variability compared to other years. The annual average number of countries was approximately 30.2. Regarding companies, the highest percentage growth also took place in 2023, with a rise of 46.2% compared to the preceding year. The year with the lowest standard deviation in the number of companies was 2014, reflecting relative stability during that period. The annual average number of exporting companies was approximately 63.2, highlighting a sustained increase over the past decade.

In

Table 10. Revealed Comparative Advantage of Peru—United States.

	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
RCA	0.09	0.10	0.34	0.37	0.45	0.38	0.55	0.50	0.56	0.55

Note. Own elaboration.

, the values, ranging from 0.09 to 0.56, were consistently positioned between −0.33 and +1, indicating that Peru primarily maintained a comparative advantage, thereby underscoring its specialization and competitiveness in this sector. The peak RCA value in 2022 (0.56) marks the year of greatest advantage, whereas 2014 (0.09) represents the least competitive year. The RCA values exhibit a standard deviation of 0.165, indicating moderate variability. The average annual growth rate of RCA stood at approximately 34.65%, reflecting a significant enhancement in competitive advantage over the decade. The Jarque–Bera test yielded a statistic of 1.25 with a p-value of 0.534, suggesting that the distribution of RCA values did not significantly deviate from normality, thereby supporting the assumption of normal distribution in statistical analyses of these data.

In

Table 11. Revealed Comparative Advantage of Peru—Netherlands.

	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
RCA	0.83	0.85	0.78	0.80	0.76	0.77	0.79	0.67	0.78	0.77

Note. Own elaboration.

, the values predominantly lie between 0.67 and 0.85, consistently indicating a comparative advantage (+0.33 to +1 range), which underscores Peru’s specialization and competitive prowess in this sector. The year 2015, with an RCA of 0.85, represents the apex of comparative advantage, while 2021, showing the lowest RCA at 0.67, delineates the nadir. The data’s standard deviation was relatively low at 0.045, signaling minimal fluctuations in competitive advantage across the period. Conversely, the average annual growth rate of RCA was marginally negative, at approximately −0.49%, indicating a slight decrement in competitiveness over time. The Jarque–Bera test returned a statistic of 1.995 with a p-value of 0.369, suggesting that the RCA values were not significantly different from a normal distribution.

In

Table 12. Revealed Comparative Advantage of Peru—United Kingdom.

	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
RCA	0.65	0.70	0.67	0.56	0.53	0.46	0.38	0.10	0.31	0.27

Note. Own elaboration.

, the RCA values predominantly ranged from 0.10 to 0.70, initially indicating a comparative advantage (+0.33 to +1), but subsequently dipping into a range (below +0.33) that suggested a trend towards intra-industry trade. The year 2015, with the highest RCA value of 0.70, marks the peak of comparative advantage, while 2021, with an RCA of 0.10, signifies the most significant competitive decline. The standard deviation across these years was 0.186, indicating a considerable variability in RCA values. The average annual growth rate was around 8.27%, reflecting an overall decline in competitive advantage over the period. The Jarque-Bera test yielded a statistic of 0.656 with a p-value of 0.720, suggesting that the RCA values conformed to a normal distribution.

In

Table 13. Revealed Comparative Advantage of Peru—China.

	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
RCA	−1.00	−1.00	−1.00	−0.55	−0.66	−0.52	−0.54	−0.78	−0.47	−0.65

Note. Own elaboration.

, all RCA values registered between −1.00 and −0.47, uniformly falling within the −0.33 to −1 range, which indicates a consistent comparative disadvantage, signifying that Peru is less competitive in this sector relative to global peers. The most significant disadvantage occurred in the initial years (2014 to 2016), each marked by an RCA of −1.00, with 2022 exhibiting the least disadvantage at −0.47. The standard deviation of these RCA values was 0.203, reflecting moderate fluctuations in competitive stance over time. The average annual growth rate of the RCA was approximately 0.07%, essentially indicating stability in the degree of disadvantage. The Jarque–Bera test yielded a statistic of 1.161 with a p-value of 0.560, suggesting that the distribution of RCA values did not significantly deviate from normality, supporting the validity of using parametric tests in further analyses.

In

Table 14. Revealed Comparative Advantage of Peru—Spain.

	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
RCA	−0.44	−0.68	−0.46	−0.56	−0.02	−0.47	−0.53	−0.62	−0.46	−0.66

Note. Own elaboration.

, all RCA values, ranging from −0.68 to −0.02, consistently fell below the threshold of −0.33, indicating a sustained comparative disadvantage throughout the decade, which suggests that Peru was generally less competitive in this sector compared to global competitors. The year 2018 stands out as the least disadvantageous, with an RCA of −0.02, whereas 2015 marks the most disadvantageous year, with an RCA of −0.68. The standard deviation of these values was approximately 0.177, indicating moderate variability in the RCA values over the observed period. Interestingly, the average annual growth rate of RCA was significantly high, at approximately 249.44%, mainly due to the sharp recovery in 2018, followed by a reversion to lower values. The Jarque–Bera test yielded a statistic of 6.339 with a p-value of 0.042, indicating a significant deviation from normality and suggesting that the RCA values were not normally distributed.

Table 15. Revealed Comparative Advantage of Peru—Canada.

	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
RCA	−0.51	−0.31	−0.33	−0.53	−0.52	−0.37	−0.09	−0.09	−0.43	−0.70

Note. Own elaboration.

examines the RCA with values ranging from −0.70 to −0.09. The indices were consistently below −0.33 across all years, indicating a persistent comparative disadvantage, highlighting Peru’s reduced competitiveness in this sector relative to other global producers. The least disadvantageous years were 2020 and 2021, both recording an RCA of −0.09, while 2023 registered the highest disadvantage at −0.70. The standard deviation of RCA values was approximately 0.184, signaling moderate fluctuations in competitive positioning over the period. The average annual growth rate of RCA was about 40.22%, reflecting a notable increase in the magnitude of disadvantage over time. The Jarque–Bera test yielded a statistic of 0.326 with a p-value of 0.850, suggesting that the RCA values were normally distributed.

4. Discussion

According to international trade theory, countries tend to export goods in which they have a comparative advantage, as is the case with blueberries in Peru [43]. The results from the Balassa index reveal that Peru maintains a comparative advantage in exporting blueberries to several key markets, such as the United States and the Netherlands, with indices exceeding the threshold of 1.0 in various evaluated periods [43,56,57]. This indicates that Peru specializes in the export of blueberries, which is consistent with the model of revealed comparative advantage, suggesting that nations thrive by specializing in those products they can produce more efficiently than other countries.

Additionally, the results on market diversification presented robust growth in several key markets. However, the persistence of a high Herfindahl–Hirschman index indicates that there is still significant market concentration, such as in the United States [55]. This result is partially consistent with market diversification theory, which posits that effective diversification can help mitigate the risks associated with dependence on a single market [48].

Despite the positive indicators of growth and competitiveness, the results also reveal significant challenges that differ from ideal theoretical expectations. For example, the ongoing dependence on specific markets, such as the U.S., reveals a vulnerability that contradicts the theory of effective diversification [53]. Despite efforts to diversify, high concentration in certain markets can increase vulnerability to political and economic changes in those countries [16,17].

Another critical point is the environmental impact of intensive blueberry cultivation in Peru. Practices such as artificial soil acidification and intensive water use [6,7] raise questions about the long-term sustainability of intensive blueberry cultivation.

Comparing the results with previous studies, such as those analyzing the export of other agricultural products from Peru [39,40], it was observed that blueberries follow a similar growth trend and face comparable challenges in terms of diversification and environmental sustainability. This pattern reaffirms the relevance of diversification strategies not only geographically but also in the variety of products offered.

5. Conclusions

The present research has thoroughly examined the sustainability of blueberry exports from Peru, focusing on the dimensions of diversification and competitiveness. The results obtained provide a deep and nuanced understanding of how Peru has managed its growth in the international blueberry market, offering a series of significant conclusions and recommendations for the future strategic direction of this industry.

The study’s findings reveal that Peru has maintained a competitive advantage in the export of blueberries, particularly to key markets such as the United States and the Netherlands. Despite efforts to diversify export markets, the research has identified significant concentration in a few markets, especially in the United States. This poses a risk of vulnerability to fluctuations in demand and external trade policies, challenging the theory that geographic and market diversification is sufficient to ensure economic stability. It has been noted that the rapid growth in blueberry exports has been accompanied by practices that could compromise environmental sustainability. These findings highlight the urgent need to adopt more sustainable and technologically advanced agricultural practices to minimize negative impacts on the environment and ensure the long-term viability of the sector.

Although the blueberry export sector in Peru has shown impressive and sustained growth, it is important that challenges related to effective market diversification be addressed. Looking forward, Peru could consolidate its position in the global market, adopting strategies that ensure a balance between economic growth and environmental responsibility. This research has shown that long-term success will depend significantly on how Peru navigates these complex challenges, adjusting its strategies to the changing dynamics of international trade and the demands of an increasingly demanding market.

6. Recommendations

It is crucial to explore new markets beyond the main current consumers, including emerging markets in Asia and Africa, where the consumption of healthy products is on the rise. More detailed market studies are recommended to better understand the preferences and needs of consumers in different regions, adapting marketing strategies and products to local cultures. Additionally, the implementation of precision agriculture technologies will allow optimizing the use of resources and improving the quality of the final product. Maintaining and facilitating the attainment of international sustainability certifications, such as Fair Trade and Rainforest Alliance, will enhance the image of Peruvian products in international markets and ensure responsible cultivation practices.

In terms of logistics, investments should be made to improve transportation and storage infrastructure, especially regarding the cold chain, to maintain the quality of blueberries during prolonged transport. Providing regular training to producers and workers on best post-harvest handling practices will reduce losses and improve the quality of the exported product. From a governmental perspective, it would be beneficial to offer tax incentives or grants for research and development of new blueberry varieties that are more resistant to diseases and adaptable to different climatic conditions. Additionally, diversification should be encouraged not only in export markets but also in the range of products offered, including derived products such as blueberry juices and preserves.

These recommendations aim to provide a roadmap for Peru to not only maintain its competitiveness in the global blueberry market but also to improve the sustainability of its cultivation and export practices. By implementing these strategies, Peru can strengthen its position as a leader in the global blueberry market, while promoting economic development that is environmentally and socially responsible.