Innovative Cross-Sectional Configurations for Low-Cost Bamboo Composite (LCBC) Structural Columns
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Bamboo Species
2.2. Resin Matrices
2.3. Cross-Sectional Configurations
2.4. Labelling Conventions
2.5. Experimental Testing Method
3. Experimental Testing Results
3.1. Cross-Sectional Configuration Choice
3.1.1. Compressive Properties
3.1.2. Failure Modes
3.2. Bamboo Species Choice
Compressive Properties
3.3. Resin Matrix Choice
Compressive Properties
4. Theoretical Analysis
5. Finite Element Analysis
5.1. Compressive Behaviour
5.2. Resin Content Rate Effect
- The reduction in stiffness observed in columns employing BE2 is less pronounced compared to those utilizing an EPX matrix, attributable to the inherently greater stiffness of EPX.
- The degree of stress softening, defined as the difference between the maximum stress and the failure stress, exhibits negligible variation across the five cases examined.
- The difference in peak stress levels between sections A1 and A2 is more pronounced in columns using BE2 materials than those using EPX.
6. Conclusions
- Unprecedented LCBC compressive members with bio-based resins were able to reach a massive compressive capacity of 567 kN for a member with 104.1 mm diameter, which corresponds to 67 MPa (HAW-BE2-M).
- The maximum compressive strengths (MPa) were achieved by two specimens with synthetic epoxy, closely followed by a specimen with bio-epoxy, namely HAW-EPX-M, RD-EPX-M, and RD-BE2-G specimens, with 78 MPa, 75 MPa, and 72 MPa, respectively.
- In terms of the modulus of elasticity of LCBC with different resin matrices, the stiffest specimens are HAW-BE2-M1, HAW-EPX-M, and HAW-BE2-M2, with 3.89 GPa, 3.08 GPa, and 2.54 GPa, respectively.
- The theoretical predictions of the specimens in the HAW series reached a reasonable accuracy with a Mean value equal to 0.88 and CoV equal to 16% for the Pmeasured/Ptheory ratio.
- FEA conducted with ABAQUS effectively simulates the response of the LCBC columns with HAW configuration to axial compression. The numerical model integrates constitutive models for Moso bamboo and epoxy resins. Mesh refinement strategies, with elements of 5 mm, ensure convergence and accuracy.
- The numerical analysis output closely matches experimental results, with only minor differences observed, such as a 2 MPa difference for axial stress at failure in HAW-EPX-M specimens and a 3 MPa difference in HAW-BE2-M2 specimens.
- Resin content profoundly affects composite properties like strength and stiffness, emphasizing the need for precise control during manufacturing. Parametric studies show that adjusting outer column dimensions while keeping wall thickness consistent alters resin content, peak stress, and stiffness. A discernible trend is observed wherein the SP reduces gradually with increasing resin content. Additionally, the initial stiffness of the column decreases with decreasing the resin content, particularly up to a 50% reduction.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BADGE | Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether |
BE1 | Bio-based Experimental soft filler; |
BE2 | Bio-Epoxy resin matrix; |
BRD | Big Russian doll cross-sectional configuration; |
EPX | Synthetic epoxy resin matrix; |
FEA | Finite Element Analysis |
HAW | Hawser cross-sectional configuration; |
LCBC | Low-Cost Bamboo Composites; |
RC | Reinforced Concrete; |
RD | Russian Doll cross-sectional configuration; |
SCR | Scrimber cross-sectional configuration; |
SP | Stress at Peak |
SR | Stress at Failure |
PFA | Polyfurfuryl alcohol; |
PF1 | Furan-based resin matrix. |
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Configuration | Specimen | DOuter (mm) | Length (mm) | Mass (g) | Bamboo Content (%) | Resin Content (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hawser (HAW) | HAW-EPX-M | 96.3 | 96.9 | 649 | 41 | 59 |
HAW-BE1-M | 98.5 | 93.6 | 586 | 55 | 45 | |
HAW-BE2-M1 | 88.8 | 94.2 | 521 | 53 | 47 | |
HAW-BE2-M2 | 104.1 | 93.8 | 682 | 50 | 50 | |
HAW-BE2-M3 | 90.7 | 92.5 | 480 | 48 | 52 | |
HAW-PF1-M | 88.5 | 99.7 | 347 | 52 | 48 | |
Russian Doll (RD) | RD-EPX-M | 98.7 | 97.6 | 679 | 43 | 57 |
RD-BE1-G | 82.9 | 87.0 | 422 | 47 | 53 | |
RD-BE2-M | 93.2 | 92.8 | 545 | 49 | 51 | |
RD-BE2-T | 84.7 | 98.3 | 406 | 54 | 42 | |
RD-BE2-G | 80.6 | 95.2 | 424 | 49 | 44 | |
RD-PF1-M | 100.9 | 128.5 | 792 | 56 | 41 | |
RD-PF1-T | 82.7 | 99.6 | 330 | 48 | 52 | |
Big Russian Doll (BRD) | BRD-BE2-M | 119.8 | 93.5 | 819 | 59 | 41 |
BRD-PF1-M | 125.9 | 99.2 | 850 | 63 | 37 | |
Scrimber (SCR) | SCR-BE2-M | 91.3 | 100.0 | 513 | 56 | 44 |
SCR-PF1-M | 90.8 | 146.9 | 695 | 54 | 46 |
Configuration | Specimen | ΔLc,0 (mm) | εc,0 | Fult (kN) | fc,0 (MPa) | Ec,0 (GPa) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hawser (HAW) | HAW-EPX-M | 4.30 | 0.044 | 568 | 78 | 3.08 |
HAW-BE1-M | 3.76 | 0.038 | 220 | 36 | 1.32 | |
HAW-BE2-M1 | 3.37 | 0.035 | 398 | 64 | 3.89 | |
HAW-BE2-M2 | 4.23 | 0.043 | 567 | 67 | 2.54 | |
HAW-BE2-M3 | 4.48 | 0.049 | 363 | 56 | 2.01 | |
HAW-PF1-M | 3.01 | 0.031 | 236 | 38 | 2.06 | |
Russian Doll (RD) | RD-EPX-M | 3.73 | 0.038 | 571 | 75 | 3.07 |
RD-BE1-G | 2.18 | 0.025 | 166 | 31 | 1.74 | |
RD-BE2-M | 5.26 | 0.059 | 417 | 61 | 1.50 | |
RD-BE2-T | 1.54 | 0.016 | 204 | 36 | 4.47 | |
RD-BE2-G | 3.98 | 0.043 | 366 | 72 | 3.85 | |
RD-PF1-M | 3.70 | 0.072 | 234 | 30 | 1.08 | |
RD-PF1-T | 2.69 | 0.027 | 166 | 31 | 1.29 | |
Big Russian Doll (BRD) | BRD-BE2-M | 5.49 | 0.059 | 555 | 49 | 1.10 |
BRD-PF1-M | 4.28 | 0.043 | 500 | 40 | 1.18 | |
Scrimber (SCR) | SCR-BE2-M | 4.43 | 0.041 | 391 | 60 | 3.87 |
SCR-PF1-M | 5.54 | 0.038 | 225 | 35 | 1.39 |
Specimen | Strain of the First Failed Component | Predicted Bamboo Share (kN) | Predicted Resin Share (kN) | Ptheory (kN) | Pmeasured (kN) | Pmeasured/ Ptheory |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HAW-EPX-M | 0.037 (b) * | 208.5 | 313.0 | 522 | 568 | 1.09 |
HAW-BE1-M | 0.037 (b) | 292.7 | 0.1 | 293 | 220 | 0.75 |
HAW-BE2-M1 | 0.037 (b) | 229.3 | 188.3 | 418 | 398 | 0.95 |
HAW-BE2-M2 | 0.037 (b) | 297.2 | 275.4 | 573 | 567 | 0.99 |
HAW-BE2-M3 | 0.037 (b) | 216.6 | 217.4 | 434 | 363 | 0.84 |
HAW-PF1-M | 0.019 (r) | 222.1 | 123.9 | 346 | 236 | 0.68 |
Property/Specimen Name | FEA-A1 | FEA-A2 | FEA-A3 | FEA-A4 | FEA-A5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Radius of section (RS) | 1.2r | 1.1r | r | 0.9r | 0.8r |
Peak stress (SP), MPa | 83.7 | 82.1 | 80.6 | 78 | 74.96 |
Stress at failure (SF), MPa | 79.3 | 80.0 | 79.5 | 77.2 | 73.69 |
Degree of Stress softening (SP − SF), MPa | 4.40 | 2.11 | 1.10 | 0.80 | 0.65 |
Strain at peak (εP) | 0.040 | 0.050 | 0.043 | 0.033 | 0.043 |
Strain at failure (εF) | 0.050 | 0.052 | 0.046 | 0.045 | 0.05 |
Strain gradient at softening (εF − εP) | 0.010 | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0.012 | 0.007 |
Stiffness (E0), GPa | 3.70 | 2.94 | 2.55 | 2.49 | 2.30 |
Property/Specimen Name | FEA-A1 | FEA-A2 | FEA-A3 | FEA-A4 | FEA-A5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Radius of section (RS) | 1.2r | 1.1r | r | 0.9r | 0.8r |
Peak stress (SP), MPa | 82.95 | 71.93 | 66.90 | 63.05 | 63.15 |
Stress at failure (SF), MPa | 80.45 | 69.28 | 63.50 | 60.41 | 61.50 |
Degree of Stress softening (SP − SF), MPa | 2.50 | 2.65 | 3.40 | 2.64 | 1.65 |
Strain at peak (εP) | 0.048 | 0.044 | 0.04 | 0.042 | 0.044 |
Strain at failure (εF) | 0.056 | 0.053 | 0.054 | 0.047 | 0.050 |
Strain gradient at softening (εF − εP) | 0.008 | 0.009 | 0.014 | 0.005 | 0.006 |
Stiffness (E0), GPa | 2.70 | 2.20 | 1.94 | 1.65 | 1.55 |
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Padfield, C.; Drury, B.; Soltanieh, G.; Rajabifard, M.; Mofidi, A. Innovative Cross-Sectional Configurations for Low-Cost Bamboo Composite (LCBC) Structural Columns. Sustainability 2024, 16, 7451. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177451
Padfield C, Drury B, Soltanieh G, Rajabifard M, Mofidi A. Innovative Cross-Sectional Configurations for Low-Cost Bamboo Composite (LCBC) Structural Columns. Sustainability. 2024; 16(17):7451. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177451
Chicago/Turabian StylePadfield, Cameron, Ben Drury, Ghazaleh Soltanieh, Mona Rajabifard, and Amir Mofidi. 2024. "Innovative Cross-Sectional Configurations for Low-Cost Bamboo Composite (LCBC) Structural Columns" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7451. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177451