Hazelnut Cultivation in the Campania Region: Environmental Sustainability of the Recovery of Pruning Residues and Shells through the Life Cycle Assessment Methodology
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. System Description
2.2. Goal and Scope Definition
2.3. Lifecycle Inventory (LCI)
2.4. Life Cycle Impact Assessment
2.5. Sensitivity Analysis
3. Results
3.1. The Impacts of the Agricultural Phase
The Focus on the Climate Change
3.2. The Impacts of the Post-Harvest Operations
3.3. The Life Cycle Comparison in Economic Terms
3.4. The Recovery of Pruning Material and Shells
4. Discussion
Limitations of This Study
5. Final Considerations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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System | Province | Cultivar (CV) | Tree Age | Tree Shape | Planting Density (Trees ha−1) | Average Yield (kg ha−1 Year−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BIO1 | Caserta | SG | 15 | Multi-stem and vase | 5 × 5 | 2200 |
BIO2 | Avellino | M, TG | From 30 to 50 | Vase | 4 × 4 | 2098 |
BIO3 | Avellino | M | From 10 to 20 | Multi-stem and vase | 4 × 4 | 1906 |
BIO4 | Salerno | TG | 25 | Multi-stem and vase | 4 × 4 | 4325 |
INT1 | Caserta | TGR, SG, M | 35 | Vase | 4.5 × 4.5 | 3500 |
INT2 | Avellino | M 80%, TB, SG, TR | From 15 to 30 | Multi-stem | 5 × 5 6 × 5 | 2500 |
INT3 | Avellino | M 80%, TB, SG, TR | 25 | Multi-stem | 6 × 4 | 3000 |
INT4 | Avellino | M, TG | from 20 to 40 | Multi-stem and Vase | 5 × 5 5 × 4 | 2950 |
INT5 | Avellino | M 90%, SG 5%, P 5% | From 30 to 35 | Multi-stem and Vase | 5 × 5 2.5 × 2.5 | 2450 |
INT6 | Salerno | TG | 40 | Multi-stem | 3 × 4 | 2000 |
INT7 | Salerno | TG | 15 | Vase | 5 × 4 | 1800 |
INT8 | Salerno | TG | 30 | Multi-stem | 3 × 4 | 1000 |
INT9 | Salerno | TG | 10 | Vase | 5 × 4 | 1000 |
INT10 | Salerno | TG | 20 | Vase | 5 × 4 | 1700 |
INT11 | Salerno | TG | 40 | Multi-stem | 3 × 4 | 1800 |
INT12 | Salerno | TG | 25 | Multi-stem and vase | 4 × 4 | 6055 |
INT13 | Caserta | M | From 1 to 40 | Vase | 4 × 4 5 × 4 | 2900 |
INT14 | Caserta | Different CV | From 1 to 40 | Vase | 5 × 5 | 3000 |
INT15 | Caserta | TG | 20 | Multi-stem | 2 × 1.5 | 3000 |
INT16 | Caserta | TG | 20 | Multi-stem | 2 × 1.5 | 2000 |
CONV | Caserta | TGR, SG, M | 35 | Vase | 4.5 × 4.5 | 3300 |
System | Soil Texture | Slope | Cultivation System | Pruning Residue Disposal | Irrigation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BIO1 | sandy-silty | 0% | Organic | Shredded in the field | no |
BIO2 | loose | 3% | Organic | Removed and burned in the open air | no |
BIO3 | loose | 20% | Organic | Shredded in the field | no |
BIO4 | sandy-silty | 5–20% | Organic | Burned on the field | no |
INT1 | loose sandy | 5% | Integrated | Shredded in the field | no |
INT2 | sandy-silty | embankments | Integrated | Removed and burned in a plant | no |
INT3 | sandy-silty | 0% | Integrated | Removed and burned in a plant | no |
INT4 | medium-textured | 0–20% | Integrated | Shredded in the field | no |
INT5 | sandy-silty | 0–20% | Integrated | Shredded in the field | no |
INT6 | sandy-silty | 0–20% | Integrated | Shredded in the field | yes |
INT7 | sandy-silty | 0–20% | Integrated | Shredded in the field | yes |
INT8 | sandy-silty | terraces | Integrated | Shredded in the field | no |
INT9 | sandy-silty | terraces | Integrated | Shredded in the field | no |
INT10 | sandy-silty | 0–20% | Integrated | Shredded in the field | no |
INT11 | sandy-silty | 0–20% | Integrated | Shredded in the field | no |
INT12 | sandy-silty | 5–20% | Integrated | Burned on the field | no |
INT13 | sandy-silty | 0% | Integrated | Removed and burned in the open air | yes |
INT14 | sandy-silty | 0% | Integrated | Removed and burned in the open air | no |
INT15 | sandy-silty | 0% | Integrated | Removed and burned in the open air | no |
INT16 | clay | embankments | Integrated | Removed and burned in the open air | no |
CONV | sandy-silty | 5% | Conventional | Shredded in the field | no |
Systems | Fertilization | Weed Control | Soil Cover Management | Disease Control | De-Suckering Method | Harvesting |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BIO1 | green manure | shredding | harrowing and shredding | Natural products | manual | manual |
BIO2 | annual and natural | shredding | harrowing | Natural products | manual | mechanized |
BIO3 | green manure | shredding | milling | Natural products | manual | mechanized |
BIO4 | annual and natural | shredding | milling and harrowing | Natural products | manual | manual |
INT1 | annual and mineral | shredding | milling and harrowing | Conventional products | manual | mechanized |
INT2 | annual and mineral | shredding and glyphosate | milling and shredding | Conventional products | manual | mechanized |
INT3 | annual and mineral | shredding and glyphosate | milling and shredding | Conventional products | manual | mechanized |
INT4 | annual and mineral | shredding and glyphosate | harrowing | Conventional products | manual | mechanized |
INT5 | annual and mineral | shredding | milling | Conventional products (rarely) | manual | mechanized |
INT6 | annual and mineral | shredding and glyphosate | no operations | Conventional products | mechanized | mechanized |
INT7 | annual and mineral | shredding and glyphosate | no operations | Conventional products | mechanized | mechanized |
INT8 | annual and mineral | shredding and glyphosate | no operations | Conventional products | mechanized | mechanized |
INT9 | annual and mineral | shredding and glyphosate | no operations | Conventional products | mechanized | mechanized |
INT10 | annual and mineral | shredding and glyphosate | no operations | Conventional products | mechanized | mechanized |
INT11 | annual and mineral | shredding and glyphosate | no operations | Conventional products | mechanized | mechanized |
INT12 | annual and mineral | shredding | milling and harrowing | Conventional products | manual | manual |
INT13 | annual and mineral | shredding and glyphosate | no operations | Conventional products | manual | mechanized |
INT14 | annual and mineral | shredding | no operations | Conventional products | manual | mechanized |
INT15 | annual and mineral | shredding | no operations | Conventional products | manual | mechanized |
INT16 | annual and mineral | shredding | no operations | Conventional products | manual | mechanized |
CONV | annual and mineral | shredding and rarely glyphosate | milling and harrowing | Conventional products | manual | mechanized |
System | Post-Harvest | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fresh Hazelnuts | Cleaning | Drying | Calibration | Shelling | Packaging | |
BIO1 | no | electric | mechanical | no | no | no |
BIO2 | no | electric | in the open air | no | no | no |
BIO3 | no | manual | in the open air | no | no | no |
BIO4 | yes | electric | electric | electric | electric | yes |
INT1 | yes | no | no | no | no | no |
INT2 | no | electric | mechanical | no | no | no |
INT3 | no | electric | mechanical | no | no | no |
INT4 | no | electric | electric | electric | no | no |
INT5 | no | manual | in the open air | no | no | no |
INT6 | no | electric | electric | electric | no | no |
INT7 | no | electric | electric | electric | no | no |
INT8 | no | electric | electric | electric | no | no |
INT9 | no | electric | electric | electric | no | no |
INT10 | no | electric | electric | electric | no | no |
INT11 | no | electric | electric | electric | no | no |
INT12 | yes | electric | electric | electric | electric | yes |
INT13 | no | mechanical | electric | no | no | no |
INT14 | yes | no | no | no | no | no |
INT15 | yes | manual | in the open air | no | no | yes |
INT16 | yes | manual | in the open air | no | no | yes |
CONV | yes | no | no | no | no | no |
Organic Pellets | Mineral Organic Fertilizer | NPK | Binary Fertilizer NP | Manure | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BIO1 | |||||
BIO2 | 487 | ||||
BIO3 | 500 | ||||
BIO4 | 1000 | ||||
INT1 | 600 | ||||
INT2 | 800 | ||||
INT3 | 800 | ||||
INT4 | 500 | ||||
INT5 | 300 | ||||
INT6 | 250 | ||||
INT7 | 250 | ||||
INT8 | 250 | ||||
INT9 | 250 | ||||
INT10 | 250 | ||||
INT11 | 250 | ||||
INT12 | 500 | ||||
INT13 | 600 | ||||
INT14 | 300 | ||||
INT15 | 1000 | 600 | |||
INT16 | 1000 | 600 | |||
CONV | 700 |
Copper Oxychloride | Copper Hydroxide | Copper Sulphate | Cuprous Oxide | Sulfur | Propolis | Boron | Algae Organic | Neem Oil | Pyrethrum | Insecticide | Tebuconazole | Glyphosate | Bordeaux Mixture | Difenoconazole | Kaolin | Zeolite | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BIO1 | 6 | 2 | |||||||||||||||
BIO2 | 22 | 7.5 | |||||||||||||||
BIO3 | |||||||||||||||||
BIO4 | 1.4 | 3 | 1 | 0.6 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 0.5 | ||||||||||
INT1 | 12 | 3 | 3 | 12 | 2 | 5 | 30 | 0.8 | |||||||||
INT2 | 3 | 1 | |||||||||||||||
INT3 | 3 | 1 | |||||||||||||||
INT4 | 2 | ||||||||||||||||
INT5 | |||||||||||||||||
INT6 | 6 | 2.5 | |||||||||||||||
INT7 | 6 | 2.5 | |||||||||||||||
INT8 | 6 | 2.5 | |||||||||||||||
INT9 | 6 | 2.5 | |||||||||||||||
INT10 | 6 | 2.5 | |||||||||||||||
INT11 | 6 | 2.5 | |||||||||||||||
INT12 | 1.4 | 3 | 1 | 0.6 | 1 | 0 | 0.5 | 1.6 | |||||||||
INT13 | 9 | 1 | 5 | ||||||||||||||
INT14 | 16.5 | 0.5 | |||||||||||||||
INT15 | |||||||||||||||||
INT16 | |||||||||||||||||
CONV | 6 | 3 | 12 | 4 | 30 | 0.8 |
Lambda-Cyhalothrin | Acetamiprid | Methyl Thiophanate | Sorbitan Mono Oleate | Etofenprox | Deltamethrin | Azadiractina | Enovit-Metil | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BIO1 | ||||||||
BIO2 | ||||||||
BIO3 | 0.8 | |||||||
BIO4 | ||||||||
INT1 | 0.3 | 3.6 | 3 | 0.5 | 0.5 | |||
INT2 | 0.8 | 1.6 | 4.95 | |||||
INT3 | 0.8 | 1.6 | 4.95 | |||||
INT4 | 2.5 | |||||||
INT5 | 0.75 | |||||||
INT6 | 1.7 | |||||||
INT7 | 1.7 | |||||||
INT8 | 1.7 | |||||||
INT9 | 1.7 | |||||||
INT10 | 1.7 | |||||||
INT11 | 1.7 | |||||||
INT12 | ||||||||
INT13 | 0.375 | 1.5 | ||||||
INT14 | 0.25 | 1.5 | ||||||
INT15 | 1 | |||||||
INT16 | 1 | |||||||
CONV | 0.3 | 3.6 | 3 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Human Labor (h ha−1) | Machinery (h ha−1) | Diesel (kg ha−1) | Water (mc ha−1) | Electricity (kW ha−1) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BIO1 | 78 | 74 | 199 | ||
BIO2 | 603 | 66 | 162 | ||
BIO3 | 190 | 100 | 296 | ||
BIO4 | 354 | 68 | 209 | 433 | |
INT1 | 45 | 68 | 239 | ||
INT2 | 383 | 103 | 180 | ||
INT3 | 430 | 124 | 210 | ||
INT4 | 41 | 23 | 70 | ||
INT5 | 89 | 33 | 136 | ||
INT6 | 141 | 98 | 225 | 108 | 8 |
INT7 | 138 | 77 | 183 | 168 | 13 |
INT8 | 159 | 102 | 317 | ||
INT9 | 182 | 92 | 316 | ||
INT10 | 150 | 75 | 148 | ||
INT11 | 156 | 98 | 200 | ||
INT12 | 354 | 68 | 207 | 433 | |
INT13 | 52 | 17 | 151 | 224 | 575 |
INT14 | 54 | 24 | 86 | ||
INT15 | 23 | 16 | 48 | ||
INT16 | 50 | 22 | 16 | ||
CONV | 50 | 70 | 239 |
Impact Category/ Unit | Systems | ||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Organic | Integrated | CONV | |||||||||||||||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | ||
CC kg CO2 eq | 0.45 | 0.56 | 0.60 | 0.32 | 0.56 | 0.87 | 0.61 | 0.45 | 0.44 | 0.98 | 0.95 | 2.48 | 2.45 | 1.51 | 0.99 | 0.43 | 0.58 | 0.59 | 0.69 | 0.94 | 0.74 |
OD kg CFC-11 eq | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
RA kg SO2 eq | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
FEu kg P eq | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
MEu kg N eq | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
HT kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.16 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.21 | 0.16 | 0.11 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.19 | 0.18 | 0.49 | 0.48 | 0.24 | 0.18 | 0.09 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.12 | 0.31 |
POF kg NMVOC | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
PMF kg PM10 eq | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
TEc kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
FEc kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.07 |
MEc kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.07 |
IR kBq U235 eq | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.05 |
ALO m2 yr annual crop land−1 | 0.37 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 0.11 | 0.34 | 0.33 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.09 |
ULO m2 yr annual land−1 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.06 |
NLT m2 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
WD (m3) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.08 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 |
MD (kg Fe eq) | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.24 | 0.24 | 0.11 | 0.09 | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.16 |
FD (kg oil eq) | 0.14 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.09 | 0.16 | 0.22 | 0.15 | 0.11 | 0.12 | 0.26 | 0.25 | 0.68 | 0.67 | 0.35 | 0.26 | 0.09 | 0.18 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.20 |
Impact Category/Unit | Systems | ||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Organic | Integrated | CONV | |||||||||||||||||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | ||
CC kg CO2 eq | 985 | 1173 | 1141 | 1387 | 1976 | 2174 | 1826 | 1327 | 1071 | 1952 | 1715 | 2478 | 2448 | 2568 | 1779 | 2596 | 1680 | 1764 | 2073 | 1880 | 2458 |
OD kg CFC-11 eq | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
RA kg SO2 eq | 6 | 8 | 11 | 15 | 32 | 17 | 15 | 16 | 21 | 13 | 11 | 16 | 16 | 18 | 12 | 15 | 9 | 16 | 14 | 12 | 51 |
FEu kg P eq | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
MEu kg N eq | 3 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 |
HT kg 1,4-DB eq | 353 | 233 | 211 | 372 | 751 | 409 | 332 | 349 | 206 | 373 | 321 | 486 | 479 | 410 | 331 | 550 | 388 | 185 | 283 | 241 | 1027 |
POF kg NMVOC | 9 | 10 | 9 | 12 | 14 | 13 | 10 | 6 | 7 | 13 | 10 | 18 | 18 | 11 | 11 | 14 | 9 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 14 |
PMF kg PM10 eq | 4 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 11 |
TEc kg 1,4-DB eq | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
FEc kg 1,4-DB eq | 58 | 16 | 15 | 45 | 151 | 32 | 26 | 15 | 20 | 35 | 31 | 43 | 43 | 49 | 33 | 65 | 48 | 23 | 29 | 26 | 227 |
MEc kg 1,4-DB eq | 51 | 14 | 13 | 40 | 154 | 28 | 23 | 13 | 18 | 30 | 26 | 37 | 37 | 42 | 27 | 58 | 50 | 25 | 26 | 23 | 223 |
IR kBq U235 eq | 70 | 46 | 44 | 61 | 134 | 76 | 60 | 34 | 55 | 87 | 76 | 112 | 111 | 114 | 81 | 85 | 138 | 61 | 36 | 28 | 166 |
ALO m2 yr annual crop land−1 | 819 | 189 | 172 | 233 | 268 | 245 | 182 | 93 | 124 | 237 | 194 | 340 | 335 | 203 | 213 | 256 | 169 | 107 | 78 | 43 | 283 |
ULO m2 yr annual land−1 | 101 | 44 | 41 | 66 | 156 | 81 | 67 | 37 | 62 | 94 | 83 | 118 | 117 | 137 | 88 | 83 | 134 | 49 | 32 | 24 | 194 |
NLT m2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
WD (m3) | 4 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 12 | 6 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 9 | 9 | 11 | 11 | 17 | 9 | 11 | 237 | 6 | 10 | 9 | 17 |
MD (kg Fe eq) | 180 | 117 | 109 | 194 | 383 | 175 | 135 | 67 | 98 | 177 | 150 | 242 | 238 | 193 | 161 | 243 | 144 | 86 | 92 | 70 | 534 |
FD (kg oil eq) | 297 | 315 | 291 | 397 | 545 | 544 | 437 | 311 | 288 | 518 | 446 | 682 | 672 | 597 | 467 | 562 | 516 | 262 | 282 | 222 | 648 |
Impact Category | BIO | INT | CONV | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unit | per kg | per ha | per kg | per ha | per kg | per ha | |
Climate change | kg CO2 eq | 0.482 | 1171.7 | 0.969 | 1956.8 | 0.745 | 2457.69 |
Ozone depletion | kg CFC-11 eq | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.000 | 0.0 | 0.000 | 0.00 |
Terrestrial acidification | kg SO2 eq | 0.004 | 10.0 | 0.007 | 15.8 | 0.015 | 50.55 |
Freshwater eutrophication | kg P eq | 0.000 | 0.2 | 0.000 | 0.8 | 0.000 | 0.78 |
Marine eutrophication | kg N eq | 0.000 | 1.1 | 0.000 | 0.8 | 0.001 | 2.19 |
Human toxicity | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.117 | 292.3 | 0.184 | 380.9 | 0.311 | 1026.80 |
Photochemical oxidant formation | kg NMVOC | 0.004 | 10.0 | 0.006 | 10.5 | 0.004 | 14.50 |
Particulate matter formation | kg PM10 eq | 0.002 | 4.3 | 0.003 | 5.4 | 0.003 | 11.30 |
Terrestrial ecotoxicity | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.000 | 0.1 | 0.000 | 0.4 | 0.000 | 0.71 |
Freshwater ecotoxicity | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.013 | 33.6 | 0.019 | 41.8 | 0.069 | 227.48 |
Marine ecotoxicity | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.012 | 29.6 | 0.017 | 38.5 | 0.067 | 222.73 |
Ionizing radiation | kBq U235 eq | 0.023 | 55.2 | 0.041 | 80.5 | 0.050 | 166.31 |
Agricultural land occupation | m2 yr annual crop land−1 | 0.152 | 353.3 | 0.102 | 192.9 | 0.086 | 283.21 |
Urban land occupation | m2 yr annual land−1 | 0.026 | 63.0 | 0.043 | 85.2 | 0.059 | 193.92 |
Natural land transformation | m2 | 0.000 | 0.3 | 0.000 | 0.4 | 0.000 | 0.59 |
Water depletion | m3 | 0.001 | 3.2 | 0.009 | 23.3 | 0.005 | 17.02 |
Metal depletion | kg Fe eq | 0.060 | 150.0 | 0.083 | 165.9 | 0.162 | 533.52 |
Fossil depletion | kg oil eq | 0.132 | 325.1 | 0.236 | 459.5 | 0.196 | 648.28 |
Impact Category | Flat Land | Embankment/Terrace | Irrigated | Not Irrigated | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unit | per kg | per ha | per kg | per ha | per kg | per ha | per kg | per ha | |
CC | kg CO2 eq | 0.67 | 1733.75 | 1.68 | 2245.0 | 0.84 | 1782.5 | 0.87 | 1839.2 |
OD | kg CFC-11 eq | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
RA | kg SO2 eq | 0.01 | 16.60 | 0.01 | 15.25 | 0.01 | 11.13 | 0.01 | 17.21 |
FEu | kg P eq | 0.00 | 0.74 | 0.00 | 0.45 | 0.00 | 0.34 | 0.00 | 0.74 |
MEu | kg N eq | 0.00 | 0.92 | 0.00 | 0.78 | 0.00 | 0.62 | 0.00 | 0.94 |
HT | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.15 | 392.74 | 0.31 | 403.66 | 0.17 | 360.68 | 0.18 | 400.51 |
POF | kg NMVOC | 0.00 | 10.00 | 0.01 | 13.02 | 0.01 | 10.55 | 0.01 | 10.57 |
PMF | kg PM10 eq | 0.00 | 5.36 | 0.00 | 6.15 | 0.00 | 4.83 | 0.00 | 5.62 |
TEc | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.00 | 0.35 | 0.00 | 0.44 | 0.00 | 0.46 | 0.00 | 0.35 |
FEc | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.02 | 52.13 | 0.03 | 35.95 | 0.02 | 38.05 | 0.02 | 50.88 |
MEc | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.02 | 48.94 | 0.02 | 31.26 | 0.02 | 35.26 | 0.02 | 47.29 |
IR | kBq U235 eq | 0.03 | 79.29 | 0.07 | 81.75 | 0.04 | 100.30 | 0.04 | 76.34 |
ALO | m2 yr annual crop land | 0.09 | 224.70 | 0.20 | 240.67 | 0.09 | 200.02 | 0.11 | 232.36 |
ULO | m2 yr annual land | 0.03 | 86.34 | 0.07 | 85.19 | 0.05 | 103.73 | 0.04 | 83.19 |
NLT | m2 | 0.00 | 0.34 | 0.00 | 0.41 | 0.00 | 0.39 | 0.00 | 0.34 |
WD | m3 | 0.01 | 21.47 | 0.01 | 9.24 | 0.03 | 85.23 | 0.00 | 8.13 |
MD | kg Fe eq | 0.07 | 180.19 | 0.15 | 181.25 | 0.07 | 157.01 | 0.08 | 184.29 |
FD | kg oil eq | 0.17 | 422.33 | 0.42 | 530.13 | 0.23 | 493.16 | 0.21 | 434.48 |
Impact Category | Unit | Shelling | Peeling | Toasting | Filling and Vacuum Packing | Type of Plastic Bags | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.150 kg | 0.250 kg | 1 kg | ||||||
CC | kg CO2 eq | 0.015 | 0.089 | 0.076 | 0.011 | 0.017 | 0.013 | 0.004 |
OD | kg CFC-11 eq | 0.005 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
RA | kg SO2 eq | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
FEu | kg P eq | 0.003 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
MEu | kg N eq | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
HT | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.001 | 0.016 | 0.014 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.001 |
POF | kg NMVOC | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
PMF | kg PM10 eq | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
TEc | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
FEc | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
MEc | kg 1,4-DB eq | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
IR | kBq U235 eq | 0.000 | 0.011 | 0.009 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.000 |
ALO | m2 yr annual crop land | 0.000 | 0.006 | 0.005 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
ULO | m2 yr annual land | 0.000 | 0.021 | 0.018 | 0.003 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.000 |
NLT | m2 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
WD | m3 | 0.000 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
MD | kg Fe eq | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
FD | kg oil eq | 0.000 | 0.028 | 0.030 | 0.003 | 0.014 | 0.011 | 0.003 |
Pellets | Methane | Diesel oil | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
A | B | C | A | B | C | A | B | C | |
(%) | |||||||||
BIO1 | 0.9 | 8 | - | −100 | - | −100 | −100 | - | −100 |
BIO2 | 0.7 | 7 | - | −100 | - | −100 | −100 | - | −100 |
BIO3 | 0.7 | 7 | - | −100 | - | −100 | −100 | - | −100 |
BIO4 | 0.6 | 6 | - | −93 | - | −89 | −100 | - | −100 |
INT1 | 0.4 | 4 | - | −65 | - | −63 | −81 | - | −83 |
INT2 | 0.4 | 4 | - | −59 | - | −57 | −74 | - | −76 |
INT3 | 0.5 | 5 | - | −71 | - | −68 | −88 | - | −90 |
INT4 | 0.6 | 6 | - | −97 | - | −93 | −100 | - | −100 |
INT5 | 0.8 | 8 | - | −100 | - | −100 | −100 | - | −100 |
INT6 | 0.4 | 4 | - | −66 | - | −63 | −82 | - | −84 |
INT7 | 0.5 | 5 | - | −75 | - | −72 | −94 | - | −96 |
INT8 | 0.3 | 3 | - | −52 | - | −50 | −65 | - | −67 |
INT9 | 0.3 | 3 | - | −53 | - | −51 | −66 | - | −67 |
INT10 | 0.3 | 3 | - | −50 | - | −48 | −63 | - | −64 |
INT11 | 0.5 | 5 | - | −73 | - | −70 | −90 | - | −93 |
INT12 | 0.3 | 3 | - | −50 | - | −48 | −62 | - | −63 |
INT13 | 0.5 | 5 | - | −77 | - | −74 | −96 | - | −98 |
INT14 | 0.5 | 5 | - | −73 | - | −70 | −91 | - | −93 |
INT15 | 0.4 | 4 | - | −62 | - | −60 | −78 | - | −79 |
INT16 | 0.5 | 4 | - | −69 | - | −66 | −86 | - | −88 |
CONV | 0.3 | 3 | - | −53 | - | −50 | −66 | - | −67 |
Pellets | Methane | Diesel Oil | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Combustion in Fireplaces/Stoves | Combustion in 50 kW Boilers | Combustion in Fireplaces/Stoves | Combustion in a 1 MW Plant | Combustion in Fireplaces/Stoves | Combustion in a 1 MW Plant | |
BIO1 | −5% | 5% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
BIO2 | −5% | 3% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
BIO3 | −6% | 2% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
BIO4 | 4% | 14% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT1 | 1% | 7% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT2 | −2% | 3% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT3 | −1% | 5% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT4 | −1% | 7% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT5 | −4% | 6% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT6 | −3% | 2% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT7 | −4% | 1% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT8 | −5% | −1% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT9 | −5% | −1% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT10 | −3% | 0% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT11 | −4% | 1% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT12 | 5% | 12% | −95% | −91% | −100% | −100% |
INT13 | −1% | 5% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT14 | −1% | 6% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT15 | −1% | 5% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
INT16 | −3% | 2% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
CONV | 0% | 5% | −100% | −100% | −100% | −100% |
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Pergola, M.; Maffia, A.; Picone, A.; Palese, A.M.; Altieri, G.; Celano, G. Hazelnut Cultivation in the Campania Region: Environmental Sustainability of the Recovery of Pruning Residues and Shells through the Life Cycle Assessment Methodology. Sustainability 2024, 16, 7533. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177533
Pergola M, Maffia A, Picone A, Palese AM, Altieri G, Celano G. Hazelnut Cultivation in the Campania Region: Environmental Sustainability of the Recovery of Pruning Residues and Shells through the Life Cycle Assessment Methodology. Sustainability. 2024; 16(17):7533. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177533
Chicago/Turabian StylePergola, Maria, Angela Maffia, Antonietta Picone, Assunta Maria Palese, Gessica Altieri, and Giuseppe Celano. 2024. "Hazelnut Cultivation in the Campania Region: Environmental Sustainability of the Recovery of Pruning Residues and Shells through the Life Cycle Assessment Methodology" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7533. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177533