Augmentation of Reclaimed Water with Excess Urban Stormwater for Direct Potable Use
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. General Water Quality of Reclaimed Water, Stormwater, and Rainwater
3.2. Assessment of Metals and Trace Organics in Reclaimed Water
3.3. Approaches for DPR of Combining Reclaimed Water and Stormwater
4. Discussion
4.1. Upstream (Inland) vs. Downstream (Coastal) Communities
4.2. Small vs. Large Communities
4.3. Rural vs. Urban Communities
4.4. Arid, Semi-Arid, and Humid Climates
4.5. Cold vs. Warm Climate
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type | Date | Time | Note |
---|---|---|---|
Reclaimed Water | 3 February 2021 | 1:40 PM | Chlorinated |
3 February 2021 | 1:55 PM | UV disinfected | |
5 March 2021 | 4:10 PM | UV disinfected | |
14 May 2021 | 9:00 AM | Chlorinated | |
14 May 2021 | 9:30 AM | UV disinfected | |
9 August 2022 | 9:00 AM | UV disinfected | |
16 October 2023 | 5:00 PM | UV disinfected | |
17 December 2023 | 6:00 PM | UV disinfected | |
18 December 2023 | 4:30 PM | UV disinfected | |
Stormwater | 11 February 2021 | 10:05 AM | Outfall 1-20 (Middle of rain) |
11 February 2021 | 10:10 AM | Outfall 1-32 (Middle of rain) | |
23 April 2021 | 11:10 AM | Outfall 1-20 (First flush) | |
23 April 2021 | 11:15 AM | Outfall 1-32 (First flush) | |
23 April 2021 | 3:00 PM | Outfall 1-32 (End of rain) | |
Rainwater | 17 March 2021 | 5:00 PM | From a storage tank |
9 August 2021 | 4:00 PM | From a storage tank |
Parameter | Reclaimed Water (n = 5) | Stormwater (n = 5) | Rainwater (n = 2) | USEPA Drinking Water Standard |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sodium (mg/L) | 233 ± 34 | 65 ± 48 | <10 | n/a |
Potassium (mg/L) | 17 ± 1 | 27 ± 25 | 0.4 ± 0.1 | n/a |
Calcium (mg/L) | 96 ± 7 | 6.6 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.1 | n/a |
Magnesium (mg/L) | 18 ± 3 | 0.5 ± 0.1 | 0.5 | n/a |
Iron (mg/L) | 0.06 ± 0.01 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.3 * |
Manganese (mg/L) | 0.032 ± 0.005 | 0.015 ± 0.007 | 0.022 | 0.05 * |
Copper (mg/L) | 0.06 ± 0.02 | 0.06 ± 0.03 | <0.04 | 1.0 * |
Ammonia-N (mg/L) | 0.6 ± 0.9 | 0.42 ± 0.03 | 0.85 ± 0.78 | n/a |
Chloride (mg/L) | 167 ± 5 | 7 ± 3 | 18 | 250 * |
Sulfate (mg/L) | 55 ± 1 | <2 | <2 | 250 * |
Bicarbonate (mg/L) | 274 ± 15 | 70 ± 55 | 3 | n/a |
Nitrate-N (mg/L) | 12 ± 2 | 1.1 ± 0.1 | 0.8 | 10 |
Reactive Silica (mg/L) | 13 ± 1 | 9.4 ± 4.4 | <1 | n/a |
Orthophosphate (mg/L as PO43−) | 0.8 ± 0.2 | 0.16 ± 0.07 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | n/a |
Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) | 700 ± 19 | 122 ± 97 | 23 ± 15 | 500* |
Turbidity (NTU) | 0.38 ± 0.13 | 10.3 ± 6.7 | 0.44 ± 0.16 | TT 1 |
Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) | 225 ± 13 | 72 ± 59 | 2 ± 1 | n/a |
Ca Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) | 241 ± 17 | 15 ± 1 | 2 | n/a |
Total Hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) | 313 ± 15 | 19 ± 11 | 3 | n/a |
Conductivity (µS/cm) | 1094 ± 30 | 191 ± 152 | 31 ± 25 | n/a |
pH | 7.6 ± 0.2 | 8.9 ± 0.9 | 8.2 ± 0.9 | 6.5–8.5 * |
Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L) | 14 ± 2 | 15 ± 4 | <10 | n/a |
Total Organic Carbon (mg/L) | 4.7 ± 0.8 | 8.4 ± 1.2 | Not tested | TT 2 |
UV254 (OD) | 0.115 ± 0.060 | 0.046 ± 0.040 | 0.019 | n/a |
Apparent Color (PtCo Unit) | 26 ± 8 | 104 ± 67 | 4 ± 1 | 15 * |
Heterotrophic Plate Count (CFU/mL) | 1.4 × 104 ± 1.2 × 105 | 1.6 × 105 ± 1.2 × 105 | Not tested | 500 |
Type | Pros | Cons |
---|---|---|
Upstream/Inland | Reduce raw water withdrawal; improve receiving water quality and aquatic ecosystem in the entire river basin; flood and erosion risk mitigation; groundwater recharge with excess stormwater; better stormwater quality. | Water rights agreements may prevent the use of stormwater and/or wastewater to preserve the base flow; challenging infrastructure design due to varied terrains and multiple elevations in the area. |
Downstream/ Coastal | Reduce raw water withdrawal; protect the ecosystem in the receiving water (estuaries, bays, large lakes); flood and erosion risk mitigation; generally flat terrain. | Does not improve the water quality and ecosystem in the entire river basin; compete/complement with seawater desalination and RO-based AWPF; stormwater quality can be affected by the seawater infiltration and salty aerosols; salinity of wastewater can be higher due to infiltration; corrosion risk due to higher salinity; groundwater recharge potential may be limited. |
Small | Smaller-size facilities more manageable; easier to reach project consensus; completely closed water supply system possible. | Limited capital and operational budgets; limited technical expertise; unfavorable economies of scale for AWPFs; higher failure risks. |
Large | Larger capital and operational budgets; technical expertise likely available; better economy of scale for AWPFs; more diverse water portfolio. | Limited land availability for large stormwater storage facilities in a built-out city; larger capital cost; harder to reach project consensus. |
Rural | Similar to small communities; land availability. | Centralized stormwater–wastewater systems unrealistic; household-scale DPR system can be costly and challenging. |
Urban | Similar to large communities; smaller urban and suburban communities may have access to resources (e.g., land, budget, expertise). | Similar to large communities. |
Arid | Not very suitable, but stormwater still constitutes additional water supply when it rains (RO is likely required). | Limited availability of natural precipitation; high TDSs in reclaimed water; prolonged drought. |
Semi-arid | Most suitable due to the moderate availability of rainwater and increased water scarcity. | Prone to climate change impact and extreme drought/storm events. |
Humid | Flood and erosion risk mitigation; rapidly grown metropolitan areas would benefit. | Better availability of conventional surface water and groundwater; extreme storm events (e.g., tropical storms and hurricanes) require special attention. |
Cold | Applicable only in warmer months. | Likely lower incentive for water reuse; de-icing salt contributes to potentially high TDS in stormwater, spring runoff. |
Warm | Suitable due to favorable climate for economic and population growth; flood risk mitigation. | Prone to climate change impact and extreme drought/storm events. |
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Ikehata, K.; Espindola, C.A., Jr.; Ashraf, A.; Adams, H. Augmentation of Reclaimed Water with Excess Urban Stormwater for Direct Potable Use. Sustainability 2024, 16, 7917. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16187917
Ikehata K, Espindola CA Jr., Ashraf A, Adams H. Augmentation of Reclaimed Water with Excess Urban Stormwater for Direct Potable Use. Sustainability. 2024; 16(18):7917. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16187917
Chicago/Turabian StyleIkehata, Keisuke, Carlos A. Espindola, Jr., Anjumand Ashraf, and Hunter Adams. 2024. "Augmentation of Reclaimed Water with Excess Urban Stormwater for Direct Potable Use" Sustainability 16, no. 18: 7917. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16187917