Envisioning the Future of Mobility: A Well-Being-Oriented Approach

Abstract

Mobility, a vital part of daily life, significantly impacts human well-being. Understanding this relationship is crucial for shaping the future trajectory of mobility, a connection often overlooked in previous research. This study explores the complex relationship between mobility and well-being and proposes a holistic framework for mobility’s future, prioritizing individual and societal well-being. The motivation for this research stems from the growing need to balance technological advancements in transportation with the well-being of diverse populations, especially as the mobility landscape evolves with innovations like autonomous vehicles and intelligent mobility solutions. We employ bibliometric methods, analyzing 53,588 academic articles to identify key themes and research trends related to mobility and well-being. This study categorizes these articles into thematic clusters using the Louvain modularity maximization algorithm, which facilitates the formation of cohesive groups based on citation patterns. Our findings underline the significant impact of mobility on physical, mental, psychological, financial, and social well-being. The proposed framework features four pillars: vehicle, infrastructure and environment, mobility stakeholders, and policy. This framework underscores the importance of collaboration between institutional and individual actions in shaping a future mobility landscape that is technologically advanced, socially responsible, and conducive to an improved quality of life.

1. Introduction

Well-being is a multifaceted concept that includes emotional, subjective, and objective dimensions, essential for an individual’s quality of life. Initially focused on the balance of emotions [1], the concept now embraces broader evaluations of personal fulfillment and life satisfaction, incorporating psychological aspects like autonomy and positive relationships, which reflect a holistic view of mental health [2]. Subjective well-being considers an individual’s overall assessment of their life, using personal standards to gauge life quality [3,4].

Models such as Keyes’ complete state model of mental health differentiate between flourishing and languishing mental states, combining well-being with mental health criteria [5,6]. Seligman’s PERMA framework outlines core well-being elements—positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment—crucial for a fulfilling life [7]. Well-being also involves a balance between personal resources and life challenges, influenced by cultural and environmental factors [8,9]. Moreover, it encompasses not only psychological states but also objective factors like financial security and social connections, which together enhance life quality [10,11]. This study adopts a broad definition of “well-being”, considering it as the overall quality of life that includes physical health, mental state, and social factors.

Mobility, a critical aspect of daily life, not only encompasses physical movement but also extends to digital and cognitive realms, fundamentally influencing community social relationships, economic opportunities, and technological advancements [12,13]. This study defines “mobility” as the ability to navigate urban environments using road-based transportation, specifically excluding air, sea, and rail transport. In older adults, mobility is essential for maintaining independence and enhancing quality of life, and it is influenced by cognitive, psychosocial, and physical factors [14]. It plays a pivotal role in personal and societal transformations, contributing significantly to well-being and social integration, particularly among the elderly [15,16,17].

While mobility systems are crucial for national economic efficiency and the sustainable development of industries, there is a predominant focus on technological and business innovations [18,19,20]. However, this often overlooks the integration of well-being, despite evidence suggesting a reciprocal relationship between well-being and physical mobility, which can protect against mobility limitations in older adults [21,22,23]. Moreover, today’s society, with its intricate mobility dynamics, requires a comprehensive understanding of how mobility impacts well-being at the individual and community levels [16,24,25], and challenges like finite fossil fuel reserves and climate change necessitate a well-being-centered approach to future mobility strategies [26].

Previous research has often not fully grasped the nuanced relationship between well-being and mobility. A thorough examination of this interplay is essential, as it offers critical insights for shaping the future trajectory of mobility and transportation systems. This is particularly important considering that the sustainable functioning of mobility and transportation systems plays a key role in influencing the efficiency of national economies, driving economic growth, and contributing to the sustainable development of various industries and regions [20]. While Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) might focus on technological innovations, such as autonomous vehicles and mood-adaptive cars, as well as economic–business advancements, there is a gap in addressing the well-being aspect comprehensively. The discourse on shared mobility, electric vehicles, and their environmental impacts [18,27], along with public preferences for alternative solutions such as bike-sharing [28], underscores the need for a comprehensive understanding of how these advancements in mobility can affect individual and societal well-being. Thus, proposing a holistic framework to guide mobility’s future vision ensures that technological innovations align with broader well-being objectives.

This study seeks to review and analyze the relationship between mobility and well-being through bibliometric methods, aiming to understand how mobility influences various dimensions of well-being. Based on these insights, this study proposes a holistic framework that prioritizes individual and community well-being, offering guidance for shaping the future trajectory of mobility. Given the extensive number of relevant articles, manual review methods are impractical, making this comprehensive review a valuable resource for future academic research.

This study offers a novel and comprehensive exploration of the relationship between mobility and well-being, addressing a critical gap in the existing research. By analyzing 53,588 academic articles using bibliometric methods, this research highlights the multifaceted impact of mobility on physical, mental, psychological, financial, and social well-being. The proposed framework is innovative in its holistic approach, encompassing all stages of the vehicle life cycle and considering broader infrastructure and environmental factors. It emphasizes the importance of collaboration between institutional and individual actions in shaping a future mobility landscape that is technologically advanced, socially responsible, and focused on enhancing quality of life. This study’s significance lies in its potential to inform policy, urban planning, and vehicle design, ensuring that future mobility solutions are sustainable, inclusive, and centered on human well-being. Furthermore, this study’s methodology provides a valuable resource for future research, encouraging the integration of quantitative and qualitative methods to deepen our understanding of the evolving mobility landscape and its impact on society.

We organized this article as follows: After Section 1, Section 2 examines how past research has addressed the future of mobility, highlighting the complexity of developing a holistic approach and emphasizing the importance of prioritizing well-being in these efforts. Section 3 explains the queries used to retrieve academic articles and describes the methodology for analyzing and categorizing research into thematic clusters. Section 4 presents findings from the top 30 research clusters, identifying key trends in mobility and well-being. Section 5 explores the connections between mobility and various dimensions of well-being, as identified through the research clusters. In Section 6, we propose a holistic, well-being-centered framework for future mobility that integrates vehicle life cycles, infrastructure and environment, stakeholder roles, and policy. Finally, Section 7 summarizes the study’s contributions and offers suggestions for future research.

2. Literature Review

Envisioning the future of mobility while considering its intersection with well-being presents a complex challenge. Mobility services can improve access and inclusivity for underserved communities, but they also face significant challenges related to emissions, safety, and product-specific concerns [29]. As urban planning and sustainability efforts increasingly account for the rise and integration of new mobility services with public transportation [18], it has become clear that a comprehensive approach is necessary to address the multifaceted nature of these challenges.

Electric vehicles (EVs) are critical in the evolving landscape of mobility. While they offer a promising solution for reducing emissions, their environmental impact requires careful consideration of the entire life cycle, particularly regarding the materials used in EV batteries [27,30]. The promotion of EVs must be balanced with broader urban sustainability goals, necessitating a nuanced approach to mobility planning that addresses trade-offs and objectives [31]. Furthermore, the adaptability of transportation systems to societal needs and external disruptions, such as those experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic, is critical for the future of mobility. This adaptability involves reinforcing Mobility as a Service (Maas), improving safety, and exploring new business models to meet changing demands [32] and to be responsive to societal needs by incorporating disruptive technologies to achieve key goals (i.e., zero emissions, energy, congestion, accidents, empty vehicles, and cost) [33]. Adaptability is also critical for other sectors related to mobility. The insurance industry, for instance, is preparing for significant impacts from emerging trends like autonomous, shared, and electric vehicles, highlighting the need for strategic adaptability [34] and effective decision-making balancing technical expertise with broad analytical perspectives, innovatively managing uncertainties [35]. Comprehensive frameworks that emphasize societal well-being and scenario-based planning are also important for managing uncertainties and building trust in automated mobility, as well as addressing the changing effects of ride-hailing on private vehicle ownership [19,36].

Public transportation, particularly high-capacity priority corridors, has been identified as the backbone of future transportation systems, playing a pivotal role in enhancing urban livability and effectiveness [37]. However, the future of mobility is not limited to traditional public transport. Active commuting has emerged as a crucial element that supports sustainability and profitability, highlighting the importance of integrating such modes into future mobility frameworks [38]. Similarly, ride-sharing services, especially bike-sharing systems, are expected to be a significant component of future mobility, although concerns about the quality of these systems persist [28]. The importance of social cohesion in mobility planning cannot be overstated. The Insell Initiative in Munich highlights how technical aspects often dominate, leaving discussions on the societal impact of mobility underexplored [39]. A holistic mobility plan that addresses social, economic, environmental, and cultural heritage aspects is essential for promoting equity and well-being [40]. This plan should integrate accessibility services, mobility services, and MaaS to reduce reliance on private car ownership and enhance connectivity across multi-modal transport and city services [41,42]. In conclusion, the future of mobility is a multifaceted domain shaped by technological advancements, societal needs, and environmental considerations. It requires a collaborative, adaptable, and nuanced approach, considering its intersection with individual and societal well-being. By addressing this intersection, we can build a future-proof holistic framework to help Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), policymakers, and mobility stakeholders make informed decisions promoting sustainability, equity, and overall well-being.

3. Data and Methods

This study specifically focuses on the relationship between road mobility and well-being. Including other modes of transportation, such as trains, ships, ferries, and airplanes, would add unnecessary complexity to our analysis, making it difficult to review the vast number of related academic articles. To ensure comprehensive coverage, we included all relevant terms associated with road mobility (e.g., vehicle, car, and automobile) and terms related to well-being (e.g., wellness and welfare). We systematically categorized the retrieved scientific articles into thematic clusters using our proprietary platform without relying on open-source tools. This process involved mapping connections between the articles in our dataset, treated as nodes, and their directly cited sources. The method used in this article involved systematically categorizing the retrieved scientific articles into thematic clusters and analyzing their semantic similarity to understand the overlap and relationships between these clusters.

3.1. Data

We downloaded the articles’ bibliographic data from the Web of Science (WOS) core collection database on 12 May 2023. Data downloaded from WOS are easy and ready to use for bibliometric studies and are considered reliable for citation network analyses and other data mining studies [43].

For mobility-related queries, we used two general (mobility and automotive) and eleven specific queries that were connected with OR. For well-being-related queries, we used five queries that were also connected with OR. Both mobility- and well-being-related queries were connected with AND. The full search query was as follows: {TS = (“mobility” OR “automotive” OR “vehicle” OR “car” OR “automobile” OR “bus” OR “truck” OR “taxi” OR “motorcycle” OR “motorbike” OR “bike” OR “bicycle” OR “scooter”) AND TS = (“well-being” OR “wellbeing” OR “wellness” OR “welfare” OR “health”)}. We only included English academic articles and excluded other documents such as conference proceedings and editorial letters. We downloaded all documents that included one of the abovementioned combinations of queries in their title, abstract, or keywords list. The total number of documents was 53,588 academic articles.

3.2. Methods

We systematically categorized scientific papers into thematic clusters using our cloud-based proprietary platform without relying on open-source bibliometric analysis software. The process began by uploading articles previously downloaded from the Web of Science database to gather quantitative data and subsequently group the articles into distinct clusters. This process involved mapping connections between articles in our dataset (treated as nodes) and their directly cited sources. We employed the direct citation approach, which has been previously validated as an effective means for topic identification across extensive publication datasets [44]. To facilitate the formation of these thematic clusters, the modularity maximization algorithm, specifically the Louvain method [45], was applied. This algorithm was chosen due to its efficacy in discerning densely connected nodes from those that are weakly connected or isolated. Modularity, a key metric in this process, quantifies the strength of connections within a cluster, with a higher modularity value indicating a more interconnected cluster. The modularity Q is calculated using the following formula:

$$Q=\sum _{s=1}^M\left[{\displaystyle \frac{l_s}{l}}-{\left({\displaystyle \frac{d_s}{2l}}\right)}^2\right]$$

(1)

Here, M represents the total number of clusters, ls denotes the number of links, and ds is the sum of the degrees of nodes within cluster s. The Louvain algorithm optimizes modularity across all nodes, iteratively forming compact communities that are later combined into larger clusters. This process iteratively refines the clusters to yield the most cohesive groupings, automatically determining the optimal number of clusters. We posited that clusters comprising publications that frequently reference each other are likely to discuss similar or related topics, as articles typically cite relevant and related works. The large graph layout algorithm [46] was used for network visualization. To aid in visual interpretation, each cluster was assigned a unique color. It is worth noting that the modularity optimization algorithm may encounter the resolution limit problem, particularly in clusters with fewer internal links (less than √2l), where l is the total number of links in the network [47]. To identify the thematic focus of each cluster, a detailed review of the most cited articles, authors, keywords, and journals was conducted.

To identify clusters relevant to our research objectives, we calculated cosine similarity values between all clusters [48]. This metric helps determine thematic overlap, where higher similarity values indicate closely related content. Cosine similarity is based on the angle between term vectors, with a value of 1 indicating identical content and lower values reflecting less similarity.

4. Results

The conducted analysis yielded a network comprising 87 distinct clusters, connected by 93,822 links among 31,305 articles, which were designated as nodes. Displayed in Figure 1 is an overview of this network, illustrating the clustering and visualization methodologies and prominently featuring the six largest clusters by size. Notably, the ten most substantial clusters accounted for 67.12% of the total articles selected as nodes, while the top 30 clusters encompassed 95.5% of them.

Table 1. Key quantitative overview of the top 30 clusters.

ID	Cluster’s Name	N (%)	Year (ave)
#1	Elderly Functional Mobility	4364 (13.9)	2014.5
#2	Air Pollution	2955 (9.4)	2015
#3	Active Commuting	2599 (8.3)	2017.1
#4	Traffic Injuries	2144 (6.8)	2012.6
#5	Elderly Mobility	1829 (5.8)	2016.3
#6	Disease Transmission and Human Mobility	1507 (4.8)	2018.8
#7	Dust and Heavy Metal Pollution	1498 (4.8)	2017.4
#8	Social Mobility	1409 (4.5)	2014.3
#9	Truck Drivers	1402 (4.5)	2014.2
#10	Residential Mobility	1284 (4.1)	2014.2
#11	Disability Mobility	1140 (3.6)	2014.5
#12	Patients Mobility	805 (2.6)	2016.1
#13	Electric Mobility	782 (2.5)	2019.1
#14	General Population Health Status	694 (2.2)	2013.2
#15	Transportation and Job Access	657 (2.1)	2016.3
#16	After Stroke Exercise and Fitness	511 (1.6)	2014
#17	Ride Market and Pricing	453 (1.4)	2015
#18	Children’s Functional Mobility	441 (1.4)	2015.7
#19	Ankylosing Spondylitis	416 (1.3)	2011.2
#20	Bridges Health Monitoring	410 (1.3)	2018.9
#21	School Commuting	382 (1.2)	2015.5
#22	Amputee and Vision Impairment	376 (1.2)	2017.4
#23	Animal and Cattle Mobility	266 (0.8)	2014.3
#24	Climate-Induced Mobility	239 (0.8)	2017.3
#25	Automotive Workers Well-being	238 (0.8)	2010.6
#26	Capital Mobility and Wage Inequality	238 (0.8)	2011.2
#27	Elderly Mobility in Care Facilities	230 (0.7)	2014.2
#28	Health Care Routing (Ambulance)	209 (0.7)	2018.4
#29	EVs Charging and Electricity Market	203 (0.6)	2016.9
#30	Cortisol	200 (0.6)	2015.8

Green color represent emerging topics and orange represent declining or saturated topics.

provides a detailed overview of the top 30 clusters, including each cluster’s primary topic, the number of articles that it contains, and the average publication year. The overall average publication year of the articles is 2015. Clusters with an average publication year after 2017.2 are marked in green and are considered emerging topics, while those before 2014.2, marked in orange, are seen as declining or saturated topics. For instance, emerging areas like “disease transmission and human mobility” (2018.8) and “electric mobility” (2019.1) reflect recent global health challenges and technological advancements. In contrast, older clusters, such as the well-being of automotive workers (2010.6), are now less critical. This analysis highlights the shifts in academic focus, emphasizing the need for innovation and the exploration of new topics to guide future policies and technologies.

Cluster #1, the largest with 4364 articles, or about 14% of the total nodes, primarily focuses on functional mobility in the elderly. The most cited article in this cluster examines how objective physical function measures can predict future disability in older adults [49]. However, this cluster’s prevalent keywords and primary publishing journals do not align with our study’s goals. We analyze the semantic similarity between the top 10 clusters to identify more relevant clusters (Figure 2).

The color density in each intersection between the clusters represents the cosine similarity values. The highest similarity, with a value of 0.6398, was found between Cluster #1 and Cluster #5, focusing on issues related to aged people, particularly older drivers in Cluster #5. Clusters #11, #12, #16, and #27 also showed significant similarity to Cluster #1, with values of 0.5614, 0.5274, 0.543, and 0.5126, respectively. A review of the top 30 clusters identified several “unrelated clusters” that did not align with our research focus. Therefore, the analysis concentrated on clusters relevant to our study, particularly those exploring the connection between well-being and road mobility, namely, Clusters #2–7, #9, #11–13, #15, #17, #21, #22, #25, #27, and #28.

Cluster #2 focuses on emissions and air pollution. The most frequently cited study in this cluster examined ultrafine particles (less than 0.1 µm in diameter) near highways, analyzing particle concentrations and size distributions upwind and downwind, providing critical insights into the effects of vehicular emissions on urban air quality [50]. Research in this cluster often focused on areas near major highways, especially those with heavy diesel traffic, due to their significant impact on air quality [51]. This cluster also covers topics such as air pollutant control standards and their influence on the vehicle market [52], particle measurement methodologies [53], and the broader health impacts of pollution, with a special focus on vulnerable groups like infants [54] and children [55].

Cluster #3 focuses on active commuting, particularly the success of cycling in countries like the Netherlands and Denmark, due to factors like dedicated lanes and supportive regulations. In contrast, cycling remains minimal in the UK and the USA, accounting for only 1% of trips [56]. Ewing et al. discussed how the built environment influences travel behavior, though changes generally have a limited impact [57]. With an average publication year of 2017, this cluster covers topics like cycling, physical activity, health benefits, and safety concerns, indicating a relatively recent focus on this area.

Cluster #4 focuses on traffic injuries and their impact on well-being. A key study found that shifting from tort to no-fault compensation in Saskatchewan reduced whiplash claims, highlighting the role of compensation systems in injury outcomes [58]. Another analysis revealed that individuals involved in compensation processes post-accident reported more mental health issues, though these findings have limitations [59]. A longitudinal study tracking 546 patients for three years post-accident showed that 11% experienced persistent PTSD, with contributing factors including negative thought patterns, ongoing challenges, and litigation involvement [60].

Cluster #5 examines elderly mobility, focusing on elderly drivers, transportation, social isolation, and mental health. Mobility is crucial for active aging and quality of life [61]. Sandra et al. developed a framework considering various factors like cognitive and psychosocial elements, emphasizing the need for strategies to address mobility challenges in older adults [14]. A systematic review also highlighted that driving cessation can significantly increase depressive symptoms in older adults, underscoring the importance of careful decision-making [62].

Cluster #6 focuses on disease transmission and human mobility. It is the most recent cluster, with an average publication year of 2018. It includes sub-topics such as the COVID-19 pandemic, travel, and tourism. The most cited study showed that social distancing effectively reduced COVID-19 transmission in heavily affected U.S. counties, underscoring its importance for future pandemics [63]. Additionally, Perchoux et al. introduced an activity space approach, integrating various disciplines to better understand environmental exposures and inform mobility choices and urban planning [64]. Cluster #7 examines pollution, particularly dust and heavy metals. Li X et al. reported significant heavy metal contamination in Hong Kong’s urban parks, primarily due to traffic emissions and industrial activities [65]. Pollution in other industrial zones in Beijing was also assessed, and the cancer risks from soil were found to be within acceptable limits [66].

Cluster #9 addresses driver’s well-being, vehicle vibration, sleep problems, and obesity. A key study on U.S. long-haul truck drivers found higher obesity rates and smoking prevalence compared to the general workforce, highlighting the need for targeted health interventions [67]. These drivers also face increased risks of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases due to factors like inactivity and poor sleep, prompting the need for long-term studies and policy interventions [68]. Urban bus drivers are also at risk for low back issues due to whole-body vibration and postural stress [69].

Cluster #11 addresses disability mobility, concentrating on individuals with physical impairments. Studies here focus on screening and preventive services [70] and barriers to care for breast cancer diagnosis and treatment [71]. Cluster #12 focuses on patient mobility, addressing issues like barriers to mobility during hospitalization [72] and mobility therapy in intensive care units [73]. Key themes include hip fractures, patient care, and rehabilitation.

Cluster #13 discusses electric mobility, focusing on electric vehicles (EVs), fuel cell vehicles, and battery technologies, highlighting rapid advancements in this field. Cluster #15 explores transportation and job access, with a key study revealing that car ownership increases employment opportunities for welfare-to-work recipients, boosting employment likelihood by nine percentage points [74]. The study also suggests that even a USD 100 reduction in insurance premiums could enhance employment probabilities by four percentage points. Contrary to the spatial mismatch hypothesis, the study finds that car access has a greater impact on employment outcomes than public transit, particularly for individuals with higher education [75]. This research emphasizes the importance of personal vehicle access and proximity to bus and rail routes in promoting employment. Cluster #17 focuses on transportation pricing. The most cited study, by Ian et al., presents formulas for evaluating the welfare effects of fare adjustments in rail and bus transit during peak and off-peak hours, suggesting that current fare subsidies are efficient and that even small fare reductions can improve welfare [76]. Another key topic in this cluster is taxi pricing strategies, with research showing how taxi-hailing apps and pricing changes can enhance social welfare and platform profitability [77].

Cluster #21 examines school commuting, particularly active school transportation (AST), such as walking and cycling. AST is recognized as a way for children to increase physical activity, but parental concerns about traffic and limited public transport reduce its likelihood among young children [78]. The cluster also highlights how neighborhood infrastructure, such as proper lighting and safe crossings, impacts older children’s physical activity, emphasizing the role of urban design in promoting non-motorized travel. Initiatives like Safe Routes to School are suggested as solutions [79].

Cluster #22 focuses on the mobility challenges that amputees and people with vision impairments face. A key study developed the Prosthesis Evaluation Questionnaire (PEQ) to assess the health-related quality of life and well-being of individuals with lower-limb amputations, highlighting its psychometric solid properties [80]. Gailey et al. introduced the Amputee Mobility Predictor (AMP), a reliable tool for assessing ambulatory potential in lower-limb amputees, both with and without prosthetics, demonstrating its effectiveness in correlating with established measures like the 6-min walk test [81]. The cluster also addresses mobility issues related to visual impairment, with a study validating the Impact of Visual Impairment (IVI) Scale, confirming its reliability and precision in evaluating participation restrictions and the effectiveness of low-vision rehabilitation programs [82].

Cluster #25 focuses on the well-being of automobile workers, particularly those exposed to metalworking fluids (MWFs). A key study at General Motors found that machinists exposed to MWFs had higher rates of respiratory symptoms, like cough and chronic bronchitis, compared to assembly workers, with current exposure being the main factor [83]. Another study by Vyas et al. highlighted the link between work stressors and injuries among automobile mechanics, emphasizing the need to address workplace challenges to improve safety [84].

Cluster #27 explores elderly mobility in care facilities. Bourret et al. conducted qualitative research in long-term care facilities, finding that mobility is crucial for residents’ quality of life, representing freedom and independence. The study also highlighted the essential role of nurses in promoting mobility through care, environmental adjustments, and motivational support [85]. Cluster #28 focuses on health care routing, particularly the complexities of Home Health Care (HHC) services, such as scheduling and managing nurse visits [86]. A significant study by Stefan et al. addressed the optimization challenges in HHC, emphasizing the integration of staff rostering with vehicle routing to improve nurse work plans. Their hybrid approach, combining linear programming, constraint programming, and heuristic methods, utilizes PARPAP software (2003 version), effectively balancing constraints and preferences. This approach not only enhances patient and nurse satisfaction but also reduces transportation costs, demonstrating the software’s practical application in improving HHC logistics [87].

5. Link between Mobility and Well-Being

Our analysis of the existing literature on road mobility and well-being identified 30 primary clusters. Mobility and transportation play a crucial role in shaping life satisfaction, impacting well-being both indirectly by providing access to essential life domains and directly by enhancing physical mobility [88]. For instance, limited transportation in regional areas significantly affects overall well-being, highlighting the critical need for accessible transport to improve quality of life [89]. This dual impact is crucial for understanding and valuing different well-being aspects, such as subjective, affective, and eudaimonic dimensions, which are increasingly relevant in policymaking [90].

Defining well-being is complex due to its multifaceted nature, encompassing psychological, subjective, objective, capability, financial, and social elements [91]. The linkage between mobility and well-being is similarly complex, involving diverse aspects. Our analysis suggests that the impact of mobility on well-being can be categorized into four dimensions: physical (e.g., Clusters #2 and #3), mental and psychological (e.g., Cluster #5), financial (e.g., Clusters #15 and #17), and relational (e.g., Cluster #27). In this section, we discuss the relationship between mobility and all well-being dimensions in more detail.

5.1. Physical Well-Being

We identified 12 key clusters where mobility intersects significantly with physical well-being, including air pollution, active commuting, traffic injury, disease transmission, and driver well-being. Air pollution, in particular, has a profound impact on health, with studies showing adverse effects on adults, children, and infants due to various pollutant types and sizes [55,92,93], including ultrafine particles [94] and nanoparticles [95]. A study conducted during the COVID-19 lockdown in Sao Paulo, Brazil, revealed a significant reduction in pollutants like NO, NO₂, and CO, although ozone levels increased due to reduced nitrogen monoxide [96]. Pollution studies in contexts such as parking garages, highways, and schools further highlighted its wide-ranging impact on physical health [50,97,98].

Traffic injuries, as the fourth-largest cluster, also have a significant direct impact on physical well-being. These injuries often result in long-term health issues, with significant predictors of chronic outcomes [99]. The data also reveal disparities in motor vehicle risks across racial and socioeconomic groups, with Black and Hispanic individuals facing higher fatality rates despite less frequent travel. This underscores the need for targeted public health interventions to address these disparities [100]. Active transportation, such as walking and cycling, has a stronger association with high well-being levels than driving or public transport. Research in the “active commuting” cluster highlights the positive effects of active transport on daily well-being and public health, emphasizing the role of government policies in promoting active commuting and sustainable urban environments [56,101]. Initiatives like Barcelona’s Bicing program illustrate how such policies can reduce carbon emissions and encourage physical activity, contributing to overall public health [102]. The built environment plays a critical role in promoting healthy travel choices, highlighting the need for urban spaces supporting biking and other active commuting modes [103].

Prolonged and inefficient commute times negatively affect physical well-being, contributing to sedentary lifestyles and decreased life satisfaction [104]. Safe transportation is crucial for health care access, particularly for disadvantaged populations. A systematic review emphasizes the impact of transportation barriers on health care access and calls for further research on how these limitations affect health outcomes [105]. Finally, active mobility modes like walking and cycling contribute to the development of human capacities, fostering creativity and sociability and enhancing overall well-being [106].

5.2. Mental and Psychological Well-Being

Our analysis shows that most previous research on mobility and well-being has focused on physical well-being, which aligns with the primary purpose of transportation systems to support physical movement. However, the impact of mobility on mental and psychological well-being is also significant, particularly in daily commuting. Jiakun et al.’s review of 45 studies highlights how commuting characteristics like duration and mode affect subjective well-being (SWB) and mental health (MH). The study emphasizes the role of travel attitudes, personality traits, and external factors in shaping cognitive well-being and mental health while pointing out the negative spillover effects of commuting on personal and work life [107].

Mouratidis et al. found that efficient and sustainable transportation options can reduce commuting stress and improve mental health. Their analysis of data from Greek cities showed that active transportation modes like walking are associated with higher travel satisfaction and positive emotions. At the same time, public transport users often reported lower well-being due to long travel times and poor services [108]. These findings underscore the need for improved transportation policies and infrastructure, particularly in car-dependent cities, to create more satisfying and sustainable commuting experiences.

Additionally, transportation services designed with passenger comfort and mental health in mind are crucial for enhancing life satisfaction. This focus on mental well-being can significantly improve the daily commuting experience. Regarding the mental health impacts of traffic accidents, a meta-analysis revealed that individuals involved in compensation processes tend to experience higher mental health issues before and after the process compared to those not involved. However, these findings should be interpreted cautiously due to potential study limitations [59].

5.3. Financial Well-Being

Finance is crucial for well-being, and mobility costs, including commuting, vehicle maintenance, and fuel costs, significantly impact financial stability. These include fixed expenses, like vehicle purchase, insurance, and maintenance, and variable costs, such as fuel, repairs, and parking fees. Some fixed costs, like depreciation and insurance, may increase with more vehicle use, raising overall expenses [109]. Beyond direct ownership costs, transportation affordability and accessibility are vital, especially for lower-income households in car-dependent areas. Many of these households spend more than the recommended budget on transportation, highlighting the benefits of compact, multi-modal communities over sprawling, car-dependent ones [110].

Bogota’s public transit system offers a financial sustainability and affordability model, with cost-recovery fares and targeted subsidies to support disadvantaged groups. This strategy, using smartcards and poverty-targeting tools, provides valuable insights for other cities [111]. Mobility options also directly impact employment opportunities and financial well-being. Car ownership significantly improves job prospects for welfare-to-work program participants, often more so than enhanced public transit access [74,75].

5.4. Capability and Social Well-Being (Relational Dimension)

Social well-being, intricately tied to the relational dimension of mobility, is crucial in shaping our lives. Mobility fosters social relationships and enables meaningful activities like commuting, visiting loved ones, and participating in community events [112]. Adequate transportation systems and accessibility to diverse resources empower individuals to fully participate in society, enhancing their well-being. Unequal access to transportation can lead to disparities in social equity, as it affects individual well-being and social participation [113,114]. Socioeconomic and geographical factors further influence transport capabilities, impacting life opportunities and activities [115].

Mobility is essential for both disabled children and youth, as well as older adults, in maintaining connections with people and places. However, barriers due to dis/ableism in transport systems significantly hinder this connection, making it crucial to address these challenges to uphold their rights and well-being [116]. For older adults, mobility is equally important, as it plays a vital role in social inclusion and active aging, which are critical to their health and well-being. While the health benefits of mobility are often highlighted in the literature, its impact on independence and social connectedness is less frequently addressed [117,118]. Webber et al. emphasize that mobility is critical for the quality of life of older adults, as it directly links mobility impairments and access limitations to health and disability outcomes [14]. Moreover, an expanded life space is associated with improved cognitive abilities, motor skills, and social engagement and a stronger sense of purpose [119]. Therefore, staying active and mobile outside the home is essential for maintaining a high quality of life in older adults [120].

With the increasing reliance on technology, the relationship between digital technologies, mobility, and health is increasingly important. A study on older adults using data from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing found that digital technology use is linked to increased out-of-home activities. However, barriers like health restrictions and limited access to digital tools contribute to a persistent digital divide, highlighting the need for targeted service designs to address mobility challenges among older adults [121].

6. Discussion

Building on the results and the link between mobility and well-being, we propose a comprehensive framework for the future of mobility centered around well-being. This framework considers the vehicle life cycle phases (pre-usage, usage, and post-usage). We explore the role of mobility stakeholders, emphasizing health and safety in transportation, and discuss the vital roles of infrastructure, urban technology, and inclusive planning. The importance of policy in guiding sustainable and adaptable mobility is also highlighted, as it is crucial for creating a healthier, more inclusive, and sustainable future.

6.1. Vehicle

We can analyze the relationship between mobility and well-being through a vehicle’s life cycle, which includes three stages: pre-usage (production and pre-production), usage (operation and maintenance considering all mobility stakeholders such as passengers and pedestrians), and post-usage (recycling). Enhancing physical, psychological, financial, and social well-being throughout these stages is essential. Within the top 30 clusters, we can identify clusters related to each stage of the vehicle life cycle. Figure 3 illustrates the clusters related to each stage, where some clusters can be related to all three stages at the same time (i.e., well-being of automotive workers and electric mobility).

The well-being of automotive workers—such as those in production, servicing, and recycling—is crucial, especially concerning respiratory health risks from exposure to hazardous materials [83,122]. Additionally, safety concerns for repair workers due to poor working conditions and exposure to dangerous substances highlight the need for protective measures [84,123,124].

Electric mobility (Cluster #13) also covers all stages of the vehicle life cycle, linking battery production to the pre-production stage and recycling to the post-production stage. Its sub-topics, such as fuel cell vehicles and electric vehicle adoption, are crucial for climate change mitigation, particularly when integrated with renewable energy [125,126]. Energy consumption is also significant, as transport energy scarcity and rising costs impact urban mobility and planning, as they affect access to essential activities and services [26]. Future vehicles should be powered by clean, affordable energy sources, with electric vehicles (EVs) offering a promising solution. EVs can enhance energy affordability, reduce maintenance costs, and alleviate health issues related to pollution [127].

Safety features are essential during the vehicle usage stage to protect drivers, passengers, and others in the operating environment. Traffic injuries, highlighted in Cluster #4, emphasize the connection between mobility and physical well-being, underscoring the importance of accident prevention systems that monitor driver health [128]. Ensuring the safety and health of automotive workers is vital across all stages, from mining materials for batteries during pre-production to recycling in the post-usage phase.

The usage stage also includes topics like bridge health monitoring via moving vehicles (Cluster #20), which is crucial in ensuring transportation network safety and enhancing quality of life [129]. Innovations like a towed cart and light truck for scanning bridge frequencies demonstrate the effectiveness of such monitoring methods [130].

Additionally, the relationship between human mobility and disease transmission (Cluster #6) highlights the importance of smart vehicles in public health, especially during pandemics like COVID-19. Vehicles equipped with health monitoring systems and infection prevention measures are valuable for preventing disease spread in public transport [131,132,133]. Proper ventilation and HVAC systems are critical for reducing airborne particles and improving air quality within vehicles, thus mitigating health risks [134]. Noise pollution from traffic is another concern, as it can exacerbate stress and negatively impact mental and physical health, necessitating its inclusion in comprehensive health assessments related to traffic exposure [135].

6.2. Infrastructure and Environment

The quality of infrastructure, including roads and transit systems, directly affects safety, comfort, stress levels, and overall well-being [136,137]. This is especially important in regional areas, where a robust mobility infrastructure ensures accessible transportation and supports well-being [89].

Technology plays a vital role in this ecosystem. The integration of smart city technologies and eco-friendly transportation corridors enhances environmental sustainability. These technologies enable the efficient use of personal mobility devices like segways and electric scooters, making transportation more accessible and cost-effective [138]. By incorporating universal design, they cater to diverse user needs, broadening the benefits of eco-friendly transportation [139]. In smart city planning, creating sustainable routes with low logistic costs is key [140]. This approach is central to developing Green Cities, where transportation systems are designed to improve the relationship between mobility and the environment [141]. Singapore’s transportation system exemplifies this integration, combining sustainability, smart technology, and safety to meet broader sustainability goals [142]. Improvements in public transit and transit-oriented developments offer significant health benefits by reducing traffic accidents, lowering pollution, and improving access to health care and healthy food [143]. These sustainable transport policies positively impact health determinants such as physical activity, air quality, and health care access, promoting healthier urban living [144].

Inclusive transportation planning is also essential. Research by Spray et al. emphasizes the need to consider diverse communities in infrastructure planning. Their study highlights the challenges faced by marginalized groups due to unequal access to mobility, leading to increased stress and limited self-care opportunities [145]. This underscores the importance of intersectional approaches in design to ensure equitable access and enhance the well-being of all community members. The future of urban transportation depends on integrating robust infrastructure, smart technologies, and inclusive planning to create sustainable, livable urban environments.

6.3. Mobility Stakeholders

The future of mobility must prioritize the well-being of all stakeholders, particularly drivers in the truck, bus, and taxi sectors. Issues like driver fatigue [146], vibration exposure [147], sleep disturbances [68], drug use [148], and occupational injuries [67] underscore the need to focus on health and safety in transportation. Research by Picoral et al. highlights the health risks associated with vibrational exposure in trucks, revealing that many working conditions exceed the recommended limits, posing significant health threats to drivers [149].

Professional drivers also face musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) due to prolonged sitting, restricted posture, and long working hours [150]. Sharma et al. identified these factors as significant risks, particularly for truck drivers [151]. Another study in northern Nigeria reported a 21.2% prevalence of work-related MSDs, linked to factors like age, marital status, and education level, emphasizing the need for ergonomic training and interventions [152]. A driver’s well-being is critical not only for their safety but also for the safety of others on the road [153]. A study on driving aggression and anxiety highlighted the role of cognitive–behavioral methods in reducing risky behaviors that contribute to motor vehicle crashes [154].

A holistic approach to well-being, integrating flexible mobility options and health-related technologies, is essential for enhancing transportation safety and sustainability [40,155,156]. Marquart and Schuppan suggest incorporating health information into mobility apps [157], while Oxley and Whelan emphasize ensuring safe travel for older road users [158]. The active involvement of different mobility stakeholders is crucial for shaping effective mobility policies, and community participation ensures that transportation systems are safe, healthy, and meet users’ needs [159]. Stakeholder engagement is critical in policy formulation, contract flexibility, and partnership development, contributing to sustainability and shared solutions [160,161,162]. This involvement leads to ergonomic and health-focused transportation technologies, fostering a more inclusive and responsive mobility environment [163].

6.4. Policy

A comprehensive mobility policy framework is essential, integrating physical and mental health, environmental impact, and adaptability. These policies are crucial for societal well-being and sustainability, as they shape transportation systems that impact mental health through infrastructure quality, congestion, and delays [164]. Mobility, equity, and affordability are vital in transportation policy, where reducing travel time and fares can enhance societal welfare, aligning with sustainable transportation principles [165]. Similarly, Kumar et al.’s Smart City Transformation Framework (SCTF) demonstrates how smart technologies can modernize urban life and make transportation systems more sustainable [166]. Singapore’s approach to integrating sustainability, safety, and smart technology into transportation policy is a model for effective policy implementation [142].

Mobility policies can significantly impact physical, mental, psychological, financial, and social well-being, with research emphasizing the need for flexibility to ensure responsiveness to diverse populations and regions [167]. As transportation evolves, adaptable policies must address trends like ride-sharing, which enhance urban community well-being [168,169]. Policymakers must ensure that these policies are dynamic and aligned with promoting holistic well-being and sustainable development.

Reflecting the above discussion, we propose a holistic and comprehensive well-being-centered framework for envisioning the future of mobility (Figure 4). The framework encompasses four main pillars: vehicle, infrastructure and environment, mobility stakeholders, and policy. In the proposed framework, the upper pillars—vehicle and infrastructure and environment—represent the tangible aspects, necessitating well-defined, well-being-oriented standards that integrate technological advancements to enhance safety, sustainability, and overall well-being. Conversely, the lower pillars—mobility stakeholders and policy—represent the human-centric and judgmental facets of the framework, emphasizing the role of personal decision-making alongside institutional governance. Decisions related to infrastructure and environment and policies predominantly fall within the institutional domain, often shaped by government bodies. In contrast, decisions related to the left side of the framework, such as vehicle choice, transportation options, and contribution to policy formulation, involve individual responsibility and choice. This arrangement highlights a collaborative approach to decision-making, where both institutional and individual actions are pivotal in shaping a mobility landscape that is technologically progressive, socially responsible, and conducive to an enhanced quality of life.

7. Conclusions

This study investigates the link between mobility and well-being and proposes a well-being-centered framework for the future of mobility. It uses bibliometric methods, due to the large number of publications discussing well-being in the mobility context, to uncover the major topics and analyze research trends. Based on an analysis of 53,588 academic articles, our study uniquely contributes to the field by emphasizing the critical relationship between mobility and various dimensions of human well-being (i.e., physical, mental, psychological, financial, and social). This influence of mobility ranges from direct health impacts, like air pollution and traffic injuries, to more subtle effects, such as the impact on mental health and community welfare. The proposed framework features four pillars: vehicle, infrastructure and environment, mobility stakeholders, and policy. It encompasses all vehicle life cycle stages and broader considerations of infrastructure and the environment, underscoring the roles of all mobility stakeholders and policies in realizing this vision. The framework emphasizes the importance of collaboration, where institutional and individual actions play a crucial role in shaping a future mobility landscape that is technologically advanced, is socially responsible, and improves quality of life. As transportation technology evolves, including autonomous vehicles and intelligent mobility solutions, the framework has the potential to address future uncertainties and navigate the new opportunities and challenges that will influence the relationship between mobility and well-being.

The findings of this study offer significant practical implications for stakeholders in the transportation sector. Policymakers can leverage the insights from the proposed framework to craft policies that prioritize both individual and societal well-being, considering the vital role of policy in the dynamic between the framework’s pillars. Urban planners can adapt this framework to design infrastructure that enhances well-being by improving access to essential services and promoting active, sustainable transportation options. Similarly, vehicle manufacturers and service providers can focus on developing vehicles and services that integrate advanced technology with features that promote the physical and mental well-being of users. This includes the incorporation of safety features, ergonomic designs, and smart technologies that enhance the health and comfort of drivers and passengers.

Additionally, the framework is a valuable resource for researchers and scholars interested in exploring specific aspects of mobility and well-being. It encourages the development of innovative solutions tailored to diverse needs. By fostering collaboration across disciplines, researchers can work towards creating a future mobility landscape that is not only technologically advanced but also human-centric, sustainable, and inclusive.

The methodology of this study primarily relies on a citation analysis of academic articles retrieved from the WoS database, which is considered a reliable source for bibliometric analyses and comparable to other data sources such as Scopus. While this approach provides valuable insights, future research could benefit from incorporating additional sources such as patent data, industry reports, market trends, social media discussions, and news content. This expanded scope would offer a more comprehensive view of how mobility influences well-being, providing a richer understanding of real-time market dynamics, consumer behavior, and emerging industry practices that bridge academic research with practical advancements.

To enrich future studies, we could also incorporate qualitative methods. Engaging with mobility experts and industry leaders through interviews could yield valuable perspectives on the evolving landscape of mobility and the integration of well-being into these advancements. This qualitative input would complement the quantitative findings, offering a more nuanced understanding of the strategies shaping the future of mobility. A deeper understanding of these dynamics could inform transportation policies and innovations designed to enhance life satisfaction and well-being at both the individual and community levels.