Nature-Based Solutions for Conservation and Food Sovereignty in Indigenous Communities of Oaxaca

Abstract

The increasing demand for food and the overexploitation of natural resources rapidly deplete the planet’s ecosystems, highlighting the urgent need for sustainable alternatives. Nature-based solutions effectively promote agricultural sustainability and environmental conservation but require continuous financial and political support to overcome existing barriers. This research examines these solutions’ effectiveness in Santa María Jacatepec, a biocultural region of Indigenous peoples in the Papaloapan Basin, Oaxaca, Mexico. A mixed-methods approach combining quantitative and qualitative analyses uses National Institute of Statistics and Geography data to evaluate socioeconomic and environmental indicators. The results indicate that despite pressures to develop cattle ranching, communities have maintained rain-fed agriculture, especially the milpa system, ensuring food sovereignty and preserving agricultural biodiversity. Additionally, implementation of Voluntarily Conserved Areas has facilitated access to payments for environmental services, incentivizing ecosystem protection. However, financial and structural challenges persist, limiting the expansion of these solutions. Santa María Jacatepec exemplifies how Indigenous communities can apply nature-based solutions to strengthen agricultural sustainability and environmental conservation. Integrating traditional knowledge and strengthening conservation policies can enhance community resilience and ensure sustainable development amid increasing pressure on natural ecosystems.

1. Introduction

The conservation of natural resources worldwide faces significant challenges due to consumerism and the constant demand for food [1]. This pressure on ecosystems and natural resources is exacerbated by intensive agriculture and extensive livestock farming, which, while aiming to maximize production, often result in soil degradation, water contamination, and biodiversity loss [2,3]. Pursuing higher yields has led to the intensive use of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation techniques, which increase short-term production but have adverse long-term effects on the environment [4]. Moreover, agricultural expansion detracts from forests and other natural resources, contributing to habitat loss and altering ecological cycles [5].

In Mexico, the transition from import substitution (1940–1982) to trade liberalization and integration into global value chains deeply affected national productive structures, negatively impacting food sovereignty [6]. This shift increased the pressure on natural resources and altered the country’s agricultural landscape. Today, globalization and the growth of transnational food industries have transformed food systems, driving the consumption of processed products and increasing the demand for industrial foods. In this context, conserving natural resources is crucial for mitigating environmental impacts and ensuring the long-term sustainability of agricultural production systems [7]. The preservation of fertile soils, water bodies, and biodiversity is essential to maintain the productive capacity and resilience of rural communities [8,9], as conserving these resources is closely linked to protecting sustainable agricultural knowledge and practices developed over generations [10].

Oaxaca, Mexico, is recognized as the state with the highest biological and cultural biodiversity in the country [11]. In recent years, the state has intensified its efforts to promote more sustainable agricultural options [12,13] and incentivized the conservation of forest areas. As of 2021, Oaxaca had 138 Voluntarily Conserved Areas, representing 27% of the national total and covering 159,508 hectares. This achievement reflects local communities’ strong sense of belonging and protection toward their territory [14,15]. However, Oaxaca’s Indigenous communities still face challenges due to conflicting economic development visions that prioritize profit over natural resources and planetary health [14], threatening the integrity of their territories and development. In the Papaloapan–Chinantla region of Oaxaca, community efforts to conserve local forests and jungles have been notably successful. By 2023, 28 Voluntarily Conserved Areas had been established in 7 of the 14 municipalities, covering approximately 67,123.37 hectares or about 50% of this region. These efforts can be regarded as a form of nature-based solution (NbS).

1.1. Nature-Based Solutions

The concept of NbSs has evolved over time, resulting in various interpretations and definitions [16], all of which emphasize their relevance to biodiversity conservation, socioeconomic benefits, and climate change mitigation and resilience. Despite differences in scope and geographic context [17,18,19,20], NbSs consistently highlight the importance of maintaining ecosystem services and promoting human well-being. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) defines NbSs as initiatives designed to protect, conserve, restore, utilize, and sustainably manage ecosystems to enhance adaptation and mitigation efforts, safeguard biodiversity, and support sustainable livelihoods [21]. In addition to prioritizing ecosystem and biodiversity, NbSs contribute to social and economic equity, promoting the autonomy and self-determination of Indigenous communities.

1.2. Conservation and Food Sovereignty

The integration of conservation approaches [22,23,24], such as NbSs, is particularly significant for enhancing food security in regions like Oaxaca, Mexico [25,26,27], where traditional agricultural systems are essential to local livelihoods [11]. By focusing on the protection of ecosystems and biodiversity, NbSs help preserve critical ecosystem services—such as soil fertility, water regulation, and pollination—that are fundamental to sustaining local food production. In Oaxaca, where rain-fed agriculture plays a central role, these services are crucial for maintaining food sovereignty and reducing dependency on external inputs [28]. Additionally, the conservation of natural resources strengthens the capacity of rural communities [27,29] to adapt to the growing threats posed by climate change, including reduced crop yields and increased food insecurity [30,31]. In Mexico, the application of NbSs aligns ecological conservation with agricultural sustainability, ensuring that traditional practices, which have been passed down through generations, particularly in Indigenous communities, continue to support long-term food security while enhancing the resilience of local food systems against environmental and economic pressures [32,33,34].

1.3. Indigenous Communities

The “tragedy of the commons” [35] is especially relevant to Indigenous communities in Oaxaca and other regions of Mexico [2,36], as many of these groups rely on shared natural resources—such as forests, water bodies, and communal lands—for their livelihoods [37,38]. Without proper management [1], these resources face the risk of over-exploitation, leading to degradation and the loss of vital ecosystem services. NbSs provide a framework to prevent such outcomes by promoting sustainable management practices that integrate Indigenous knowledge systems [10]. However, the effectiveness of these approaches [7] hinges not only on local participation but also on the continuous monitoring and evaluation of development policies aimed at conserving communal resources. It is essential that government policies and development initiatives be carefully assessed to ensure they promote the long-term sustainability of these resources while respecting the autonomy and self-management of Indigenous communities [25]. Regular follow-up on policy implementation is crucial to evaluate their impact on both ecological preservation and the socioeconomic well-being of communities. Unfortunately, this is not the case in practice. When local development plans are implemented, they rarely include thorough evaluations of the territory’s condition or progress in addressing community issues. To foster participatory approaches that incorporate Indigenous voices into decision-making, the development strategies must be better tailored to prevent the depletion of communal resources.

This research offers a novel contribution by integrating a territorial approach to sustainability within the framework of nature-based solutions (NbSs), specifically tailored to the cultural and ecological context of Indigenous communities in Santa María Jacatepec, Oaxaca. It addresses limitations in traditional conservation models by combining ecological preservation with Indigenous knowledge systems, emphasizing social equity and cultural preservation alongside environmental sustainability.

This study explores how forest and jungle protection, facilitated by NbSs, has impacted agricultural sustainability and community development, utilizing geospatial analysis to assess the effects of territorial planning and rain-fed agricultural systems. This interdisciplinary approach provides a new tool for evaluating conservation efforts’ effectiveness.

By focusing on community-driven solutions, the research presents a replicable model for other regions, contributing to fields such as sustainability science, conservation biology, and Indigenous studies, while highlighting the importance of integrating Indigenous perspectives into global sustainability efforts.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site Location

In the Papaloapan–Chinantla region (Figure 1), there is a notable community effort to conserve the local forests and jungles in the municipalities of Santiago Jocotepec, San Felipe Usila, San Miguel Soyaltepec, San José Chiltepec, San Juan Bautista Valle Nacional, San Lucas Ojitlán, and Santa María Jacatepec. This region is in the northern part of Oaxaca, near the border with Veracruz. These areas reflect the local communities’ commitment to protecting the natural environment and conserving regional biodiversity. Managing the Voluntarily Conserved Areas (ADVCs) represents a significant effort to balance economic development with environmental preservation, promoting a sustainable and harmonious approach to interacting with the environment.

This study primarily focused on Santa María Jacatepec, located in the northwest of the state of Oaxaca, within the district of Tuxtepec, in the Papaloapan Basin region. Its coordinates are 17°43′–17°59′ north latitude and 95°58′–96°17′ west longitude (see Figure 2). The region is characterized by a warm and humid climate, with rainfall throughout the year that supports lush vegetation. Important rivers such as the Blanco, Playa, and Obispo converge in this territory, along with perennial streams like the Valle Nacional, Cajonos, and Soyalapam rivers, which are crucial for agriculture and water supply in the region.

2.2. Comprehensive Analysis of Quantitative and Qualitative Variables

This research employed a multidimensional approach that combined quantitative, qualitative, and participatory analyses to examine the relationship between natural resource conservation, agricultural sustainability, and food sovereignty in Santa María Jacatepec. Quantitative data obtained from official databases of the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) were used to evaluate socioeconomic indicators (population, marginalization) and environmental indicators (land use, vegetation). These data provided an initial evaluation of the trends, models and patterns in the region [40], which were calculated using Microsoft^® Excel [41].

Spatial analysis was conducted using Geographic Information System (GIS) tools, such as ArcGIS Pro 3.3 [42], to map and visualize changes in land use and vegetation cover. Temporal analysis techniques were applied to identify transformations over time (1997–2021) and evaluate their impact on conservation and agricultural sustainability. A critical review of municipal development plans was conducted to understand how local policies have influenced socioeconomic development and territorial planning. This evaluation focused on the proposed objectives, goals, and strategies and their alignment with sustainability and conservation principles.

The quantitative analysis was complemented by an ethnographic approach [43], which included participatory observation to identify sustainable practices based on local customs.

At least 10 visits to the study area were conducted annually from 2014 to 2024, with the team participating in over 50 community workshops. This extensive engagement allowed for immersion in local cultural practices and provided valuable insights into regional strategies for conservation and sustainable resource use [44,45].

2.3. Data Validation and Triangulation

To ensure the validity of the results, a data triangulation process was carried out, integrating information from databases, spatial analyses, development plans, and participatory observations in community assemblies with local authorities, civil society organizations, and government institutions [46]. This comprehensive methodology allowed for the corroboration and comparison of the findings, providing a more robust and holistic view of the relationship between conservation and agricultural sustainability.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Social and Economic Evolution of the Municipality

The social and economic landscape of Santa María Jacatepec is shaped by complex, interwoven factors that reflect both cultural strengths and economic challenges. On the social front, the predominantly Indigenous population—53.7% of whom spoke Chinantec in 2015—demonstrates strong cultural ties and a deep connection to traditional practices and communal identity [47]. However, this cultural richness is accompanied by persistent social inequalities. In 2015, moderate poverty affected 40.2% of the population, with 36.8% living in extreme poverty and 23% facing some form of vulnerability, either social or economic, indicating that a significant portion of the population struggled to meet basic needs and faced limited access to social services, education, and healthcare [48]. The challenges were particularly acute in remote areas where the infrastructure is underdeveloped, limiting opportunities for mobility and economic advancement.

Economically, Santa María Jacatepec relies on rain-fed and regional agricultural products, such as bananas (Musa spp.), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), nance (Byrsonima crassifolia), and pineapple (Ananas comosus) [49]. These crops, while providing a foundation for local livelihoods, illustrate the narrow scope of economic activities in the region. The focus on a few agricultural products has made the local economy vulnerable to external pressures [34], such as changes in market demand, climatic variability, and land-use restrictions [25]. The slow agricultural development has been exacerbated by structural changes at the national level, which, since the shift from protectionist to liberal economic policies, have placed increased pressure on rural producers to compete in global markets without sufficient governmental support [14,15]. As a result, many small-scale producers in Santa María Jacatepec face economic uncertainty.

By 2021, some changes in the social and economic profile were observed. The population grew to 9630 people, and there were notable improvements in the reduction of extreme poverty, which dropped by 14%. However, moderate poverty rose by 2.9%, and the percentage of the population facing social vulnerability increased by 10.6% [47]. This paradoxical trend suggests that while some strides were made in alleviating the most severe forms of poverty, broader socioeconomic vulnerabilities remained unresolved. The increase in social vulnerability and moderate poverty points to deeper issues, such as insufficient job creation, limited access to education and healthcare, and the persistent lack of infrastructure development, which collectively hamper long-term economic growth [50].

In response to these challenges, local governance in Santa María Jacatepec has focused on targeted interventions aimed at improving conditions for the most vulnerable groups. As outlined in the Municipal Development Plans (MDPs), initiatives such as job creation programs, small-scale infrastructure projects, and agricultural support have been implemented to help mitigate migration and support the local economy [49,50,51,52]. These efforts have encouraged many residents to remain in their communities, continuing agricultural activities and maintaining local traditions. Livestock farming, including cattle (Bos taurus), poultry (Gallus gallus domesticus), and pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus), remains an important economic activity, further supporting the local subsistence economy and trade networks.

Despite these positive interventions, economic and social vulnerabilities persist, highlighting the need for more comprehensive and sustainable solutions. The reliance on traditional crops and limited diversification leaves the local economy exposed to environmental risks such as droughts, floods, and fluctuating market prices. Additionally, the lack of infrastructure—particularly roads, access to markets, and technological resources—continues to limit the community’s economic potential. Addressing these challenges requires long-term policy measures that focus on economic diversification, the development of sustainable agricultural practices, and enhanced infrastructure. Strengthening educational opportunities and increasing access to healthcare services are also crucial to breaking the cycle of poverty and vulnerability in the region [53,54].

3.2. Territorial Changes

The analysis of geostatistical information from 1997 to 2021 revealed a complex dynamic in terms of land use and vegetation in the municipality, illustrating a significant socio-environmental change in the region. Figure 3 depicts these land-use and vegetation changes, providing a visual overview of the territorial transformations. Notably, there is an expansion of dryland agriculture, reduced cultivated grassland, stability in the evergreen forest, and some fluctuations in secondary vegetation [55].

3.3. Cultivated Grasslands and Livestock

In Santa María Jacatepec, Oaxaca, extensive livestock farming (cattle, goats, and pigs) is one of the most essential primary activities and is commercially significant in the region. The production depends on pastures established in flat areas or natural grasslands with average elevations of 40 m. Initially, local grasses were used, but later, improved varieties were introduced [49,51], such as star grass (Cynodon nlemfuensis), Tanzania grass (Panicum maximum), bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), side oats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), silver bluestem (Bothriochloa saccharoides), threeawn (Aristida adscensionis), St. Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum), and brachiaria (Brachiaria brizantha), to address the low productivity and weight gain in livestock [56].

According to the Municipal Development Plans of 2008, 2011, and 2014, livestock farming in the municipality has declined due to commercialization issues. The finalization of the cattle-fattening process could be more profitable, forcing producers to sell steers weighing an average of 380 kg to intermediaries. These intermediaries transport the cattle to other states, such as Veracruz, Estado de México, Querétaro, Guanajuato, Monterrey, and Nuevo León, for final fattening and direct sale to slaughterhouses [51,52].

From 1977 to 2021, the area of cultivated grassland decreased by approximately 12.7% (Figure 4). As noted in the MDP [50], the downward trend is attributed to the inability to plant improved grasses, which negatively impacts producers’ income and highlights the relationship between livestock systems, grassland, and land-use change [56,57].

Historically, in the municipality [49], dryland agriculture has been favored on rocky terrain (a characteristic of the area’s orography) with 950 m or hill elevations. This type of agriculture is limited to species such as coffee (Coffea arabica), cassava (Manihot esculenta), palm (Chamaedorea tepejilote), barbasco (Dioscorea composita), mamey (Pouteria sapota), sapote (Manilkara zapota), and, to a lesser extent, maize (Zea mays). In addition to the mentioned crops, chile soledad (Capsicum annuum ‘soledad’) is cultivated on sloped hillsides. In flat areas or areas with an average elevation of 40 m, crops such as maize (Zea mays), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), and various vegetables are grown, which form the basis of the Indigenous families’ diet.

Agriculture has historically been the main economic activity, particularly the cultivation of coffee (Coffea arabica) and maize (Zea mays) as priorities in the primary sector according to the PMDs in 2008 and 2011 [52]. However, the decline in coffee prices since the 1950s, the lack of machinery and adequate infrastructure to add value, and climatic variations have affected productivity, forcing farmers to focus on subsistence production [51]. Despite the lack of governmental support or incentives, dryland agriculture using the milpa production system has proven to be a sustainable practice, allowing farmers to face economic and climatic adversities while preserving traditional practices and ancestral knowledge [58,59].

The milpa production system, which combines the cultivation of maize (Zea mays), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), and squash (Cucurbita pepo), has been successful [60] in the region, mainly due to the availability of water [49], ensuring food security and helping maintain agricultural biodiversity. This approach is linked to the Localized Agrifood Systems (SIALs) concept [61], which emphasizes territorial aspects, consumption patterns, and their connection to cultural food heritage. However, although the production system is suitable [62], in areas located in mountainous regions with slopes of up to 25%, producers cannot remain in the exact location for several production cycles due to the high degree of erosion caused by steep slopes, along with slash-and-burn practices [49]. As a result, they move to new areas, expanding the dryland agriculture area, a situation exacerbated by the lack of attention paid to marginalized populations seeking to survive by increasing agricultural production areas [49].

From 1997 to 2021, there was sustained growth in the cultivated area (Figure 5), increasing from 195 to 1870 hectares, with a positive upward trend.

Beginning in 2001, the “Integrated Ecosystem Management in Three Priority Regions” (MIE) project was implemented through government institutions with international funding. The Chinantla region, including the municipality of Santa María Jacatepec, was integrated into the project because the region’s ecosystem is considered a priority. Still, no mechanisms were put in place to ensure its conservation [63].

From 2001 to 2010, biodiversity was positively impacted [64] through a focus on the inclusion, empowerment, and integration of the various stakeholders impacting the territory [65]. Stakeholders were included with mutual respect and equity, regardless of gender or social status, to design and formalize community management plans [65]. This involved implementing environmental awareness processes and establishing productive models in the regions, particularly promoting alternative crops as nature-based solutions for conservation [19].

The importance of conservation goes beyond the immediate environmental benefits because protecting natural resources strengthens the food security and sovereignty of local and Indigenous communities. It reduces dependence on external inputs and promotes more autonomous agriculture adapted to local conditions. Sustainable agricultural practices and natural resource conservation also drive local economic development [66] by selling and exchanging agrifood products in local and regional markets to balance human needs and planetary health, meaning agricultural and consumption practices were re-evaluated, integrating governments, communities, businesses, and consumers in this effort [67], under nature-based solutions.

3.4. Strengthening Forest Areas

In the municipality of Santa María Jacatepec, participatory diagnostic processes were carried out with local communities to identify the diversity of species, highlighting the region’s biological and ecological richness. These efforts have significantly contributed to biodiversity and the preservation of ecosystem balance, both of which are essential for supporting local livelihoods [19,49]. This assessment provided the foundation for classifying existing sites according to their tourism potential, based on the hierarchies established in tourism inventory design [68,69]. Classifying sites according to their potential and hierarchy helps communities in integrating more specific ecotourism projects.

Table 1. Potential of natural tourist resources in Santa María Jacatepec, Oaxaca.

Natural Sites and Wildlife Reserves	Resource Hierarchy by Potential
Waterfall	Cascada 5 de Oro. Hierarchy * 2: Attraction with significant merits for receptive and international tourism.
Springs, Lakes, Lagoons, and Estuaries	Zuzúl Spring, Ojo de Agua Spring, and La Joya Spring. Hierarchy * 4: Exceptional attraction with turquoise blue and clear water capable of attracting foreign and national tourism.
Rivers	Río Valle Nacional. Hierarchy * 2: Acceptable conservation grade, constantly monitored through community rescue and cleaning actions.
Flora and Fauna Observation Sites	Arroyo del Cerro de Oro. Hierarchy * 2: The streams have a light blue color that frames a beautiful natural landscape. The water flow can be observed along the Chinantla route.
Mammals	Badger (Taxidea taxus), Raccoon (Procyon lotor), Lowland paca (Cuniculus paca), Wild boar (Sus scrofa), Marucha (Dasyprocta mexicana), Skunk (Mephitis macroura), Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), Northern tamandua (Tamandua mexicana), Long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata), Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), Coyote (Canis latrans), Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), Eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus), Red-bellied squirrel (Sciurus aureogaster), and Merriam’s pocket gopher (Cratogeomys merriami). Hierarchy * 3: The wildlife lives freely and can be observed along the Chinantla route.
Birds	Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias), Budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus), White-Fronted Parrot (Amazona albifrons), Yellow-Headed Parrot (Amazona oratrix), Keel-Billed Toucan (Ramphastos sulfuratus), Rock Dove (Columba livia), Altamira Oriole (Icterus gularis), Bell’s Vireo (Vireo bellii), Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica), Golden-Fronted Woodpecker (Melanerpes aurifrons), Sharp-Shinned Hawk (Accipiter striatus), Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus), Western Screech Owl (Megascops kennicottii), Barn Owl (Tyto alba), Mallard Duck (Anas platyrhynchos), and Neotropic Cormorant (Phalacrocorax brasilianus). Hierarchy * 2: These species are found in their natural habitat with a high degree of conservation.
Reptiles	Green Iguana (Iguana iguana), Central American River Turtle (Dermatemys mawii), Common House Gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), Snake (Colubridae), Variable Spiny Lizard (Sceloporus variabilis), and Slider Turtle (Trachemys scripta). Hierarchy * 2: These species are found in their natural habitat with a high degree of conservation.
Flora	Amargoso (Vatieres lundellii), Hog Plum (Spondias mombin), Water Tree (Vochysia hondurensia), Gumbo Limbo (Bursera simaruba), Trumpet Tree (Cecropia obtucifolia), American Muskwood (Guarea excelsa), Breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum), Wild Avocado (Picus involuta), Night-Blooming Jasmine (Cestrum nocturnum), Heliocarpus (Heliocarpus donnelisnisthii), Water Cabbage Tree (Pachira aquatica), Ice Cream Bean (Inga lepteloga), Custard Apple (Annona ceticulata), Escobilla (Eugenia acapulcensis), Wild Almond (Terminalia amazonia), Three Lomas (Cupania dentata), Wild Tamarind (Pithecellobium arboreum), Salmonwood (Cordia alliodora), Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), Rosy Trumpet Tree (Roseodendrum donnell-smithii), Brazilian Pepper Tree (Astronium graveolens), and Spanish Cedar (Cedrela odorata). Hierarchy * 2: These species are found in their natural habitat with a high degree of conservation.

Source: Own elaboration, based on PMDs and tourism hierarchy [68,69]. * Hierarchy 1 includes attractions with sufficient merit to attract visitors and complement higher-tier sites in the development and operation of the tourism area. Hierarchy 2 refers to attractions suitable for receptive tourism, forming an integral part of the tourism heritage. Hierarchy 3 encompasses attractions with unique features capable of attracting long-distance visitors, both domestic and international, but without the necessary conditions for receptive tourism. Hierarchy 4 is designated for attractions with exceptional national-level characteristics, capable of drawing long-distance visitors from both domestic and international markets.

shows the natural sites for tourism opportunities based on natural resources.

According to the sites ranked by potential, activities that can be implemented as nature-based solutions (NbSs) to attract more visitors and tourists include ecotourism, hiking, landscape observation, biological research, rappelling, cycling, mountaineering, and aquatic recreational activities. Some of these activities should be guided by community experts. For example, the Cascada 5 de Oro (Hierarchy 2) and Zuzúl Spring (Hierarchy 4) are prime locations for aquatic activities and landscape observation (Figure 6). The Río Valle Nacional (Hierarchy 2), with its continuous conservation efforts monitored by community-led cleaning actions, offers opportunities for hiking and biological research, while Cerro de Oro (Hierarchy 2), known for its scenic streams and light-blue waters, is ideal for flora and fauna observation along the Chinantla route.

Furthermore, the region is rich in diverse wildlife, with mammals such as the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) and red-bellied squirrel (Sciurus aureogaster) (Hierarchy 3), which can be observed in their natural habitats. The local avian population, including species like the great blue heron (Ardea herodias) and the yellow-headed parrot (Amazona oratrix) (Hierarchy 2), enhances the appeal for birdwatchers. Additionally, reptiles such as the green iguana (Iguana iguana) and Central American river turtle (Dermatemys mawii) (Hierarchy 2) thrive in the region, offering further opportunities for wildlife observation.

The area’s unique flora, including species like mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) and wild almond (Terminalia amazonia) (Hierarchy 2), are preserved in their natural environment and can be part of educational tours, supporting both ecotourism and biological research.

On the other hand, Indigenous communities in the municipality of Santa María Jacatepec have promoted the creation of Voluntarily Conserved Areas (ADVCs), establishing eight conservation areas: Ribera de Cajonos del Ejido Nuevo Málzaga, Ribera de Cajonos de la Comunidad de San Agustín, Ribera del Cajonos del Ejido Plan Juan Martínez, Reserva Ejidal Vega del Sol, Cycada del Ejido Emiliano Zapata, Mazate del Ejido Cerro de la Concha, and Faisán Real del Ejido Rancho Faisán, covering a total of 11,222.61 hectares [39], based on their traditional land use and customs systems, which previously guaranteed the protection of forests and jungles but have further strengthened conservation awareness and revalued the territory [14,19,44].

These conservation areas have been integrated into government funding programs such as the Payment for Environmental Services, which allows them to finance monitoring and oversight activities in the protected zones [70], and the local perception has been documented [14], along with that of other ejidos, highlighting their attitudes and responses toward conservation efforts, land-use changes, and the impact of these programs on both the environment and community livelihoods. This documentation sheds light on how these communities balance environmental stewardship with the need to maintain their economic activities, emphasizing the role of community involvement in the long-term success of conservation programs.

Thus, from 1997 to 2021, there has been a general trend of growth in the forest area with an average increase of 115.72 hectares per year, showing sustained recovery and expansion of the evergreen rainforest area, with a positive upward trend (Figure 7).

At the edges of the evergreen rainforest are areas with secondary vegetation, or acahuales, which have resulted from land clearing for agricultural or livestock expansion [51] and serve as buffer zones. These areas play a crucial role in conserving forest and jungle ecosystems, particularly in regions like Santa María Jacatepec. Although often considered degraded, secondary vegetation is essential for maintaining ecological balance and supporting biodiversity.

One of the primary functions of secondary vegetation is to act as a buffer zone around primary forests, reducing the impact of human activities and protecting core forest areas from further encroachment. Species such as brambles (Rubus spp.), heliocarpus (Heliocarpus spp.), lechuguilla (Agave lechuguilla), and trumpet tree (Cecropia obtusifolia) serve as live barriers that help prevent soil erosion, maintain water cycles, and support forest regeneration [71].

Since 2001, the secondary vegetation area has experienced a 62.5% decline, primarily due to the promotion of agroforestry activities in areas previously used for grasslands or dryland agriculture (Figure 8), where Indigenous communities aim to increase the forest cover and limit agricultural expansion [50]. However, these areas remain significant for agroforestry systems, as they enhance soil fertility, reduce dependence on chemical inputs, and provide resources like timber and medicinal plants, aligning with Indigenous practices that recognize the cultural and ecological importance of these species [72,73].

Secondary vegetation also contributes significantly to biodiversity conservation by providing habitats and food for species, particularly birds, which use these areas for nesting and feeding [74]. Between 1997 and 2001, the secondary vegetation area increased, reaching a maximum of 9481 hectares. This was followed by a general declining trend, with an average reduction of 167.72 hectares per year, resulting in a total area of 5924 hectares, as shown in Figure 9.

Despite this decline, integrating secondary vegetation into agroforestry systems highlights its crucial role in balancing ecological preservation with community livelihoods and sustainable land use.

4. Conclusions

Santa María Jacatepec, characterized by its biocultural richness, is sustained by the efforts of its predominantly Indigenous rural society, which relies on communal management to govern its territory effectively. This community-based approach has enabled the region to adapt and transform as a socio-environmental system. Despite the region’s strong push for livestock farming over the past 50 years, the communities of Santa María Jacatepec have chosen to preserve their dryland agricultural systems. This decision is based on the ability of these systems to ensure the population’s food sovereignty and their alignment with cultural and local sustainability values.

Indigenous communities have prioritized the conservation of water sources, considering them central to their development. This strategy has maintained the viability of agricultural systems and preserved essential water resources for their well-being. The participation of the community water committee in cleaning, sanitation, and safeguarding the main watercourses is noteworthy.

Traditional land-use and customs systems have been crucial in protecting local forests and jungles. These cultural practices establish norms and regulations that promote natural resource conservation and sustainable management. Indigenous identity plays a significant role in territorial protection. Although communities have adopted various nature-based solutions, many actions remain to be implemented, and financial support is necessary to back these activities.

Implementing Voluntarily Conserved Areas (ADVCs) has allowed communities to access Payments for Environmental Services (PESs). This mechanism has encouraged local development by providing economic incentives for forest conservation and ecosystem protection. Access to PESs has strengthened the communities’ capacity to manage their natural resources and driven their sustainable economic development.

The milpa system, a traditional agricultural practice, has proven fundamental to food security in the region. By maintaining this practice, communities have ensured a stable food source and preserved agricultural biodiversity and traditional knowledge.

While a transparent system based on milpa exists for subsistence and local and regional exchange, agricultural activities have been complemented by goods and services in the tourism sector. To ensure the long-term conservation of ADVCs, it is essential to maintain, continue, verify, and monitor these resources based on community development plans. However, more significant funding is required to implement monitoring and conservation strategies.

Finally, the proposed methodology and the study applied a territorial approach to sustainability as a nature-based solution (NbS), emphasizing the cultural identity of the communities. This approach not only enhances the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources but also strengthens the socio-cultural fabric of Indigenous populations by recognizing and integrating their traditional knowledge systems. By incorporating the perspective of Indigenous peoples, this study fosters more inclusive and equitable scientific research, addressing both ecological and social dimensions. This framework could serve as a foundation for future studies, offering a replicable model for other regions seeking to balance environmental sustainability with cultural preservation and community-led development.