Muddy Waters: Design Thinking for Understanding the Multi-Organizational Problem Space of the Water Sector

Abstract

Context and motivation: Climate change is manifested by climate variability, rising temperatures (and thus evaporation), and extreme events such as droughts and floods, which have a profound effect on the availability of natural resources, for example, high-quality water. While several technologies for addressing these challenges are available, their adoption is not widespread. In this study, a design thinking (DT) approach was applied to understand the problem space of floods and their handling by the Israeli water sector. Specifically, we aim at addressing the following question: What are the gaps in and barriers to adopting solutions that address sewerage flooding during extreme heavy rainfall events? The DT approach exposed major problems in the conduct of the water sector, including a lack of communication among organizations, the ill-defined distribution of responsibility, unclear and conflicting guidance, and insufficient funds and technological solutions, all hindering the possibility of adopting an integrative solution. This study demonstrates the role that DT plays in understanding a complex, multi-organizational problem space, in our case, the climate change readiness of the water sector, before delving into technological development. Any solution development should involve participants from the various organizations involved in the challenge. It is vital to address not only each organization’s requirements but also its technology adoption barriers and to initiate a comprehensive discussion, ultimately resulting in a shared understanding of all the facets of the challenge that can impact solution development and deployment.

1. Introduction

The planning and management of water resource systems (WRSs) are challenged by the intensification of climate change processes on a global level, and, in particular, in the Eastern Mediterranean region [1]. Readiness for climate change is a pressing need, and many recent studies have focused on technological solutions for water systems, e.g., water leak detection, wireless sensor networks, and optimal control of drainage systems, to name a few. Yet, the adoption of these technologies is not widespread. Aiming to understand and overcome the water sector’s reluctance to adopt emerging technologies and following research on stakeholder analysis [2], this case study focuses on the process of eliciting input from various stakeholders who hold knowledge and expertise in the field, the power to influence issues, and a sense of urgency concerning the need for planning and action in this matter.

Our case study is the Israeli water sector. This sector includes multiple and diverse actors from both the private and public sectors. According to the Israeli water and sewerage corporation law [3], most of the water distribution and sewerage systems are managed by water utilities provided by contractor corporations. These profit-based corporations have replaced local authorities, which were responsible for the water supply and sewerage in their jurisdiction. This replacement has resulted in a disparity between the government’s desire to meet sustainability goals and the interest of the corporations as profit centers. It is the government’s obligation to intervene and provide incentives and regulations to encourage utilities to behave sustainably while balancing customers’ long-held expectations of water being supplied as a low-cost, affordable service. Government strategies may include both punitive measures, such as monetary fines; incentives, such as tax credits or grants to incentivize smart system transformations; and loan guarantees similar to investment loans in the area of energy efficiency under the National Plan for Implementation of the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction [4]. On the demand side, we see a need to engage the industrial, agricultural, and consumer sectors to increase awareness of the sewerage issue.

Our research goal is to ascertain the benefits of applying the design thinking (DT) methodology [5,6] to a problem space in which multiple organizations of various types participate. The case study focused on the problem of incomplete separation between drainage and sewerage systems in Israel, one of the problems currently faced by the Israeli water sector. We use DT to unveil the climate change readiness as manifested in the current situation and the reasons underlying this sector’s low willingness to adopt new technologies for managing sustainability-supporting processes in terms of barriers impeding technological adoption. Accordingly, this study is focused on answering the following research questions (RQs) in the context of the separation between drainage and sewerage systems:

• RQ1: What are the challenges and barriers to adopting new sustainable technologies in the water sector?

DT was applied in this study for the in-depth learning of the problem space, in which the stakeholders are expected to collaborate in an effort to advance climate change readiness. An in-depth understanding of this complex problem is a necessary first step in the requirements engineering (RE) process toward developing an effective solution to overcome the barriers currently impeding technology adoption. Thus, our second research question focuses on the DT process in answering RQ1:

• RQ2: What is the role of DT in understanding sustainability challenges?

The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the impact of climate change on the water sector. Section 3 reports on the case study settings, including the DT methodology, which was applied, and its results. Section 4 discusses the results in light of the research questions followed by the research limitations in Section 5, conclusion in Section 6, and finally, future research directions in Section 7 end the report.

2. Background

2.1. Climate Change Impact on the Water Sector

Climate change is manifested by climate variability, rising temperatures (and thus evaporation), and extreme events such as droughts and floods, which have a profound effect on the availability of natural resources, such as high-quality water [4]. The local effects of climate change, accompanied by population growth and increased water demand, further stress the Israeli water sector and make it difficult to meet sustainability goals. Using the Standard Precipitation Index (SPI), Givati et al. [7] analyzed the Sea of Galilee watershed and observed negative SPI aridity levels of 11 and 17 during the 1927–1970 and 1970–2014 periods, respectively. This result indicates sharply rising levels of aridity in the watershed. More specifically, the annual available water (inflows minus evaporation) has decreased significantly over the last 40 years [8,9]. The prospects for the future are that extreme weather and high variability will further challenge the water sector in many ways [8,9]. As such, the water sector, with its diverse organizations and societal actors, needs to adopt intervention plans to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change. In particular, the Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) framework should be adopted to cope with the negative impacts of climate change. IUWM takes a holistic approach to managing the urban water cycle, aiming to integrate water supply, wastewater, stormwater, and drainage systems [10,11]. Recent studies have emphasized the value of integrated modeling frameworks for addressing complex urban water challenges. For instance, Gao et al. (2023) modeled flood risks resulting from combined rainfall and storm surge events in coastal cities, while Du et al. (2024) introduced an integrative framework for predicting flood hazards induced by tropical cyclones, highlighting the relevance of IUWM in mitigating such risks [12,13]. These studies underscore the importance of IUWM for managing urban water challenges effectively. Additionally, decision-support systems and digital technologies have been shown to enhance coordination between stakeholders, making urban water systems more resilient and adaptive [14,15]. Unlike traditional siloed approaches, IUWM emphasizes the importance of collaboration among stakeholders, including utilities, local authorities, and policymakers, to achieve sustainable urban water outcomes. One of the primary barriers to effective IUWM implementation is fragmented governance, where water, sewerage, and drainage systems are managed by different entities with varying priorities and regulatory frameworks. Collaboration between municipalities, water utilities, and environmental agencies is necessary to address cross-cutting issues such as climate change, water scarcity, and urbanization, further demonstrating the need for a multi-stakeholder approach [16,17,18,19]. Thus, the successful implementation of IUWM depends not only on technical solutions but also on addressing governance and regulatory barriers to collaboration [17,18]. In Israel, the water supply is primarily under the responsibility of the Water Authority, which is the regulator in this sector. Still, IUWM may be adopted by other organizations involved in this sector (e.g., water utilities, regional drainage authorities, and municipalities) to manage and monitor water resources. Software-based solutions are instrumental for enhancing resource conservation, reducing demand levels, and achieving better readiness for extreme climatic events. Considering the above, a carefully designed stakeholder engagement process that relies on DT methodology can help in fostering communication between stakeholders and creating coherent regulatory policies, which are critical for overcoming the challenges of the IUWM framework [16,17,18,19].

2.2. Incomplete Separation Between Sewerage and Drainage Systems

The influence of sewerage systems on the living conditions and quality of life in Israel is profound, particularly in three critical areas that impact every citizen: water management, public health, and public natural resources [20]. Global phenomena, notably, climate change, necessitate adaptations across various systems to address the rising frequency of extreme weather events [7], which strain both drainage and sewage infrastructures.

There are two primary types of sewage systems: the combined sewage system, which transports both sewage and rainwater in a single pipe, and the separate sewage system, which uses different pipes for sewage and rainwater [21]. In separate systems, the inflow of excess water during rain events can lead to operational issues, including sewage overflows [22]. Problems like the overloading and flooding of the sewage system can arise from cracked sewers and blocked or undersized pipes that cannot handle the volume of sewage [23]. Additionally, runoff entering the system during rainfall through illegal connections between gutters and sewage pipes is a common cause of sewage overflows [24]. If such connections exist and the system is overwhelmed, the benefits of the systems’ separation are compromised [25].

Designed to handle specific capacities, sewage systems can fail when stormwater unintentionally or deliberately enters, leading to potential sewage flooding in urban areas and natural streams. In severe cases, this excess can cause sewage flooding of ground floors and underground parking [26]. As such, overflow from sewage systems poses significant environmental and health risks. The water sector can develop and refine policies, methods, and tools to mitigate these issues by mapping illegal connections between drainage and sewage systems and identifying barriers to implementing effective solutions.

Reports from sewage treatment facilities frequently indicate “spikes” in sewage volumes during storms, often a sign of illegal connections between drainage and sewage systems. These unauthorized connections not only elevate treatment costs but also degrade the quality of the effluent due to the influx of unexpected stormwater. Such incidents can double the wastewater load on treatment facilities during storms, leading to severe hydraulic overloads and environmental and health hazards [27]. The unintended release of sewage can cause odor nuisance, spread diseases, and contaminate freshwater resources, resulting in an estimated annual loss of over 20 million cubic meters of water in Israel [20]. According to Netanyahu [28], urban sewage ranks as the most significant water pollutant in Israel, with untreated effluents causing soil, surface water, and groundwater pollution.

To illustrate the impact of drainage system connections on the sewage system, Figure 1 presents the correlation between rainfall and the estimated runoff at a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) for two neighboring localities: (a) a locality with known illicit connections and (b) a locality without illicit connections. Rainfall data were sourced from the nearest meteorological station, while runoff estimates were calculated by comparing the actual inflow to the WWTP on rainy days with the average inflow on dry days (i.e., days without rain). Specifically, the estimated runoff was determined as the difference between the daily inflow and the average dry day inflow. The strong correlation in Figure 1a (R = 0.816) versus the weak correlation in Figure 1b (R = 0.132) serves as an indicator of cross-connections between the drainage and sewage systems.

Legally, the separation of sewage and drainage systems is enforced under the Local Authorities (Sewage) Law of 1962, which prohibits any interconnection between these systems [3]. Despite this, it is common practice for some households to connect rainwater drains directly to the sewage system to swiftly manage stormwater and prevent private property flooding [29]. One strategic recommendation to tackle climate-related challenges is to implement proactive measures to disconnect rainwater drains from sewage systems, thereby reducing the load on urban sewage networks and preventing flooding incidents [30].

Wastewater management falls under the jurisdiction of water and sewage corporations, supported by a comprehensive legal framework that includes the Water and Sewage Corporations Law—2001, the Water Law—1959, Public Health Regulations—1940, Wastewater Standards—1992, and Water Pollution Prevention Regulations, among others [3]. The Water and Sewage Corporations Law of 2001 mandates that water corporations are responsible for planning, establishing, maintaining, and operating the sewage conveyance system, covering all its components from pipelines to pumping stations, ensuring the transport of sewage to treatment facilities or its integration into regional sewage systems [3]. While water corporations manage these tasks, drainage systems often remain the responsibility of local municipalities.

The need for a comprehensive strategy to map illegal connections and implement the effective and complete separation of drainage and sewage systems is critical, as the increase in sewage volumes during the winter continues to present economic, environmental, and health risks [27]. Yet, a clear mapping of the extent of illegal connections between the drainage and sewage systems and the barriers to implementing suitable solutions to achieve complete separation between the two systems is still missing.

3. The Case Study

3.1. Design Thinking Methodology

DT is an empathy-driven design process that differs from other user-centered design techniques in that all the stakeholders are genuinely engaged and involved in the development of solutions that best fit their needs. DT involves three perspectives: (1) mindset, (2) process, and (3) toolbox [5]. From the mindset perspective, DT exhibits a combination of divergent and convergent thinking and a strong orientation toward both the explicit and implicit needs of all stakeholders. From the process perspective, DT combines both a micro and a macro process. The micro process we employed consists of three stages: establishing empathy, defining the problem (i.e., identifying and synthesizing needs), and generating ideas for innovation. The macro process consists of managing milestones while developing prototype proposals that respond to the questions under study. From the toolbox perspective, DT refers to the application of numerous methods and techniques taken from design, engineering, informatics, and psychology [5]. These tools include, for example, the use of personas to analyze stakeholders, empathy maps to understand behaviors, and customer journeys to synthesize processes with an emphasis on empathy with the stakeholder organizations [31].

DT has become a well-known practice in RE [6,32,33]. Previous studies have focused on using DT for business process analysis [6]; as a human-centered approach that can extend the more technological-centered RE practices for discovering and meeting the ambiguous needs of various stakeholders [32]; and as a user-centered, rapid-prototyping method for innovative design [33]. Figure 2 summarizes the DT method, which includes five main stages.

There are studies that have used the DT approach for engaging citizens in urban water sustainability processes [34], focusing on people’s social needs [35], and learning about their habits of comfort and cleanliness [36]; however, we have not found a study that focuses on engaging sustainability stakeholders from the whole water sector and looking at the broad ecosystem of the challenge.

In this study, we applied the first four stages of the DT methodology. However, most of the discussion is based mainly on the first two stages, using the persona and empathy map tools [5] for learning the problem space in our case study that involves multiple organizations. The persona tool originated from human–computer interaction studies. The tool represents a hypothetical or real person from the problem space which serves as an archetype that embodies the behavior or personality characteristics of a group of persons. The persona has a name and characteristics which facilitate its use in the DT process. Personas help diverse teams to identify different customers, orchestrate insights, and achieve innovation [5]. On the other hand, the empathy map tool helps in analyzing interviews with stakeholders from the problem space (i.e., customers, managers, etc.). The data obtained in the interviews are categorized into four categories: “Say” (quotations and central terms), “Do” (observed behaviors), “Think” (assumptions of thoughts), and “Feel” (emotions) [5]. The implementation of these tools in our workshop is presented in Appendix A.

3.2. Settings and Procedure

The case study focuses on a stakeholders’ DT workshop about climate change readiness in the Israeli water sector, which we initiated and conducted. The workshop aimed to address the research questions and establish a transdisciplinary forum intended to maintain ongoing discussions of sustainable technology adoption and responsible behavior in the water sector.

As a challenge for the DT workshop, we chose the problem of the incomplete separation between drainage and sewerage systems. We learned in preliminary discussions with experts that this is one of the main problems currently faced by the Israeli water sector. This challenge is associated with the two extreme situations of floods and droughts, both of which are increasing in frequency due to climate change. Rainwater accumulating in urban areas is routed via drainage systems to nearby water bodies. In the period 1951–2021, an increase in rainfall intensity was observed, showing a particularly significant increase in the northwestern parts of Israel. Floods are caused by heavy rain, leading to the accumulation of surface runoff in these areas that exceeds the capacity of the drainage systems. Furthermore, even though the drainage and sewerage systems should be separate, some people still drain the runoff into the sewerage network. This causes sewerage flooding on top of the rainwater floods and the loss of clean rainwater that could be otherwise preserved and utilized. Furthermore, sewerage flooding in urban areas can cause environmental and health hazards.

We conducted an analysis to determine which of this sector’s actors should be invited to take part in the workshop and who the most suitable personnel are to ensure a productive discussion concerning the challenge selected for the workshop. Following this analysis, an invitation was sent to the potential participants. The workshop was held in the Technion Water Research Institute in December 2022. The workshop finally hosted 18 participants representing the following stakeholder organizations and interest groups: water corporations (6), drainage authorities (2), water technology providers (1), water authorities (1), the ministry of health (1), academic researchers (not including the paper’s authors who conducted the workshop) (3), a legal firm (1), an environmental organization (2), and the nature and parks authority (1).

The participants were divided into nine teams, each comprising two members from different organizations. We applied a short version of the DT approach to problem definition and solution proposals [6]. Their deliberations were documented using DT guidelines and worksheets (see Appendix A). In the first stage, they described a persona in their organization and detailed a scenario associated with the water and sewerage separation challenge. In the second stage, each member of the pair interviewed the other regarding the scenario, eliciting explicit activities and implicit feelings and thoughts that the persona exhibited during the scenario. In the final stage, each participant proposed a solution, and then the team decided on a joint solution to be posted on a shared noticeboard. These solutions were then presented to the other workshop participants for further discussion. Following the discussions on all the proposed solutions, the workshop participants were each asked to vote for the solution they preferred.

The data collected from the DT workshop included worksheets filled in by the participants and shared on noticeboards, each showing the team’s ideas that came up during their discussions and the results of the whole group voting on the suggestions. The DT worksheets and the participants’ feedback data were saved on a shared fileserver. We performed a thematic analysis [37] on the data gathered based on the principles of the grounded theory methodology [38] in conjunction with interpretive research principles [39]. This combination, offered by Walsham [39], was chosen for this research study because of its systematic guidance for analyzing human-centered contexts and actions while considering the full complexity of the social context. Furthermore, the aim of this study was not to offer a full and comprehensive solution, but rather to seek recurring themes and emergent categories of barriers potentially impeding a comprehensive solution to sewerage and runoff water separation [38].

The authors independently coded the data, identifying emergent themes representing barriers potentially impeding a comprehensive solution to sewerage and runoff water separation. The coders compared and discussed the codes until they reached an agreement. In the following subsection, we present the results of this analysis.

3.3. Results: Main Themes

Table 1. DT workshop main themes.

Theme	Explanation	Examples of Quotes
Lack of communication and consistency among the different stakeholders	This results in a buildup of frustration and resentment between different types of stakeholders, hindering any attempt at collaboration.	There is a contradiction between the regulation of the drainage authority, which does not allow the flow of runoff water to natural streams, and the guidance of the environmental protection authority, which, in cases of running over a certain amount of water, allows its diversion into natural streams. The WWTP (Wastewater Treatment Plant) blames the Water and Sewerage Authority as being solely responsible for the quantity of wastewater that the WWTP is not designed to treat. Neighborhoods without drainage systems are compelled to use the sewerage network to prevent floods in residential neighborhoods. They vehemently object to the authority contractor who comes to disconnect the drainage from the sewerage.
Unclear division of responsibility	This may cause either multiple actors who believe they have the sole responsibility/authority or none at all.	The responsibility is dispersed among different entities, thus impeding the ability to provide a good solution. There is tension between the requirements of WWTP planning that are specified by the water authority and the responsibility of the corporation constructing the WWTP. It is not clear whose responsibility it is, whether that of the water authority or the planner on behalf of the corporation. The water and sewerage corporations need to take responsibility [for the problem of draining excessive rainwater in the sewerage system]. Local authorities and regional water corporations do not have the authority to disconnect crossing connections. The local authority is not required [by law] to handle utilities in its domain. There are too many entities or regulators, which significantly impedes the addition of necessary infrastructure.
Strict regulations impeding potential solutions	On the one hand, not allowing current improvised solutions, but on the other hand, not providing alternatives.	We see many workarounds done by individuals to prevent floods because the authority defines the regulations [i.e., not allowing these solutions] but does not provide alternative practical solutions that do comply with the regulations. We are considering forming a database for defining procedures [for a compliant solution]; the regulator’s involvement is imperative!
Lack of regulation enforcement	The improvised, non-compliant solutions frequently become the de facto solution, despite their shortcomings, due to a lack of enforcement.	Warnings were sent to residents who connected draining systems to the sewerage network in a way that contradicted regulations. In light of the lack of enforcement, the corporation will charge the residents for purification costs according to the measured roof area. There is no enforcement and no one to manage the situation during an overflow event. There is no documentation of the cross-connections. No cooperation from the residents. We need a specific regulation and a uniformity of the overseeing regulators.
Limited solutions	The currently deployed solutions are not designed to withstand the challenges stemming from climate change.	The proposed process is supposed to adapt the anaerobic treatment to domestic sewerage and is ostensibly supposed to deal with high hydraulic load. However, the organic load is low because of dilution with rainwater; as such, the biological process is harmed.
Funding allocation	A lack of resources, stemming (in part, at least) from using the relevant funding for other purposes	The municipality has no specific budget earmarked for handling water drainage. It should allocate some of its general budgets to handle it, but in many cases, it does not. Investment is needed to treat the drainage of water. There are certain residential areas in which the water drainage systems are insufficient, and the local authorities cannot control the drainage due to a lack of earmarked funding. The corporation is willing to participate in the cost of drainage solutions which they [the municipality] do not have a budget for. The mayor has the authority (to decide upon a solution) but no funding to do it.

presents the main themes identified in the analysis, including explanations and example quotes. Following the inductive analysis principles [38], we allowed themes to emerge freely from the data elicited via the DT tools (see Appendix A), by identifying recurring patterns.

3.4. Follow-Up Hackathon

A follow-up activity for the research group was participation in a hackathon in an academic setting at Shenkar, College of Engineering Design and Art, in April 2023, where a team of three students from the software engineering and chemical engineering departments was recruited to address the challenges identified in this study. Reviewing the findings of the DT workshop, the team of students working on this challenge concluded that the main problem is engaging and motivating the relevant stakeholders to separate runoff and sewerage water. Realizing that none of the involved stakeholders were willing to take responsibility for compliance with the law, the team suggested that internal motivation, rather than external enforcement, should be inherent in any developed solution.

The hackathon team proposed a solution based on visualizing the current situation, using smart and simple sensors that estimate the water level in the sewerage system during extreme rain events (see Appendix B, Figure A1). Since the sewerage system is mapped to specific neighborhoods and even streets, a visualization system can highlight areas that have illicit connections between runoff and sewerage water. By giving each area a score (see Appendix B, Figure A2), the solution can facilitate award and penalty mechanisms to promote and motivate the separation between the two systems. Such a solution can later be enhanced with artificial intelligence modules for forecasting specific areas where people might advance sustainability challenges and promote sustainable efforts.

4. Discussion

Based on the main themes identified in our analysis, we provide and discuss insights regarding each of the research questions in the context of the case study of the separation between drainage and the sewerage systems.

• RQ1: What are the challenges and barriers to adopting new sustainable technologies in the water sector?

The list of barriers and challenges includes all the themes detailed in Table 1. It appears that the majority of these challenges stem from the involvement of multiple and diverse organizations whose work is not coordinated, resulting in insufficient readiness for the impact of climate change on the water sector. This lack of coordination causes inconsistency and incompleteness in the definition and interpretation of regulations, their enforcement, and related funding, and an unclear division of responsibility. This, in turn, leads to limited and problematic so-called solutions deployed in the field. In the case of heavy rainfall, the illicit connection between sewerage and drainage systems causes sewage flooding in urban areas and natural streams. Yet, there is no clear guidance on how to manage the situation. The different authorities often provide contradictory instructions, leaving the field without satisfactory solutions during a crisis. This separation of responsibilities not only influences the specific problem of the connection between sewerage and drainage systems, but also impairs the strategic planning of the water sector in coping with climate change challenges and hinders investment in innovative solutions to these challenges. Furthermore, there are strict regulations that prohibit the use of rainwater for agricultural or private usage but do not provide any desirable solutions that the local municipalities can implement to both prevent floods and retain fresh water for use in the dry season. This situation leads stakeholders to improvise workaround solutions that do not necessarily comply with the regulations and may eventually result in sewerage flooding. This situation is amplified by a lack of available solutions and funding resources because no organization takes the initiative to invest in potential solutions for complete rainwater and sewerage separation in a way that takes into account the considerations and constraints of all the relevant stakeholder organizations.

The workshop discussions demonstrated that the participants were not familiar with any available solutions that could provide a comprehensive response to promote the complete separation of sewerage and drainage systems during heavy rain events, which are becoming more frequent due to climate change. Given the gaps identified in the solutions proposed by the different organizations, any selection or development of an appropriate technological solution could only be initiated with the full cooperation of all of these organizations, leading—first and foremost—to a shared and agreed-upon specification of the requirements.

• RQ2: What is the role of DT in understanding sustainability challenges?

Climate change challenges are wicked problems (i.e., unstructured and uncertain), often grand, messy, and indeterminate [5], and require a comprehensive effort that addresses cultural, organizational, political, and technological issues. The DT methodology seeks to address wicked problems from a variety of perspectives and needs [5], by applying the various DT tools that address both the functional needs and the emotional states of the participants. In our case, the DT persona and empathy map tools revealed the existing gaps between multiple and diverse perspectives in the water sector, specifically, the limited collaboration among water organizations, division of responsibility, unclear and insufficient regulations and enforcement, and limited technological solutions and funds.

The DT in our case study mainly focused on the problem space rather than on the solution space. The main tools that were used and analyzed were the persona and empathy map. These tools enabled us to highlight the frustrations of and barriers for diverse stakeholders. While no technological innovations emerged in the workshop, it showed that the challenge of coping with sustainable problems is mainly human and not technological. By design, our DT workshop did not focus on technological challenges; rather, we wanted to be able to identify the human aspects that prevent potential technological implementations.

The separation of sewerage and drainage systems and the implementation of IUWM in general faces significant barriers, particularly due to fragmented governance, competing priorities, and inconsistent regulations across agencies responsible for water, sewerage, and drainage. This fragmentation limits coordination, data sharing, and adaptive responses to climate and urbanization pressures. Here, we showcased how DT offers a promising approach to enhancing stakeholder engagement in IUWM. By focusing on collaborative, user-centered problem-solving, DT enables stakeholders—including municipalities, water utilities, and environmental agencies—to co-create solutions, align goals, and foster adaptive management. This stakeholder engagement process is the first step in initiating a collaborative effort whereby all the relevant organizations can participate and develop a shared roadmap toward a comprehensive solution that addresses regulations, responsibilities, and technology requirements. This position paper is endorsed by the representatives of the organizations who participated in the workshop as a first step toward a joint collaborative strategy for IUWM to mitigate climate change implications. This collaboration is expected to lead to follow-up DT workshops that facilitate better communication, coherent policies, and the prototyping of innovative solutions, helping stakeholders overcome key IUWM barriers and supporting resilient urban water management.

5. Limitations

Several limitations to the findings of this study and to the validity of its conclusions should be considered. We analyze four components of the trustworthiness of qualitative research: credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability [40]. We also discuss the respective limitations arising from this study’s settings and methodologies.

Credibility refers to the extent to which the findings and their interpretations represent the “truth”. The researchers’ personal experiences and viewpoints may inject bias into the qualitative research process, thereby affecting the research findings’ credibility [41]. Credibility is also limited by the research methodology used in the case study [42]. In qualitative research, member checking is used to preserve validity to enhance research credibility [43]. Member checking allows the researcher to validate the accuracy of the participants’ voices by allowing them to confirm or deny data interpretations [44]. We followed this approach, performing member checking by allowing the participants to provide feedback on the DT process and outcomes during the final stage of the workshop. In addition, the qualitative analysis and the inferences emerging from the DT worksheets were double-checked by researchers in the group who performed an independent analysis.

Dependability is attained when the replication of the study using the same or similar participants and contexts is expected to produce the same findings. Dependability can be achieved if the research process is traceable, clearly documented, and demonstrates to readers that the findings are reliable and repeatable. The objective of the case study approach is to ensure that another researcher, following the procedures described by a previous researcher, could arrive at the same findings and conclusions [42]. Our study ensured an audit trail by presenting the purpose of the study, describing the selection process for the study participants, describing the data collection process, demonstrating how the data were interpreted and analyzed, discussing the research results, and, finally, communicating techniques to determine the credibility of the data [44]. We checked the gathered data to eliminate any ambiguity or errors. We cross-checked the themes by engaging the whole research team in the process to ensure dependability.

Confirmability refers to the degree to which the findings are consistent and repeatable within the study [41]. As the primary research instrument, the qualitative researcher interacts with the study participants and oversees the data analysis. The DT worksheets and the participants’ feedback data were saved on a shared fileserver, to be utilized as an audit trail when needed and to affirm that the participants’ perspectives were duly represented in the data and research.

Transferability refers to the extent to which the study conclusions can be transferable to different settings, contexts, and people. This was a single, domain-specific case study focusing on a specific challenge, and therefore, any generalization beyond this case, and certainly beyond the water domain, should be carefully considered. The emerging themes were grounded in the data elicited via the DT workshop, where professionals from multiple organizations, with their different perspectives, were represented. We therefore believe that the research findings are expected to show transferability [40] with respect to water-related challenges. Future research investigating additional cases of water challenges can strengthen the resulting conclusions and their validity and generalizability.

From a more general point of view, this case study provides a clear demonstration of a complicated problem space involving diverse stakeholder organizations. The use of the DT approach, in this case, results in benefits consistent with those demonstrated in other domains for bridging diverse perceptions and viewpoints, beginning with the understanding of an array of concepts, interpretations, and needs [6] that are effectively conveyed even in a short one-day DT workshop. We believe that these benefits are achievable for similar problem spaces related to sustainability and climate change readiness and recommend using the DT approach as demonstrated in this case study.

6. Conclusions

Preparing for climate change necessitates overcoming human and technological barriers, which is a wicked problem requiring a multidisciplinary solution. The DT methodology has been acknowledged as an effective practice for conducting a deep investigation into wicked problems while revealing different viewpoints, needs, and pain points.

We implemented DT in a one-day workshop aimed at addressing the readiness of the water sector in extreme events of heavy rain that cause flooding. Specifically, we addressed the problem of the incomplete separation of sewerage and drainage systems, which can cause sewerage flooding in urban areas and natural streams. The DT tools used in the workshop facilitated the identification of major problems in the water sector, most notably, the lack of communication among organizations, unclear division of responsibility, ambiguous and often contradictory regulations, and insufficient funds and technological solutions. This intensive workshop experience has the potential to initiate and establish an ongoing collaboration between the relevant organizations for the sake of better preparation for expected future extreme rain events.

The main theoretical contribution of this study is in the extension of the application of DT for coping with a wicked problem beyond multiple stakeholders’ problem spaces to one that involves many diverse governmental and non-profit organizations. This study implies that the same approach can facilitate other efforts with the participation of diverse organizations where the uncertainty and incompleteness of the requirements for a proper and comprehensive solution exist.

Our study follows a call to engage corporations in taking responsibility and addressing challenges that emerge from climate change [45,46]. Companies around the world should commit themselves to the worldwide call of the United Nations Global Compact to promote sustainable development and compliance with, e.g., human rights and labor standards, anti-corruption, and the sustainability of the environment, including the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies [47,48,49]. While sustainability challenges are well recognized, we believe that stakeholder engagement methodologies for addressing such challenges are under-researched. Specifically, more attention needs to be paid to proposed methods for realizing the root causes of these challenges and proposing innovative solutions. For example, according to Bieser et al., who focus on greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction measures, there is a need to investigate which solution design and accompanying policies are suitable to exploit GHG reduction potentials in real life [50]. Technological solutions can have an important impact on enhancing sustainability. However, developers often lack the knowledge, experience, and methodological support for managing a comprehensive discussion on sustainability effects that should address economic, environmental, social, and individual dimensions [51]. In particular, due to the multidisciplinary nature of sustainability challenges, there is a need to use advanced requirements engineering techniques to involve multidisciplinary experts, foster education, and understand the public and social ecology [52,53]. Many studies on technological systems and environmental sustainability do not involve many stakeholders since organizing their participation and communication is rather difficult [34]. Our approach and case study show how delivering a DT workshop attended by representatives from different companies and other relevant (e.g., municipal and governmental) organizations can promote discussion and the acknowledgement of barriers that prevent the global community from overcoming climate change challenges.

7. Future Research

In our next study, we plan to examine the impact of the DT workshop on the water sector with particular emphasis on the collaboration between the organizations that participated in the DT workshop and the solution-seeking that will be initiated following the workshop. In the solution-seeking phase, we will apply the remaining DT stages, namely, Ideate and Prototype, which were less feasible in our one-day workshop. Future research directions may include applying DT to a different domain in which multiple, diverse organizations are involved in a shared complex challenge. This would serve to generalize our findings regarding the benefits of DT in such endeavors.