Promoting a Circular Economy in Mining Practices

Abstract

Integrating circular economy (CE) principles into mining practices offers a promising path toward reducing environmental harm while promoting sustainable resource management. This shift boosts the industry’s efficiency and profitability and aligns it with global sustainability goals. This paper delves into strategies for closing material loops, such as waste valorization, resource recovery from mine tailings, and water reuse in mining processes. Additionally, this study highlights innovative technologies and their potential to transform traditional linear practices into sustainable, circular systems. This paper emphasizes the importance of strong collaboration among industry stakeholders and policymakers, including mining companies, researchers, and local communities, for the implementation of CE principles. This paper also discusses the role of emerging digital tools, automation, and artificial intelligence in advancing circular practices and improving operational efficiency. By exploring the economic, environmental, and social benefits of the CE, this paper demonstrates how these practices can contribute to sustainable mining. It addresses key challenges, including technological, economic, and regulatory hurdles, and offers recommendations for overcoming them to pave the way for a more sustainable and resilient mining industry.

1. Introduction

1.1. Concept of Circular Economy

1.1.1. Circular Economy Principles

A circular economy (CE) revolves around the idea that minimizing waste and recycling materials back into the same economic system can drive economic prosperity while reducing environmental impacts. At its core, the goal of a CE is to achieve financial prosperity, followed by environmental quality [1]. This can be realized through strategies like repurposing waste from one process to support another or directly reintegrating waste into the original process to eliminate environmental harm. By doing so, the cyclic nature of the CE has the potential to save money for both businesses and governments. The importance of the CE concept has grown significantly within the scientific community, as its benefits far outweigh those of traditional resource systems. Over just 11 years, 743 articles on the CE were published between 2006 and 2017, and this number continues to rise [2]. The CE promises innovative methods for resource efficiency and sustainable financial models for otherwise costly operations within academic, scientific, and business circles. While the current linear economy model is familiar and straightforward, it is increasingly seen as outdated. The transition to CE principles may initially seem counterintuitive or paradoxical, potentially requiring significant system overhauls and additional labor. However, many argue that this seemingly paradoxical system offers superior long-term benefits compared to the linear economy [3]. Implementing a CE in manufacturing industries can be viewed as an upfront investment that will eventually pay for itself through the value saved by reducing waste. Compared to the unsustainable depletion of resources and inefficient waste recycling in factory and mining processes, adopting CE principles becomes attractive. Ultimately, the CE aims to transform wasteful, unproductive, and costly processes into sustainable and profitable ones.

1.1.2. Application to the Mining Sector

To achieve profitable sustainability, CE principles must proactively incorporate R-cycles (3Rs: redesign, refusal, and restorative practices) as key production strategies across all interconnected processes. This approach maximizes both structural capital and resource efficiency [4,5]. The physical waste CE principles in the mining sector include chemicals, minerals, metals, water, energy, land, and equipment, viewing them as potentially as valuable as traditional resource inputs into processes. Mining waste is predominately waste rock and mining tailings (MTs), with high annual estimates of 65 billion and 15 billion tons, respectively [6,7]. By 2025, 19 billion MTs could be accumulated, with 20% considered unrecyclable [8]. MTs can be repurposed in concrete as an aggregate or binder, whether from metal, mineral, or fuel (coal, oil shale, bitumen, etc.) mining. However, like recycling and other R-cycles, repurposing requires meeting specific technological, environmental, and economic conditions for feasibility [9].

Comprehensive, long-term R-cycle strategies face limitations due to CE principles, which require optimizing resource use within complex systems. This challenge is especially pronounced in large or multilevel systems. As an economic framework, the CE can apply across industries or within a single organization. For example, the system spans the economic level in concrete production, where materials flow from primary-sector mining to secondary-sector industries. Regardless of system optimization, the CE in mining must ensure the seamless collection, processing, and reintegration of products and waste at all operational levels. Both resource creators and users are responsible for maximizing resource circulation and utilization, even without direct profit. R-cycle strategies should always enhance resource efficiency, sustainability, and profitability wherever possible.

Maximizing resource usage involves integrating R-cycles at every stage of a product’s life to recycle materials continuously. However, challenges arise from the containment and complexity of mine waste. For instance, MTs can generate harmful chemicals when exposed to air, leading to the oxidation of sulfate minerals, which leach heavy metals and other toxins into water. This results in acid mine drainage (AMD), which corrodes infrastructure and severely harms the environment [10]. Mining waste often contains valuable materials like zinc, manganese, copper, nickel, and precious metals such as gold and silver, which should be recovered and reintroduced into the system [11]. This presents a dual challenge: while mining waste can hold valuable resources, it can also be harmful or uneconomical to process. Applying CE principles to reduce mining waste can make the industry more economical and sustainable. By shifting from waste management to resource repurposing, mining can turn environmental liabilities into economic assets, creating more sustainable practices.

1.2. Rationale for Circular Economy in Mining

1.2.1. Environmental Concerns and Resource Depletion

Global resource extraction and waste are rising, with the primary sector (farming, mining) and secondary sector (construction, energy) playing significant roles. From 2020 to 2050, it is estimated that 2 trillion tons of copper, lithium, manganese, and nickel MTs will be generated, with the U.S. alone needing USD 1.6 trillion for storage [12]. These sectors cause localized damage and account for about 45% of global carbon emissions, contributing to climate change and ocean acidification [13]. Resource extraction surged from 23.7 billion tons in 1970 to almost three times that in 2017, and it is projected to double by 2060, raising concerns about resource depletion [11]. With the Earth’s limited regenerative capacity, known as ecological boundaries, localized resource shortages are expected. CE principles are increasingly necessary to mitigate these growing risks, especially as waste management consumes about 20% of municipal budgets [14,15].

Mining is a critical industry that enables waste reduction. The volume of mined metals and minerals (MMs) directly affects energy production goals for achieving net-zero carbon emissions and R-cycles’ growth. Metals are crucial for sustainability due to their role in renewable energy and energy storage and their potential for infinite recyclability. Many minerals are also vital for agriculture, construction, and more. As critical resources, MMs could reduce the need for further extraction if the CE succeeds in transforming traditional economic models [16].

R-cycling mining waste can be easier and more profitable, boosting output with minimal extra effort for mining companies and their clients [11]. However, it is essential to recognize that not all waste and resources can be effectively recycled using current CE methods. In some cases, recycling may not be a better alternative to safe disposal, especially when technologies are too underdeveloped or inefficient to provide significant value. For instance, specific flotation tailings processes may not be advanced enough to justify reuse over less efficient extraction methods [17]. While the CE aims to create a closed-loop system, it is still constrained by the limitations associated with its implementation. Mine waste includes more than just metals and minerals (MMs); it encompasses equipment, energy, human capital, social capital, innovation, and environmental impacts.

The CE approach can risk reinforcing unsustainable material systems if not carefully managed [18]. Additional processing may unexpectedly increase the consumption of physical, human, or ecological resources needed to convert waste into usable goods, leading to what is known as a circular economy rebound (CER). This mismanagement, be it intentional or unintentional, could be seen as greenwashing if not addressed promptly [3]. The mining industry can mitigate global waste by repurposing valuable materials and turning environmental liabilities into economic assets. However, while creating infrastructure and markets for repurposing offers financial benefits, it also introduces complexities as circularity interconnects multiple systems and adds layers to previously straightforward processes.

1.2.2. Economic Benefits and Sustainable Resource Management

To support a sustainable CE, the mining industry must focus on minimizing uncapturable waste, the opposite of resource maximization. While all systems experience some loss, the CE’s complex, multilevel systems exacerbate these losses due to the intricate interplay of transformations, transmissions, and distributions, all influenced by labor practices, stakeholder engagement, global interconnectedness, and natural resources. This complexity must be evaluated within context to develop long-term sustainable R-cycle strategies. These strategies should be adaptable, as new technologies, data, or local dynamics can continuously reshape constraints and offer solutions to previously unsolvable problems. For example, new data models like information entropy have helped reduce the U.S. mining industry’s fatality rate from 11.7 to 3.7 per 100,000 full-time workers, preserving human and financial resources through reduced turnover [19].

A critical evaluation of the feasibility of CE principles must consider the needs of local communities and the environment, especially in light of ecological distribution conflicts (EDCs) caused by unjust pollution or resource exploitation. Scenarios, such as a polluted river that “belongs to nobody or to a community that manages the river”, require tailored, restorative resource cycles that primarily benefit the environment [20]. While these practices may lead to short-term financial deficits, they can enhance long-term economic resilience by improving community relations and fostering social acceptance. EDCs can result in a resource curse, where an area experiences low financial progress despite abundant natural resources due to poor local management [14]. Avoiding resource curses is crucial, as social acceptance, or a social license to operate (SLO), is essential for a company’s competitiveness. The SLO has been identified as the top risk facing the mining industry for three consecutive years [21], as public disapproval can halt operations, as seen in the Rustenburg area [22].

To navigate these complexities, the mining industry should adhere to regenerative standards that promote economic prosperity while considering the needs of all stakeholders, including the environment. By following the 10 principles set forth by the International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) [23], the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [24], and other relevant standards, businesses can pursue profitable growth and foster economic well-being. Green Economy (GE) principles support many SDGs, while the Blue Economy (BE) principles are backed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), making the Circular Bioeconomy (CBE) particularly appealing. CBE systems enhance sustainability by integrating renewable biological materials, processes, and circular systems. Ultimately, achieving economic prosperity requires a diverse range of economic frameworks.

All of this framework is ineffective without quantifiable metrics, despite the argument that stringent regulations may hinder innovation and competitiveness in mining. As previously mentioned, more information fosters accountability for loss reduction and resource optimization. The undisclosed amount and conditions of MTs generated each year and the rates of mine water reuse contribute to unsustainability. From 1915 to 2024, approximately 2650 deaths were attributed to MTs [12], alongside ongoing disasters resulting from mining’s social and environmental damage, which better traceability and transparency could have potentially forewarned. This information can also be utilized for lifecycle assessments (LCAs) and to quantify processes against sustainability standards such as the European Union’s environmental, social, and governance factors [25].

With the vast amount of information that needs to be shared, the Share Economy (SE) has the potential to revolutionize innovations in mining. By transferring knowledge and physical resources, such as equipment or waste, between companies, reliance increases, and breakthroughs occur more rapidly. Mining is a primary industry that will remain crucial for the foreseeable future, and as it can never be a true closed-loop system, continuous, proactive actions are necessary for sustainable practices. As mining shifts towards ocean and Arctic exploration to meet the increasing demand for minerals, its impact on downstream industries underscores its role in shaping the feasibility of the CE as a sustainability tool. However, until more mining industry sectors adopt effective CE systems, transitioning to waste recycling may not always be the most advantageous option. Ultimately, sustainable development—achieving positive social, ecological, and economic growth together—is possible with the CE in mining, despite skepticism surrounding the compatibility of both concepts.

1.3. Scope and Objectives of This Review

1.3.1. Exploration of Circular Economy Practices in Mining

Integrating CE practices in mining enhances local economic prosperity and opens avenues for innovative resource management and community engagement globally. The extraction and processing of natural resources lead to “catastrophically high waste levels”, negatively impacting the environment and populations locally and globally [26]. This inefficiency highlights the pressing need for profitable sustainability, a paradigm shift where CE principles become paramount in mining practices and with various advancements.

MM recovery is crucial in mining waste management, as leftover metals often contaminate agriculture and water supplies, causing environmental harm that disrupts communities and local economies and can even threaten mining operations [27]. The traditional linear model, focused on short-term profits, promotes wasteful practices and unsustainable resource use. In contrast, adopting a CE can reduce waste through R-cycle technologies like waste minimization, waste-to-energy, and advanced separation techniques. However, the CE might fail to counter this unsustainable prioritization without R-cycle strategies. Concepts like the phased integration of CE practices (Redesign CE), CE from conception (Conception CE), environmental stewardship, social responsibility, innovative approaches, and political and business policies and techniques are essential to ensure success. By incorporating other economic models into CE frameworks, mining can reduce waste, enhance resource recovery, and increase land and sea profitability.

A key challenge in adopting a circular model is not its feasibility but convincing industries of its long-term value. This requires a shift in mindset, supply chains, and systems, where sustainable practices are seen not as costs but as investments in future viability. Additionally, the difficulty in recovering MMs makes repurposing them for profit more challenging.

Mining waste is persistent, and resource depletion is increasing, compounding environmental impacts with growing scarcity. This calls for a strategic overhaul in material management, where useful waste is repurposed as inputs for other processes, benefiting the economy and reducing waste. Additionally, the link between metals and clean energy is critical for sustainable energy solutions that could lower fuel and operating costs globally, including for mining. The CE model addresses environmental concerns while offering long-term profitability, generating local and global benefits as mining advances economically.

1.3.2. Assessment of Challenges and Opportunities

Academia and industry experts are increasingly advocating for a CE in mining due to the economic and environmental opportunities it offers. Circular mining addresses critical challenges like mineral resource shortages, waste generation, environmental pollution, and efficiency issues arising from uneconomical by-products such as overburden, gangue, waste rock, tailings, and mine water, which may contain heavy metals, salts, or toxins [28]. Successful cases like DPM Chelopech demonstrate the potential for increased production, revenue, and competitiveness through holistic sustainability [29].

However, current systems often adopt CE principles superficially, leading to mismanagement and inefficiencies like inadequate waste segregation and outdated recycling technologies. Implementing the CE in mining requires significant investment in new technologies and industry partnerships. Surveys indicate a major overhaul of operations is necessary to accommodate mining waste. A cultural shift is also needed, with organizations moving from short-term financial goals to long-term sustainability, redefining success metrics to include sustainability indicators. This shift involves redefining success metrics to include sustainability indicators, such as carbon footprint reduction, resource efficiency, social impact, and employee well-being. Such a cultural change requires strong leadership, alignment across all levels of the organization, and a commitment to sustainable practices that are integrated into the core business strategy. It also calls for creating accountability systems that assess sustainability performance alongside traditional financial metrics, encouraging innovation and long-term thinking [4].

After all, the adoption of the CE may not adequately address mining’s environmental impacts, and the period of disillusion that all novel technologies face could devastate CE efforts. Efficiency gains may inadvertently lead to higher consumption levels due to social perceptions, creating a paradox where improved efficiency justifies increased resource use, known as the CER. The potential for greenwashing—where companies falsely claim environmental benefits—poses a significant risk, eroding consumer trust and hindering genuine progress. Moreover, the success of the CE is contingent upon overcoming technological limitations; outdated mining technologies, such as traditional smelting processes, can impede the efficient recovery of resources.

Fortunately, the CE can be improved by integrating elements from several model economies that address its weaknesses. The GE emphasizes policies focused on reducing pollution and minimizing the use of non-renewable resources. The Social and Solidarity Economy (SSE) promotes equitable resource distribution by strengthening social justice movements and empowering communities. The CBE incorporates biological resources into the CE framework, using biological processes to enhance circularity. The BE primarily focuses on sustainable ocean resource use while supporting local economies and water management. Finally, the SE encourages shared ownership and access to goods and services, promoting efficient resource use and minimizing waste.

While integrating CE practices in mining offers a promising path to sustainability, significant challenges that need careful consideration remain. The complex interplay between mine waste, the environment, cultural shifts, technological advancements, and stakeholder engagement requires that CE initiatives be aligned with other sustainable economic models to ensure meaningful, lasting change. Assessing the feasibility of the CE model involves a thorough evaluation of local contexts and challenges, along with a tailored approach supported by impact assessments, clear metrics, and enforceable standards. If industries can effectively implement CE principles while addressing potential risks, shifting toward a sustainable economy could reshape consumption and resource use societal norms.

This review paper addresses the fundamental concepts of circular mining to promote the circular economy in the mining industry. Section 2 discusses the closing of the material loops, different strategies for recycling and reusing mining by-products, and sustainable mining practices, leading to the minimization of waste and losses. Following this, Section 3 discusses the various circular economy strategies in the mining industry. The discussion involves case studies highlighting successful material recovery initiatives in the mining sector. Section 4 focuses more on the innovative technologies for circular mining, the limitations and applications of these technologies, and sustainability in CE disposal and disassembly. Following this, Section 5 thoroughly considers the environmental and social impacts, including the benefits and challenges of deploying the concept of the CE in the mining sector. The discussion further extends to the challenges and barriers of circular mining in Section 6. Before concluding this article, the future directions and research needs of circular mining initiatives are addressed in Section 7.

2. Fundamental Concepts of Circular Mining

2.1. Closing Material Loops

2.1.1. Strategies for Recycling and Reusing Mining By-Products

The closed-loop material cycle is a crucial component of sustainable mining, designed to minimize environmental impact while promoting a CE. This approach relies on innovative recycling and remanufacturing methods that repurpose waste and by-products generated during mineral ore extraction. By integrating these materials back into the mining process, the industry can reduce waste, conserve resources, and increase profitability.

Closing the loop focuses on water and energy first to decrease new consumption, as they enable all other operations. Water is vital for mining feasibility [10], so its complete recycling is a decisive factor in reaching sustainability targets, as mining largely occurs where there is distressing water competition [30]. Mine energy largely depends on fossil fuels in a world trying to reach net zero [31]. Furthermore, energy costs account for approximately 15% to 40% of the total expenses in a typical mining operation, and demand is projected to increase by 2035, reaching 36% above 2018 levels [32]. Given that most critical MMs have primary sources in the form of ore deposits [33], typical technologies for closing the loop in ore operations will be discussed in conjunction with Figure 1.

Some mining operations are more suited for closed-loop mining, but they are generally categorized into four types: surface mining, underground mining, in situ or solution mining, and placer mining. Notably, underground mining and in situ operations already prioritize energy-intensive dewatering systems due to stability and safety issues [34]. With the global trend of decreasing ore grades, ores are becoming less accessible and more diluted with undesired materials, necessitating changes to combat increasing waste and costs. For instance, decreasing copper ore grade from 0.4% to 0.2% requires seven times more energy than current processing methods [31]. Renewable energy technologies (e.g., solar, wind) are now more favorable for operating margins, as they are typically the most cost-effective power sources based on energy costs, with declining capital costs [31]. Additionally, recycling all discharge can impact plant performance, as dissolved ions and other inhibitors may reduce flotation efficiency if not carefully managed [35]. However, it can also decrease reagents and Na₂S content use and reduce water consumption by up to 34.62% [28]. Lastly, compliance is crucial, as regions like Nevada, USA, require mining operations to achieve zero liquid discharge (ZLD) and meet other environmental targets [36].

Mine water quality and its potential uses are significantly influenced by factors such as the ore grade, mining operations, chemicals used, and material recovery processes [37]. This implies that sorting, improved mining management, the use of new chemicals, and enhanced material recovery are all essential for establishing effective water circulation. Technologies such as thickening and filtration, including mechanical vapor compression (MVC) brine concentrators, can efficiently recover 90–98% of water [38]. Before dewatering, Figure 1 illustrates a recycling ZLD system where technologies like MVC can be paired with filtration methods such as reverse osmosis to preconcentrate feed water before it enters more energy-intensive thermal processes. Reverse osmosis requires pretreatment (purple box) and coagulation/flocculation steps (gray box) to regulate pH, chemicals, and ions for optimal efficiency. Emerging water treatment technologies include seeded precipitation, multi-effect distillation, multistage flash, Electro-Fenton membranes, electrodialysis, electrodialysis reversal, forward osmosis, and membrane distillation [38]. Dewatering methods can be gravitational, mechanical, or thermal and may be further enhanced by integrating “force fields” such as temperature, shear, acoustic or ultrasonic waves, magnetic fields, microwaves, or electricity [30]. Overall, a wide range of technologies aim to reduce the financial, chemical, and energy costs of ZLD while enhancing flow, recovery, and efficiency in water filtration and recycling processes. However, increasing water circulation in mining operations comes with rising energy costs. Traditional energy consumption in mining involves a combination of heat-based (red box) and electricity-based (gray box) processes, including ground fragmentation (e.g., drilling and blasting), excavation, loading, transportation, beneficiation, processing (blue boxes after extraction), smelting, and refining. Renewable energy sources cannot fully meet the demands of these processes, particularly those requiring high-temperature heat, which fossil fuels like coal have historically supplied [31]. With the gradual phase-out of coal—and potentially other fossil fuels—questions arise about the feasibility of integrating sustainability, affordability, localization, and future-proofing using alternatives such as hydrogen, biofuels, renewables, and nuclear energy [39,40]. Moreover, the relationship between mining operations and local communities must be factored into sustainable development, as it may limit the rate at which environmentally friendly closed-loop systems are adopted. For instance, in countries where over 50% of electricity generation is dedicated to mining, large shifts—such as transitioning to cheaper renewables for net-zero recycling ZLD systems—could lead to socio-economic challenges for local communities, lowering the operation’s SLO and potentially its legitimacy. Reverting to older methods could result in unsustainable development for both the community and the environment. Ultimately, it is crucial to remember that closed-loop mining operations are not inherently sustainable. This principle applies broadly to CE mining, which must have transformative goals to achieve true sustainability, as sustainability is context-dependent.

2.1.2. Design for Modularity and R-Cycle Technologies for Mining By-Products

Closed mining operations exemplify a CE at an operational level. Still, the ideal form of the CE extends to an economic scale, as the broader the implementation of CE principles in mining is, the greater the potential for sustainability. To align with the CE, mining by-products must be designed to be both durable and recoverable. Innovative R-cycle stratagems can facilitate R-cycle strategies by offering practical and modular approaches that encourage profitable proliferation. This allows companies to reinvest profits from sustainable practices into further sustainability initiatives.

For example, as we enter the era of lithium dominance, regions like Winnemucca, Nevada, are set to experience economic growth fueled by lithium mining, along with new challenges that need to be proactively managed [41]. Thus, the mining sector must adapt by integrating sustainable battery designs and robust recycling infrastructure to ensure that this growth is both economically beneficial and environmentally responsible in a form called the lithium loop [42].

The American Battery Technology Company (ABTC) has established a lithium-ion battery recycling facility in Reno, Nevada, to address the anticipated surge in lithium mining in the state. Designed to recycle 20,000 metric tons of battery feedstock materials annually, this facility partners with global trader TechMet-Mercuria to repurpose valuable materials for various applications [43]. However, to fully optimize the facility’s capacity, prioritizing landfill mining is crucial to extract sufficient lithium-containing waste and meet the demand for recyclable materials. This necessity adds another layer of complexity to the model, integrating sustainable landfill design into the equation. Strategic site selection for landfills becomes vital, with proximity to recycling facilities essential to minimize mining waste and carbon emissions from transporting recyclable materials [44]. As further considerations were explored, Nevada opted for a lithium loop—an industry hub encompassing businesses at every stage of the material lifecycle within the region. This approach exemplifies an ideal form of economic-level CE, closely aligned with concepts from ecological economics (EE) and industrial ecology (IE), such as industrial symbiosis and the creation of “ecosystems” of anthropogenic systems [45].

An industry hub can grow due to mining using the R-cycle technologies of waste to energy, waste to product, and waste to biomass management and any R-strategies to prompt profitable proliferation. Demonstrations of waste to energy comprise creating thermal energy storage using mining by-products for medium industrial temperatures [46], preheating air to save energy due to heat demand using exhaust [47], burning coal mine waste [48], creating underground hydroelectricity [49], and using blast furnace gas to create electricity [50]. Although not an exhaustive list, these examples illustrate how mining operations can supply resources to other businesses aiming to establish industrial symbiosis based on waste. Examples of waste to product usually cover different types of construction materials [51], the transformation of mine water into drinking water [52], the recovery of MMs from various types of wastes [53,54,55], and splitting mine water into gasses [56]. Waste to biomass includes transforming mine wastes into biomass like biofuel. The CBE might use anaerobic digestion for MM recovery or water filtration and then turn the micro-organisms into biofuel [57,58]. The profit gained from these switches could incentivize the continued redesign of CE, thus creating profitable proliferation for a whole economy.

While infrastructure is being developed to manage mine waste, designing by-products with recycling in mind can significantly improve the process and yield better outcomes. For instance, with the growing prevalence of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles, it is essential to design these batteries for future repurposing, such as refurbishment for microgrid storage or facilitating the replacement of battery components. Enhancing EOL traceability, increasing collection rates, and promoting designs that are more recyclable are vital for strengthening the recycling industry, as emphasized by Islam and Iyer-Raniga [59]. Responsible resource conservation starts with the extraction process and continues through the design phase, where mine waste is utilized to create devices that are sustainably designed for efficient recycling at the end of their lifecycle.

2.2. Sustainable Mining Practices

2.2.1. Responsible Extraction and Resource Conservation

Sustainable mining has long been a challenge, especially in arid regions like the Atacama Desert, where water is scarce. The extraction process in these areas poses a serious risk of depleting essential water supplies for local communities and, in some cases, contaminating them [60]. As a result, water conservation has become a critical component of responsible mining practices, aiming to minimize the environmental impact and protect vital resources. Three categories can enhance material recovery: technological efficiency gains in current processes, “commodity-widening” through the extraction or disposal of resources in unconventional areas, and “commodity-deepening”, which refers to the intensified exploitation of existing sites [20]. Of particular significance is the remining of abandoned mines or waste storage, such as that associated with nuclear waste [61,62].

Part of responsible resource extraction is looking into how to conserve resources, like incorporating the life cycle of leachate, including AMD, into a mine assessment to accurately predict whether nearby water sources might be at risk of contamination [63]. Additional conservation tactics include land management technologies like technosols [64], the creation of forests post mining [65], and other mine reclamation techniques. For example, AngloGold Ashanti’s Iduapriem mine in Ghana has successfully reclaimed five sites by implementing slope buttering techniques at shallow angles and spreading oxide materials to stabilize the land surface [66]. After stabilization, soil amendments such as cow manure and poultry droppings are applied to address soil fertility issues and enhance ecological recovery.

Furthermore, understanding cultures in developing countries is crucial for conserving resources in these regions. The pursuit of first-world socio-economic status can sometimes lead to the negligence of proper waste management practices, resulting in long-term environmental and economic challenges. To promote sustainable growth, it is essential to integrate sustainable mining practices and technologies that respect local desires and ensure both economic and environmental benefits [67].

This raises the following question: how can mining be conducted sustainably? Other model economies—such as GE, SSE, CBE, BE, and SE, discussed in

Table 1. Concepts expanding the sustainability of the CE.

Concepts	High-Level Abstraction	Potential for Mining CE	Reference
Green Economy (GE)	Common core characteristics of many concepts: policies aimed at creating a just economy with energy-efficient processes, renewable resources (solar, wind, geothermal, trees, etc.), and a pollution-free, net-zero (or carbon offset) world.	A hybrid model could enable semi-quantifiable, long-term sustainable goals for mining, balancing resource efficiency, energy use, GHG emissions, pollutants, and ecological regulations.	[68]
Social and Solidary Economy (SSE)	When communities, grassroots organizations, or other entities promote mutual aid, cooperation, and social justice, it reflects public motivation to pursue equality and community resilience through idealism rather than capital-driven approaches.	In the context of the CE in mining, a solidarity economy ensures that mining benefits local communities, addresses social injustices, and fosters cooperation, helping to reduce corruption and drive demand for sustainable practices.	[69]
Circular Bioeconomy (CBE)	The integration of four concepts: CE (closed-loop systems with bio-based or biodegradable materials), Bioeconomy (biological processes for creating/refining products), industrial ecology (strengthening industrial and ecological systems), and ecological economics.	Using plant-based materials to rehabilitate mining sites and manage waste sustainably has shown promise in several case studies. If feasible, mining could integrate with agriculture, studying its effects on local ecosystems and aiding in the design of circular systems.	[70]
Blue Economy (BE)	The water-focused, local development equivalent of the Green Economy of water-based ecosystems. Mainly seeks to harness renewable marine resources, ocean energy, and tourism. Marine minerals are of particular interest.	In CE mining, the Blue Economy can be potentially integrated through sustainable deep-sea mining practices that minimize environmental impact, such as submarine tailings disposal.	[71]
Share Economy (SE)	An economy where behaviors and practices allow for increased resource efficiency due to collaboration on increasing the ability to access goods and services, reducing the need for intellectual, legal, or physical ownership for a broader subset of a population.	In mining, the Share Economy can enhance resource efficiency by promoting the sharing of data, technology, materials, and facilities. Examples include collaborative initiatives like the Global Tailings Review and eco-parks, which try to optimize resource use by using Share Economy principles.	[72]

—are crucial connections that integrate CE mining. They enhance competitiveness, legitimacy, and the SLO.

Sustainability necessitates admirable efforts to secure investment; hence, the integration of these frameworks becomes essential to create a cohesive and stylish ensemble for reinvestment. Together, the GE and BE embody the sustainability’s themes: economies are a part of ecosystems and the goal of facilitating the decoupling of socio-economic growth from environmental harm [73]. They represent assumptions of what will delegitimize a mining operation currently, or perhaps in the future, as seen in the SDGs and the “macro-level/policy orientation” [68] ties of the GE that have promoted initiatives from organizations like the UNEP [73]. The SSE is a set of informal mechanisms that stakeholders use to hold mining operations accountable. The CBE represents the operation’s ensemble—its alignment with sustainability, renewable materials, and strategies like IE and EE to close the loop in the CE. The SE stitches these elements together, tailoring them to operational systems through stakeholder input. Together, these frameworks enhance the practicality and appeal of sustainable mining, creating a well-crafted strategy that promotes reinvestment.

Resource extraction thus needs to incorporate social responsibility and environmental stewardship by engaging with more local stakeholders for high-impact sustainability efforts. One current weakness is that there is a “prevalence of American (and Anglo-Saxon) based researchers” [74]. Another is situations like that in Zambia with an unequal dynamic between stakeholders [75] that should be corrected with education and empowerment with funding towards suggestions on CE initiatives or land reclamation [76,77].

CE initiatives may include commodity widening, such as using excess mine water or rainwater, and commodity deepening, like reprocessing waste or remining old sites. Ultimately, integrating economic models offers frameworks to address environmental and social challenges. Though some critics see added complexity, these models enable more focused and collaborative solutions to sustainability issues.

2.2.2. Minimization of Waste and Loss

Achieving ideal, sustainable closed-loop CE mining systems at any level can be elusive. However, minimizing losses and waste can serve as a practical alternative to complete circulation and maximizing resources when integrated feasibility remains low. In the case of restricted integrated feasibility, R-cycle stratagems may dictate temporary fixes to address specific challenges or operational constraints, despite the best-case scenario being continuous circulation like closed-loop economies that still minimize waste or loss. The idea of by-products lasting longer than the system is notably applicable to mining operations, as it only exists in a region finitely.

By redefining and legitimizing mining practices to encompass anthropogenic mining, such as urban mining, which includes the recycling landfill, construction and demolition waste, and MM waste, more holistic mine management can be considered. Traditionally, the lifecycle of materials follows a linear model, as illustrated in Figure 2 in blue, while all the green processes are CE post-lifecycle stages that are added to extend or reduce waste.

Several R-cycles in Figure 2, such as repairing and refurbishing, relate indirectly to mining through demand. A notable example of recovery is enhanced landfill mining, recognized as a safe method for excavating and valorizing landfilled waste while maximizing material recovery and energy savings within strict social and ecological standards. For instance, the Yingchun municipal solid waste landfill in Jingmen, Hubei Province, China, constructed in 1989 and closed in 2004, contained approximately 154.8 thousand tons of waste. Studies on this landfill used various models to predict costs and benefits, finding that recycling soil-like materials, such as tailings, was the third most beneficial aspect. These insights can guide future landfill mining projects, particularly in areas with significant mining waste [79].

In recent years, tailings storage facilities (TSFs) have gained prominence in sustainable mining design, particularly in response to the environmental risks posed by mine tailing (MT) dam failures, which account for three-fourths of major mining-related disasters. TSFs can span several square kilometers and feature dams up to tens of meters high, storing approximately 20% of unrecyclable MTs. Notably, they are constructed using mine waste materials instead of traditional concrete, integrating waste management into the mining process. Their design evolves alongside MT accumulation, offering a dynamic approach to minimizing environmental impact throughout the mining lifecycle [80].

However, recovery can also occur through retrievability via remining or commodity deepening as technology advances. Encapsulating AMD waste in designated underground compartments helps prevent the contamination of water sources and protects wildlife. Innovative AMD treatment methods include biosorption, constructed wetlands, alkaline addition, and reactive permeable membranes [81,82].

In cases of contamination, methods such as fungal degradation, which uses micro-organisms and bacteria to enhance soil purity, can be effective. Plants can also be used in remediation by absorbing contaminants into their tissues. While manually separating contaminants from soil is labor-intensive and costly, it can be a viable option in developing countries lacking advanced technologies. This approach addresses contamination and stimulates local economies by creating job opportunities. However, completely avoiding mining waste and loss is ideal, which can be achieved through degrowth, closed-loop mining, and avoiding CER. CER can be managed through the effective monitoring of business models, circular material ecosystems, product lifecycle management, and socio-economic factors [83].

3. Circular Economy Strategies in Mining

3.1. Material Recovery and Recycling

3.1.1. Case Studies of Successful Material Recovery Initiatives

Recent years have seen a significant shift towards adopting CE principles. Governments are actively supporting this shift by introducing initiatives and incentives to encourage the repurposing of materials beyond their initial lifecycle. These efforts are driving significant changes in industry standards, with the goal of achieving an estimated 95% usability for materials in their second life, like lead–acid batteries [84]. Incorporating waste materials effectively into the economy can improve safety and compliance, ultimately reducing the over 90% of mined polluting waste currently stored onsite while also tackling the nearly 48% contribution of metal processing and mining to Europe’s industrial contaminants [85]. As a result, the industry is evolving to embrace a more sustainable approach, optimizing material utilization and enhancing overall efficiency especially when it comes to construction materials, as seen in

Table 2. Top five ores contributing to global tailings in 2016, highlighting their water consumption and pH in cementitious materials. An asterisk (*) denotes polymetallic ores.

Minerals	Copper (Cu)	Gold (Au)	Iron (Fe)	Phosphate (PO43−)	Lead–Zinc (PdZn)	References
Contribution to global tailings (percentage %)	46	21	9	4	3	[86]
Water consumption (m3/ore)	43	4.63	1371	4.77	2.79 *	[30]
pH in cementitious materials (unstandardized sample preparation)	6.99–7.28	8.2	N/A	N/A	5–8	[9]

.

Traditionally, the lifecycle of materials follows a linear model [42]. In this conventional approach, materials are extracted, manufactured into products, and then discarded at the end of their lifecycle without consideration for repurposing valuable components. Historically, once a product reaches the end of its use, it is simply thrown away, resulting in the loss of precious metals and other resources. However, recent years have seen a significant shift towards adopting CE principles. This new model emphasizes extending the lifecycle of materials beyond their initial use and incorporates recycling and repurposing from the outset of material extraction and manufacturing. The industry is moving towards integrating CE practices throughout the entire product lifecycle, starting with the initial mining stages. This transition not only seeks to reduce waste but also aims to capture the economic value of materials that would otherwise be discarded. Governments are actively supporting this shift by introducing initiatives and incentives to encourage the repurposing of materials beyond their initial lifecycle. These efforts are driving significant changes in industry standards, with the goal of achieving an estimated 95% usability for materials in their second life [43]. As a result, the industry is evolving to embrace a more sustainable approach, optimizing material utilization and enhancing overall efficiency.

Integrating mining wastes addresses the rising demand for concrete aggregates in a cost-effective and direct process that enhances the structural integrity of materials while reducing the reliance on traditional sand and gravel [87]. Although this is an older technology, it remains an economic choice that can benefit local communities and the environment, provided it is used for circulating mine waste. The storage of mine waste has a poor track record, particularly with mine tailings (MTs), known for their infamous tailing dam failures. However, improvements in MT management have been promised since 2020 [88]. Pozzolanic activity is enhanced by high pH, and thus formed cementitious compounds, so MTs with gold would be a good choice according to Table 2 [89]. Therefore, utilizing mine waste for construction materials in road development and residential areas in Finland should not be surprising given its socio-economic benefits [90].

Water consumption in mining is another pressing issue. Each type of ore not only contributes to global tailings but also demands significant water resources for extraction and processing. For example, copper production requires an average of 43 cubic meters of water per ton of ore, while iron mining can consume a staggering 1371 cubic meters [30]. So, it makes sense why the water-distressed Zhongguan iron mine used a closed grout curtain to reduce water yields by 80% and then treated the residual water yield with nanofiltration to reinject it in a way that allowed savings of CNY 1.5 million annually [91]. Such strategies demonstrate the feasibility of sustainable water use in mining operations, aligning with broader CE goals.

An illustrative case study of CE implementation involves evaluating the efficiency of separating dense, polymetallic materials such as lead and zinc from mine waste. A laboratory-based case study demonstrated significant benefits in repurposing these hazardous MTs. Economically, this process opens new revenue streams, particularly through the use of lead in energy storage solutions, while also reducing environmental hazards [92]. By effectively removing a substantial source of environmental risk, this approach exemplifies the promise of a CE in mining. It illustrates how scaling this method can extend beyond laboratory settings to full-scale mining operations, diversifying revenue streams by utilizing hazardous materials for applications such as redox flow batteries, as opposed to traditional ion batteries [93]. Implementing a CE from the onset of manufacturing not only addresses environmental concerns but also enhances economic viability by transforming toxic waste into valuable resources. For instance, efforts to reclaim outdated landfills have shown that the top three benefits of landfill mining were electricity generation, land reclamation, and recycling soil-like materials [66]. In the U.S., companies like Redwood Materials at Reno, Nevada, are leading the way in circular supply chains, with their vision emphasizing the importance of closing the loop at the end of a product’s life and allowing reuse to make batteries more sustainable and affordable [94]. The growth of such companies reflects the broader shift towards a CE, underscoring its potential for transforming waste into valuable resources and fostering sustainable practices across the mining sector.

3.1.2. Technological Advancements in R-Cycling Physical Mining Waste

Some of the sustainable practices include a focus on a reduction in virgin material by reintegrating waste into products. Iron and steel are refined in a basic oxygen furnace or electric arc furnace, processes that create scrap that can be recycled along with sorted end-of-life (EOL) scrap, such as demolition waste, to increase the rates of recyclable scrap [95]. Magnetic separation like suspension magnetization roasting, bioleaching, emerging methods like microwave oxidation roasting, and untraditional sources for chemical technologies like calcination all play a role in allowing scrap reuse and MM extraction [96]. An example would be the calcination process to use fly ash, showing that the R-cycling of different waste streams can be integrated, limiting the amount of separate processes an operation needs [97]. Physical mine waste is not just materials, though; it is also land, energy, and equipment. Soil erosion, heavy soil compaction, and contamination all contribute to mining inability for post-mine rehabilitation, so things like contouring and soil amendments with zero valent iron nanoparticles, biochar, technosols, and phytoremediation with microbes and green plants are used to combat land degradation [73]. Different MMs need to be processed and refined at different temperatures and conditions, so energy saving smelting techniques like Boliden’s Kaldo furnace for recycling battery waste, kinetically intensified vortex combustion and entrainment technology (KIVCET), and the ISASMEZT for non-ferrous metals do not apply to every MM [98]. The large equipment cost makes up the bulk of capital costs, so minimizing maintenance costs and unexpected loss costs due to vehicles like trucks by optimizing truck usage with factors like age could save a mine millions over its lifetime and reduce carbon emissions [99]. These benefits could be further enhanced by new system setups like trolley assist [100]. Ultimately, the continuous evolution of these technologies and practices is essential for achieving a more sustainable mining industry that balances resource extraction with environmental stewardship and economic viability.

4. Innovative Technologies for Circular Mining

4.1. Advanced Separation and Sorting Techniques

4.1.1. Application of Advanced Technologies for Efficient Material Separation

Several well-established methods are used for material separation in mining, including hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, electromagnetic techniques, gravitational separation, centrifugal separation, and froth flotation. Among these, centrifugal separation stands out for incorporating multiple separation principles. This technique exploits differences in specific gravity to achieve material separation. During the process, materials are first ground into fine particles and suspended in a dense liquid inside a centrifuge. As the centrifuge spins, particles with higher densities are driven toward the bottom, while those with lower densities remain suspended or move toward the top [92]. This technique was effectively used in the earlier discussion on lead and zinc, demonstrating its capability to separate and repurpose materials that would otherwise remain idle due to their hazardous nature. Given that lead is a known carcinogen, its presence in MTs poses significant health risks, as it can leach into surrounding communities and create hazardous environments. As the mining industry shifts towards a CE, there is a growing emphasis on recycling MTs for use in subsequent processes, using waste-to-energy, waste-to-product, and waste-to-biomass technologies. This approach not only helps mitigate environmental and health risks but also supports more sustainable mining practices by repurposing waste materials effectively.

4.1.2. Sensor-Based Sorting and Automation in Mining Processes

Sorting is crucial to recycling waste and requires automation for safety and efficiency. One key area for sensor-based sorting is water management, which impacts multiple mining processes. In regions with unreliable water sources, mines focus on minimizing water use by reusing water internally, reducing energy consumption and costs. In contrast, areas with reliable water access use more water, leading to larger volumes of wastewater that require treatment. A common strategy in such regions is to divert wastewater to industrial and agricultural sectors that can utilize mineralized water without needing it to be fully purified. For this approach to be effective, the mining operation must be situated near such seawater or treatment plants, as seen in Figure 3.

Untraditional water sources, such as sewage, and treatment for mine water often involve complex compositions and multi-step processes. Mines like Hull Rust and Garzweiler use I4.0 technology to integrate data from processing and treatment plants, improving efficiency in handling variable water conditions and managing groundwater–surface interactions, internal reuse, non-traditional sources, and water export [101].

Coarse particle flotation, which is critical for separating minerals from ore, accounts for a significant portion of energy and water consumption in mining operations. Currently, this method struggles with particles larger than 200 microns, as it relies on air bubbles, necessitating continuous grinding to achieve an extremely fine size. This process complicates water purification, making it a challenging task [102]. In regions with nearby water treatment facilities, some mining operations send contaminated water to these plants for treatment. However, areas lacking this infrastructure struggle to manage and treat water effectively. To address these challenges and reduce the environmental impact, advancements in machinery, like material recovery systems, can help lower water demand and enhance resource management.

Automation in mining segregation has been evolving for over a decade. At its core, this technology involves sensors and separating techniques, like air blowing or gravity separation, to efficiently sort and discard materials. The effectiveness of this system hinges on the programming of the computer, which utilizes various sensory inputs, including infrared readings, color detection, shape analysis, and texture measurements [103]. The choice of sensors often depends on the type of material being processed and the specific goals of the manufacturer. Some systems also employ microwave communication sensors to enhance sorting accuracy. The advantages of automated sorting include improved ore competency, feed grade, and particle size analysis [104]. For instance, microwave imaging has been successfully used for gold sorting, where the system is programmed to accept or reject ores based on their microwave signatures [105]. Looking ahead, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) promises significant advancements in automation. AI’s ability to learn and adapt can further optimize sorting processes, leading to more efficient material handling. As a result, automation in mining is increasingly facilitating the creation of materials suited for waste-to-energy or waste-to-product applications, contributing to a more sustainable and efficient mining industry.

4.2. Circular Design Principles

4.2.1. Integration of Circular Design in Mining Equipment and Processes

In designing a sustainable CE in mining, systems and products must integrate five key features, locality, adaptability, shareability, resilience, and traceability, all focused on optimizing resource use and minimizing waste. In the article Exploring Barriers and Drivers to the Implementation of Circular Economy Practices in the Mining Industry by Arvind Upadhyay, the authors examine the industry’s shift toward a CE [106]. This transition largely revolves around the energy used in mining operations. Leading mining companies are adopting the concept of a circular industry with a broad definition. For example, Anglo-American, BHP, and Rio Tinto focus on creating environmentally friendly facilities to minimize harm to surrounding communities and ensure proper material recycling [106]. Anglo-American is developing Hydraulic Dewatered Stacking (HDS) technology to improve tailings management by enhancing water recovery and creating safer, more stable tailings storage [107]. In collaboration with Rio Tinto and Vale, BHP launched the global competition “Charge On Innovation Challenge” to develop electrification solutions for large-scale haul trucks, aiming to reduce emissions in surface mining operations [108]. As companies integrate these practices, they are also considering sustainability in site selection, aiming to balance strong environmental benefits with technical and financial requirements [109]. This shift represents a move away from a purely profit-driven approach to mining, reflecting a commitment to sustainable and responsible operational practices. Thus, design challenges are a significant hurdle to creating CE systems, whether it is through Redesign CE or Conception CE. Both approaches necessitate a nuanced understanding of how to effectively integrate circular design principles into existing frameworks. Redesigning current mining equipment not only improves resource efficiency but also resolves compatibility issues with operational practices. Incremental innovations, such as enhancing machinery for better material recovery, can deliver immediate benefits but may encounter resistance from traditional methodologies. In contrast, designing new equipment with circular principles from the outset enables a more holistic approach to sustainability, as illustrated in Figure 4. However, this requires substantial initial investments and specialized knowledge, which may not be readily available in the industry. Consequently, mining companies must balance these strategies and foster collaboration among stakeholders to enhance the acceptance and scalability of circular initiatives. Conducting comprehensive lifecycle assessments can provide valuable insights, guiding the development of both redesigned and new systems to ensure alignment with CE goals while addressing the industry’s evolving demands.

Figure 4 represents how Conception CE embeds sustainable principles throughout the mining lifecycle and the hierarchy of principles that it would follow. The outer section of sustainable mining shows that sustainable mining needs a holistic approach to mining in multiple senses: sustainability must guide all mining activities, and sustainable mining recognizes a mining site as finite and thus needs to prioritize closure planning. This includes surveying a mining site to figure out what its role in an industrial ecosystem [111]. The middle and inner sections show that post-closure goals should affect the building and operation of a mine while also adhering to the holistic SDGs that incorporate social, environmental, and economic dimensions. This could involve initiatives such as establishing educational programs, constructing facilities to manage soil contamination, minimizing heavy compaction, and developing permanent water treatment plants and infrastructure from waste, all of which communities can continue to benefit from long after the operation has ceased. All of this requires a comprehensive and collaborative approach among various stakeholders and innovative business and governance techniques.

4.2.2. Sustainable CE Disposal and Disassembly

Various political and business policies and techniques can improve CE mining by designing and regulating systems and products to be equipped with resilience, traceability, shareability, adaptability, and resource efficiency. A political policy would be in Singapore where urban mining for building disassembly instead of demolition was driven by market considerations such a USD 77 per ton fee for refuse disposal in order to promote resource efficiency [112]. A resilient business policy involves developing strategies for an advanced enterprise risk management framework that not only focuses on recovery but also views unexpected disruptions as opportunities for growth [113], as seen in the instance where worker safety incidents were used to create avoidance models to prevent future loss and allow the safe disposal of waste rock in construction material. There are a multitude of political techniques for increasing the shareability of resources, starting with education for CE mining: mining licenses that need certifications of courses completed on sustainability, funding community school-led CE learning, and enforcing education for the post-mine-closure transition [77], like to waste management which “already accounts for 27,500 full-time equivalent jobs in 2021” in the EU [114]. With Industry 4.0 (I4.0), a business technique for traceability could attempt to combine EOL LCAs, process simulators, and environmental information like the Rotate platform which will be able to calculate the impact of mining activities and mine closure, as mentioned by Asbjörnsson et al. [115]. To foster adaptability, mining operations should develop a supply chain with organizations that share their sustainability goals, such as Neptuno Pumps, which engineers energy-efficient pumping solutions. This approach emphasizes integrating sustainable principles throughout the product lifecycle, from production to EOL. As the industry evolves, embracing these design characteristics will be crucial for building a more responsible and sustainable mining sector that can meet future challenges.

5. Environmental and Social Impacts

5.1. Environmental Benefits of Circular Mining

While efforts to create a more sustainable society through the adoption of eco-friendly and renewable technologies are gaining momentum, the materials required to produce these technologies and the infrastructure to support them still need to be sourced. Lithium mining, in particular, has become a highly debated issue due to its environmental and social impacts. The rush to meet growing demand has led some companies to overlook the negative consequences of their operations. A notable example is the shrinking wetlands in Chile, where extensive groundwater use by nearby mines has disrupted the delicate wetland ecosystem [60]. Similar incidents are occurring globally, causing significant and often irreversible damage. However, the adoption of circular mining practices has the potential to mitigate these impacts and even prevent them from occurring in the future.

5.1.1. Reduction in Environmental Degradation and Pollution

A key focus is not only on preserving current ecosystems but also on reversing the damage caused by years of mining activity. For example, open-pit and underground mining can lead to physical destruction, such as tunnel collapses and deforestation. In situ leaching and brine mining produce liquid waste laden with dangerous chemicals and heavy metals, which can seep into the ground and contaminate local water supplies, posing severe environmental and health risks [116]. While completely reversing these effects is challenging, circular mining practices can significantly reduce their impact and help restore old mines to habitable environments. Research into cobalt production using a CE approach has shown promising results. By recycling cobalt, energy use, water consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced by 46%, 40%, and 59%, respectively, compared to primary extraction from mining. By 2050, 25% of cobalt demand is expected to be met through these alternative methods [117]. Urban mining, technosols, etc., are crucial to reducing the need for traditional mining operations and, consequently, the environmental impact of mining. However, simply reducing the demand for new mining operations is not enough to prevent the environmental and health impacts mentioned earlier. Sustainable mining practices must be rigorously implemented and regulated. These practices should focus on five key areas: economy, environment, efficiency, safety, and community. In this context, prioritizing environmental protection and operational efficiency is essential for maintaining profitability. Sustainable mining practices extend the life of mines by producing higher yields and avoiding the costly legal consequences of poor environmental management.

5.1.2. Preservation of Biodiversity and Ecosystems

Research indicates that the overall demand for raw minerals can be reduced by 58% through the implementation of CE models [118]. This reduction could significantly decrease the need for expanding existing mines or creating new ones, thereby mitigating environmental pollution. However, it is crucial to emphasize the importance of proper mine closure, as residual contaminants can continue to seep into the surrounding environment long after mining operations have ceased. One of the most severe forms of pollution associated with mining is AMD, which can have devastating and long-lasting effects on ecosystems. For instance, one of the most acidic waters ever recorded was found in a mine near Redding, CA [119]. Such extreme conditions often result from poor oversight during mine closure, especially before stringent regulations were established. In the past, mines were frequently abandoned or inadequately sealed, leaving a legacy of environmental damage. Today, however, there are multistage mine closure processes designed to prevent pollution and support the rehabilitation of the land into a self-sustaining ecosystem. Regulatory agencies worldwide now require comprehensive mine land reclamation and closure plans to ensure that retired mines do not continue to harm the environment [120,121]. As mining practices have evolved, so too has the importance of rehabilitating old mines. Modern mining equipment and techniques, which did not exist even 50 years ago, have increased the scale of human impact on the environment. For example, the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah, the deepest open-pit mine in the world, leaves a significant ecological scar even after rehabilitation efforts.

Reducing the need for new terrestrial deposit mines addresses another pressing concern, which is blue mining, which is mining in glaciers and the deep-sea mining. Cumulative iron ore demand from 2011 to 3010 could reach 180 billion tons if annual consumption declines from 1170 million tons in 2010 to 131 million tons by 2100, yet the estimated extractable resource is around 350 billion tons, excluding blue mining, with 278 billion tons remaining [95]. In recent years, as the demand for metals has surged and surface supplies have dwindled, companies have begun exploring underwater mining, developing technologies to access minerals from the ocean floor. This practice poses significant risks to sensitive marine ecosystems, especially in international waters where regulatory protections may be insufficient. While organizations like the International Seabed Authority (ISA) and UN laws provide some protection for the seabed, these measures are not adequate to prevent environmental harm. The potential impacts of deep-sea mining include habitat loss and the destruction of ecosystems or species due to limited studies of the effects of light and noise pollution and sediment plumes on marine life, particularly of the deep-sea variety [122]. Investing in and researching circular mining approaches can reduce the need for deep-sea mining, thereby minimizing its environmental footprint as these methods become more viable. Although deep-sea mining presents significant challenges and potential downsides, integrating it into a CE, coupled with improved regulations and a better understanding of ocean ecosystems, could allow for more sustainable mineral extraction from the Earth’s crust [123]. The seabed holds valuable resources like cobalt, lithium, nickel, graphite, and copper. If we can access these minerals with minimal ecological impact, deep-sea mining could become a viable option. However, with current technology and our limited knowledge of the ocean, this is not yet feasible. Cooperation among mining entities is essential to successfully shift towards CE mining practices. Imposing restrictions without industry support could drive mining activities to regions with weaker regulations, undermining global sustainability efforts.

5.2. Social Considerations and Community Engagement

5.2.1. Community Involvement in Circular Mining Projects

Community involvement and engagement in mining operations are critical due to the significant impact mines can have on local populations. While mines can stimulate the local economy and create jobs, the potential negative effects on cultural heritage and public health often outweigh these benefits. Effective communication between the mining company and the community is essential to address these concerns. Communities have the right to be informed about the potential impacts of mining and to participate in minimizing any harm [124]. This is a fundamental aspect of CE practices, which prioritize safe jobs and healthy communities. However, even with communication, if not handled properly, there is a risk of exploitation and manipulation. It is important to consider the social perspectives of local communities, particularly regarding monetary compensation and cultural attachment to the land. Mining can exacerbate social conflict when the economic benefits are unequally distributed. While large corporations and urban centers may profit, local communities often endure the most environmental degradation without receiving equitable compensation or development. If locals feel inadequately compensated or disrespected, tensions can escalate, leading to conflicts [21]. Governments play a crucial role in preventing such issues by holding mining companies accountable. Unfortunately, in some cases, especially in countries with weak or corrupt governments, this oversight fails. For example, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the government has struggled to protect its citizens from human rights abuses due to inadequate regulations and poor enforcement [125]. Similar issues occur in other countries with weak governance and poor regulatory enforcement.

For indigenous and rural communities, mining frequently encroaches on culturally significant lands or traditional territories. Pollution further diminishes their ability to sustain traditional practices, fueling resistance and sparking protests or legal battles. For the Munduruku people in the Amazon, these activities not only endanger their cultural heritage but also disrupt fragile ecosystems and compromise their ability to sustain traditional practices. Pollution from mining operations exacerbates these challenges, fueling resistance and sparking protests or legal battles as these communities fight to secure their land rights and protect their way of life [126]. The Mount Kare and Porgera mines in Papua New Guinea have confronted criticism for environmental degradation, displacement of local communities, and social unrest. The Porgera mine, specifically, has been plagued with operational disruptions, tribal violence, and a brief lease suspension because of its impacts [127]. These instances highlight the ongoing challenges of balancing resource extraction with environmental and social responsibilities in the vicinity. Although many of these problems are associated with small-scale and artisanal mining, larger companies purchasing minerals must be mindful of these conditions to avoid being implicated in human rights violations and child labor. By refusing to source materials from such exploitative operations, companies can help discourage unethical mining practices and promote more responsible industry standards.

5.2.2. Social Acceptance and Ethical Considerations

One significant challenge is the potential impact on employment. As material extraction becomes more efficient, it could lead to job losses and reduced income for communities reliant on mining operations. However, the shift towards sustainable practices and the development of new infrastructure could also generate “green” jobs, offering enhanced safety and better wages for workers [21]. Urban mining is one area where CE practices can generate such jobs. E-waste, when improperly disposed of in landfills, poses significant environmental risks but also represents a rich source of minerals. Companies like Redwood Materials in Nevada and ITAD in Africa are making significant strides in converting e-waste into usable materials. In 2019, 35.6 million tons of e-waste was generated, yet only 17.4% was recycled. Figure 5 shows the continental e-waste per capita in 2019. This waste contains USD 57 billion worth of recyclable resources, and the volume of e-waste is growing by 3–5% annually [128]. Urban mining is becoming more profitable as the industry progresses, but further technological innovations are needed to make extraction and separation processes more cost-effective. Challenges remain, such as managing diverse waste streams, especially in poorer countries where more organic waste is present [15]. Challenges such as the compact design of products and the presence of contaminants like phosphors complicate the extraction process, highlighting the need for continued research and development [129].

The transition to circular mining practices will likely lead to significant shifts in the labor market, which may be met with resistance by some. Predicting these changes is challenging due to limited data, so analyzing economic models is essential for understanding potential outcomes. We can anticipate job creation in green sectors, as mentioned earlier, alongside job losses in industries with a substantial environmental footprint [131]. The transition to circular mining offers ethical benefits, particularly in countries with limited regulations. By reducing pollution and minimizing ecosystem damage, it can improve air, land, and water quality, benefiting nearby communities. Prioritizing safety is essential, as poor protocols, inadequate training, and human rights violations remain serious risks in mining operations [132]. Ignoring these issues is ethically irresponsible. Circular mining practices offer a way to protect both people and the environment at every stage of a mine’s lifecycle. Without these practices, we risk depleting the limited healthy water and land we have left, potentially leading to environmental collapse and creating uninhabitable conditions on Earth.

6. Challenges and Barriers

6.1. Technological Challenges

6.1.1. Adoption of Innovative Technologies in Traditional Mining Practices

The transition to a CE model within the mining industry faces significant obstacles from societal and environmental concerns, technological barriers, and existing legislation. One of the key technological challenges is the waste generated by the mining and modern manufacturing industries, which hinders the shift from traditional linear economies to circular models. To overcome this, technological advancements must prioritize dematerialization, enhance product longevity and durability, ensure biocompatibility, and foster resource interdependency [133]. One example of resource recovery within a CE is the valorization of tailings—the leftover material from the mineral extraction process. Traditionally, tailings have been viewed as unrecoverable and uneconomic waste. However, as mineral resources become scarcer, the recovery and reutilization of minerals from tailings could emerge as a valuable secondary source, potentially worth hundreds of millions of euros [134]. Biomining is a promising technology in this area, which leverages the interaction between certain microbes and minerals to extract valuable metals from low-grade ore. Biomining encompasses various processes, including bioleaching, bio-oxidation, and bio-precipitation. While biomining can economically extract metals more efficiently than traditional methods, it generally requires more time to do so. Another approach to addressing waste in the mining industry is recycling end-of-life products to recover and reuse their minerals and precious metals in new manufacturing processes, often called urban mining. To enhance this, the design of new products should prioritize ease of disassembly and the extraction of valuable components for future recycling. Additionally, general rock waste and iron waste from mining operations can be repurposed for use in civil engineering projects, such as the production of cement, mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles, and flooring materials [133]. The transition to a CE can also be accelerated by developing more powerful and efficient underground mining equipment. Efficient underground mining reduces the waste generated by conventional open-pit mining, making it more manageable [23]. The industry can maximize profits and reduce losses by minimizing waste from the initial stages of excavation and extraction.

A more unconventional approach to achieving a CE in the mining industry is deep-sea mining. This method can potentially minimize waste and maximize efficiency by reusing and recycling materials [123]. Deep-sea mining could provide additional sources of valuable minerals, such as copper, cobalt, and other rare metals essential to various industries. It could also produce energy from deep-sea thermal sources like hydrothermal vents and offer unique opportunities for scientific research. Regarding waste management, the deep-sea environment could serve as a site for carbon capture, storage, and even waste disposal with the appropriate technology and handling [123]. Surprisingly, these locations could also be used for aquaculture, contributing to global food security. However, significant attention should be given to the technological limitations associated with deep-sea mining. Exploring and accurately mapping mineral deposits on the seafloor is challenging due to the extensive and inaccessible nature of the deep-sea environment. Remote sensing and advanced sonar technologies are still being developed to reliable accuracy [135]. Deep-sea mining faces significant challenges due to the extreme conditions of its environment, making it less feasible and more complex compared to surface and underground mining. At depths of over 200 m, pressures reach up to 1000 times that of the surface, which complicates the development of pressure-resistant equipment. The absence of natural light and the frigid temperatures, ranging from −1 to 4 degrees Celsius, further complicate navigation and equipment functionality. Additionally, deep-sea mining must address the protection of delicate and unique ecosystems. To mitigate environmental impacts, several strategies can be employed: reducing equipment size to lessen seafloor damage, minimizing noise to avoid disturbing marine life, avoiding sensitive areas such as coral reefs, and implementing restoration plans to address any damage caused during mining activities. These measures are crucial for conducting deep-sea mining responsibly while overcoming its inherent challenges [123]. It is crucial to address key knowledge gaps and questions about its environmental, technological, and economic feasibility to advance deep-sea mining. Understanding the long-term ecological impacts, developing sustainable technologies, and ensuring robust regulatory frameworks are essential. Additionally, improved resource mapping, equitable benefit-sharing, and strategies for waste management and pollution control are needed. Addressing these challenges will help determine whether deep-sea mining can be conducted responsibly and sustainably.

6.1.2. Technical Limitations and Feasibility Issues

One major challenge in the valorization of tailings is energy inefficiency. At present, up to 99% of the energy in the process is expended on milling waste rock, rather than on the extraction of valuable minerals [136]. This inefficiency stems from the fact that tailings valorization is a relatively unexplored technology still in its infancy. While it holds promising potential, further development is needed to make it advantageous. Moreover, tailings are just one form of mining waste; other forms include drainage water, sludges, and general rock waste, which offer lower potential as resource sources compared to tailings. Another major limitation of valorization is the lack of experienced personnel, as the technology and its applications are still emerging. This includes a shortage of skilled workers and insufficient top management support [123]. Urban mining also faces a significant hurdle in terms of profitability. The recovery of minerals from urban mining activities is not yet as fruitful as desired. For instance, in battery technology, cobalt is a highly sought-after metal. However, for cobalt to be useful, it must be extremely pure, and extracting pure cobalt from recycling processes—where metals are often mixed—is highly expensive [106] and less profitable than purchasing raw cobalt.

Regarding feasibility, the adoption of valorization technology is currently hindered by the need for the thorough evaluation of its profitability, value, and practical utility before committing to significant investments. As noted, its energy efficiency is presently inadequate, making it a less attractive option for investment. Consequently, its implementation has been slow, as stakeholders await improvements in efficiency and clearer financial justifications.

6.2. Regulatory and Policy Challenge

6.2.1. Evaluation of Existing Regulations and Policies

As previously mentioned, technological challenges are not the only barriers to transitioning from a linear to a CE model in the mining industry; legal and regulatory adjustments are also crucial. One significant obstacle is the inadequate waste management policies that currently underpin the linear system, leading to the permanent loss of valuable minerals and substantial environmental damage. To facilitate the shift toward a CE, the UN has established Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aimed at developing policies, legislation, and regulations to ensure proper waste management and environmentally sound disposal practices [137]. These measures are intended to ease the transition to a CE. Furthermore, the UN has outlined a framework for deep-sea mining in international waters through the Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the International Seabed Authority (ISA), which are responsible for regulating mining activities in these areas [123].

In line with the UN’s SDGs, Europe has implemented several robust regulations to address electronic waste. The Waste Shipment Regulation (WSR) prohibits the export of hazardous e-waste to countries outside the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), while the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive promotes the use of environmentally friendly materials in product design and restricts hazardous chemicals. The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive aims to manage e-waste by encouraging the recovery of usable components and facilitating the recycling and environmentally sound processing of electronic waste [137]. Asia has largely mirrored Europe’s approach, adopting similar policies and regulations to manage e-waste, including their own versions of the RoHS to curb illicit e-waste practices. In contrast, legislation in the Americas is more fragmented. The United States has made strides with the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) program to enhance recycling processes. However, progress in Latin America remains uneven, with significant advancements occurring only in a few countries, including Mexico, Costa Rica, Colombia, Brazil, and Peru [137].

In Brazil, significant progress in waste management is outlined in their National Solid Waste Policy (NSPQ). For example, Article 10 designates recyclable and reusable solid waste as economic assets that can generate employment and income, enhancing the bargaining power of waste collection associations with scrap buyers. Articles 31 and 32 mandate that manufacturers design packaging with minimal environmental impact, ensuring that it is easy to reuse and recycle. Additionally, Article 33 promotes reverse logistics, facilitating the return and recycling of products [133]. In contrast, Africa faces challenges with e-waste management. While transboundary movements of WEEE are common, regulatory frameworks are often limited and ineffective. Even where e-waste laws exist, enforcement remains problematic due to the complexity and resource demands of monitoring compliance [137]. In Oceania, Australia has emerged as a leader in e-waste legislation with its Product Stewardship Act (2011), which targets the recycling of televisions and computers. This framework has set a benchmark for other countries in the region. Additionally, several island nations have partnered with the EU to manage hazardous waste. Despite these efforts, the overall legislation in Oceania is insufficient and fails to address the full spectrum of e-waste management needs [137].

6.2.2. Recommendations for Policy Improvements to Support Circular Mining

A comprehensive analysis of global regulations and policies reveals that transitioning to a CE model in mining requires stringent, precise, and clear legislative frameworks. For example, companies engaged in deep-sea mining must obtain licenses and permits from regulatory authorities and provide financial assurances to cover potential environmental damages or other liabilities during their operations [123]. To enhance resource efficiency, reutilization, and recycling, policies must prioritize these aspects. The International Resource Panel advocates for utilizing anthropogenic sources, such as mining waste heaps and dumps, as valuable resources. Additionally, cross-industry symbiosis should be encouraged to reduce the reliance on virgin minerals; for instance, waste from metallurgical processes can be repurposed to create new products, and deep-sea mining locations could potentially serve as sources of thermal energy [138]. Economic incentives, including tax breaks and subsidies, could further motivate businesses to adopt circular economic practices and technologies. The high initial capital requirement is a significant barrier to adopting a CE model in mining, necessitating investment in both research and employee training [139,140].

To address waste, policies should focus on minimizing its production. Potential measures include improving mineral and water reuse through closed-loop systems, maximizing the use of waste and by-products, encouraging collaboration with manufacturers to design easily repairable products, and enhancing material labeling for more efficient recycling [23]. Furthermore, developing deep-sea technology for environmentally friendly waste and carbon emission disposal is crucial. Post-mining land use should be regulated to encourage new economic activities or rehabilitation efforts. For example, abandoned open pits could be repurposed for energy generation and storage, while historical tailings could be reprocessed to restore old mining sites.

In summary, a successful transition to a CE model in the mining industry hinges on global legislative changes that support resource recycling, efficient waste management, and land rehabilitation.

7. Future Directions and Research Needs

7.1. Research Gaps and Opportunities

7.1.1. Areas Requiring Further Investigation and Development

To establish a CE model for mining, it is crucial to implement legislation that is strict, precise, and clear, recognizing the broad spectrum of economic, environmental, and social impacts involved. Effective regulation will not only be shaped by governmental bodies but also influenced by all stakeholders in the CE mining ecosystem. Thus, boardroom commitments to environmental, social, and governance issues and public communications about sustainable development must be informed by research that acknowledges the limitations of current CE practices and models [106]. These limitations stem from a lack of comprehensive data and a collaborative industry mindset. Key research gaps include insufficient information on resource management (such as water and energy), an incomplete understanding of CE practices and their barriers and drivers, and limited integration with Industry 4.0 technologies. Addressing these gaps requires a holistic approach, involving diverse, global case studies that utilize smart technologies for tracking resources and operational factors. Such research should also synthesize localized and global perspectives, connecting all entities with strategic interests and significant stakes in the mining sector.

Holistic exploration would enable researchers to address specific issues arising from these gaps, similar to the approach taken by Mishra et al. [75], in analyzing the relationship between operational, geo-environmental, and managerial factors for optimizing dewatering. Comprehensive data are essential not only for advancing current CE practices but also for exploring new developments. Complexities in CE development, such as logistical challenges in managing water and energy waste, require innovative solutions to avoid locking in unsustainable material systems and to enhance the efficiency of recyclable material dispersion and transportation [18]. Findings from such studies can inform sustainable strategic investment decision-making practices (SSIDMPs), impacting everything from investment efficiency and internal controls to audit mechanisms. If profitability is demonstrated, it could spur investments in smart technologies, such as I4.0, which employs automation and artificial intelligence for decision-making in mining segregation [105]. This, in turn, would facilitate a positive feedback loop, breaking down uncooperative mindsets and fostering collaboration to reduce data gathering costs and drive further innovation.

7.1.2. Potential for Interdisciplinary Collaboration and Knowledge Transfer

Given the extensive infrastructure and restructuring required to realize a viable CE vision, public communication through effective knowledge transfer and interdisciplinary collaboration is crucial. Such efforts would accelerate the adoption of CE principles by creating a forward-looking environment for technology producers, policymakers, business owners, and consumers. This collective engagement would foster interest, establish unified goals, enhance data collection and intelligent processing methods, and align principles, policies, and industry-wide discourse. This alignment is critical, as mining intensity and the number of mining sites are expected to increase significantly in the future.

A notable example of the consequences of inadequate stakeholder engagement and misaligned discourse is the closure of Cobre Panamá, following a Panamanian Supreme Court ruling that declared the government’s concession with Minera Panamá unconstitutional due to environmental concerns and a lack of transparency [141]. This case underscores the importance of transparency in negotiations and obtaining proper authorization to operate. Quantum One’s controversial involvement in political processes to achieve corporate goals highlights a broader trend in the interaction between stakeholders, mining companies, and social groups [109]. Effective interest rallying and aligned discourse require recognizing what makes a party’s input valuable and ensuring that discussions generate tangible value. Traditional mining management strategies may not be suitable for CE mining [32]. Instead, leadership should focus on creating explicit, coordinated feedback loops that allow for continuous learning and adjustment. This approach would ensure that all input is valued and foster a productive, collaborative environment, avoiding a counterproductive tug of war and preventing the waste of intellectual and innovative potential.

Despite the potential benefits of integrating CE principles into mining, many view this goal as unachievable. This skepticism arises from the complexities of dealing with individual company representatives whose informal actions can lead to agendas and cultural clashes influenced by local politics. Challenges intensify when these groups are approached as separate entities without a coordinated public relations strategy. By focusing on regulating both formal and informal actions, fostering cross-functional departments, treating local politics and stakeholders as interconnected, and promoting cooperative rather than merely risk-reducing actions, it is possible to create a beneficial feedback loop. This approach aligns with reports suggesting that strong employee and public relationships, as well as cooperation, significantly impact the success of sustainability initiatives, as evidenced by major mining failures like Cobre Panamá.

Similar issues of valued group dynamics and collaboration are evident in knowledge transfer, particularly in interdisciplinary research and cross-company efforts. Criticisms of some CE regulatory frameworks highlight their tendency to overlook biodiversity, risking long-term environmental degradation due to the complex nature of ecosystems [142]. This critique is significant because many CE regulations are informed by ecological economics and industrial ecology, areas where research and perspectives are often lacking compared to more business-focused viewpoints. Ideally, effective knowledge transfer should involve interdisciplinary collaboration, yet there is a notable deficit in scientific discipline perspectives, as shown by the limited sharing of knowledge when transforming dumps into mines [60].

In summary, creating an ideal knowledge transfer feedback loop—one that ensures a balance in the CE world’s complex network and prevents irreversible damage while enhancing value through relationship rents—remains elusive until the mining industry adopts a more cooperative stance. Without a genuine appreciation for knowledge sharing, expecting a sudden shift in focus, actor mobilization, and macro-level transformation is unrealistic [60]. The current lack of cooperation undermines the potential benefits of the CE, leading to compromised environmental quality and inefficient processes due to uncommunicated values and poorly executed policies.

7.2. Roadmap for Future Circular Mining Initiatives

7.2.1. Key Steps Toward Widespread Adoption of Circular Practices in Mining

For the widespread adoption of CE practices in the mining industry, effective communication across diverse perspectives—both globally and within collaborative ventures—is crucial. Holistic exploration should emphasize region-specific research that can yield actionable insights applicable across the entire mining value chain. The volume and quality of such research will serve as indicators of how far and fast the mining sector has embraced the overall concept and details of the CE, although the sector’s current stance on the CE remains ambiguous [106]. Subsequent progress will be self-reinforcing if the mineral industries and governments, at a minimum, prioritize environmental management and socio-economic impacts while constructing practices that enforce accountability, adopt clean innovations, and encourage communication across multiple channels [116].

The persistent barriers to CE adoption include investment, access to updated data and reference baselines, effective monitoring, specialized expertise, local collaboration, and the CER effect, which can lead to unexpected environmental or economic costs. Interdisciplinary research that incorporates holistic exploration—such as integrating geological studies with mine engineering layouts—can partially address these challenges, except for the need for investment. For example, enhancing microseismical prediction could enable better application of existing technologies like hydraulic fracturing to recover unconventional resources or future innovations like PNNL’s magnetic nanoparticle capture for lithium, contributing to a cleaner energy mix than coal [117].

Many of these challenges could be mitigated through the careful dissemination of information, robust discourse, and collaborative efforts, particularly in partnerships that emphasize public research and transparent implementation. Therefore, enforced accountability is essential, especially as the industry moves toward widespread symbiosis—cross-company collaboration for material reuse in manufacturing. As supply chain security and material tracking become increasingly critical, reliable and holistic datasets will be necessary to create better, foresighted visions of the future, test new processing technologies, and build confidence in the science behind CE principles.

An example of these foresighted visions would be the models that can be constructed from the accumulation of data, informing laws, regulations, and more abstract political maneuvering. For instance, political maneuvering could involve predicting how government alliances securing critical materials might heighten investment risk and increase competition. Forecasting demand and supply while managing the “disconnect between short-term price movements and long-term strategic positioning” is crucial for a smooth transition to a CE in mining and for achieving global sustainability [143]. If confidence in these models grows, initial efforts should focus on simpler, high-impact practices, such as upcycling to “effectively recover” value or implementing waste reduction methods like using recycled concrete aggregates from mine waste. These foundational steps can attract investment and establish logistical frameworks for more complex processing technologies. As simpler, consumer-driven methods make the sustainable mining sector profitable, people will witness the benefits of CE practices, leading to local collaborations that could create a self-reinforcing positive feedback loop, reducing resistance over time.

To minimize resistance and ensure the successful implementation of a CE model, it is essential to pinpoint where research and developmental challenges specifically lie, whether in operations, marketing and management, human resources, finance, resources and utilities, corporate affairs, or CSR and environmental impact. Given that the mining sector encompasses both mining and adjacent industries, the precise identification of these challenges is crucial for efficiently reaching applicable solutions, as everything within a CE model is interconnected. The continuous holistic exploration of intersectional and complementary policies will aid in the creation of advanced tools and methodologies, enabling a nuanced understanding and prioritization of CE challenges in these areas. This approach will minimize resistance arising from a lack of interest or procedural bottlenecks, thereby streamlining problem-solving and accelerating the transition to a CE model [144].

Figure 6 presents major research and development challenges in CE categories. All the topics outlined in the figure should be thoroughly investigated, with the development of advanced tools and methodologies to analyze the specific challenges in each area. This approach will help direct attention to the most critical issues, which will continue to evolve alongside technological and managerial advancements. In most cases, holistic exploration—combined with ongoing research and the creation of net-benefit feedback loops—has successfully addressed major challenges, with communication being the common thread that facilitated these solutions. Extensive research into communication across all levels is essential, as it is crucial for aligning principles and policies with those of potential partners, thereby enabling effective CE implementation that prioritizes sustainability and long-term viability before action is taken. However, for the widespread adoption of CE practices, standardized procedures must be established. Without these, the complexities of a CE model could lead to failures that strain the system far more than a traditional model would. To achieve both minimal resistance and high standards, one effective strategy could be to create accessible programs that allow new CE businesses to participate in contracts for publicly procured items, provided they meet certain criteria. This would connect them with experienced organizations and subject them to the scrutiny needed to firmly establish CE principles while ensuring a steady revenue stream. Similar partnerships could serve analogous functions. By fostering a supportive community that encourages company resilience, many of the challenges related to experience, logistics, and procurement—issues not as easily addressed by research alone—could be mitigated.

7.2.2. Collaborative Efforts and Partnerships for Industry Transformation

The global effort toward CE collaboration and partnerships for industry transformation is crucial, with the adoption of specific industry terms for cooperative relationships enabling better management of company-specific challenges. For instance, innovations that impact local employment and business relations can influence impact benefits agreements (IBAs), a company’s SLOs, and, more broadly, a nation’s SDGs [146]. These relationships are foundational to implementing CE principles, as a CE must be self-regulating and interconnected from local regions to global markets. Effective collaboration is often achieved by establishing dedicated secretariats and multi-stakeholder technical committees and by increasing focus on critical and strategic minerals (CSMs), which serve as the technical and material fuel for CE growth. Participation in these collaborative efforts is both a critical step and the ultimate form of a CE model within the mining sector.

A prime example of how collaboration can drive industry transformation is the partnership between BHP and Rio Tinto to find safer and more sustainable ways to manage tailings. Their efforts have led to the development of technology that significantly increases water recovery from mine tailings, reducing the safety risks and environmental footprints associated with tailings storage facilities (TSFs) [147]. Cross-company collaborations like these, which address responsible waste management, play a vital role in creating a self-regulating and interconnected CE at both local and global levels. Another example is the International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM), a CEO-led global organization that commits its members to specific sustainability standards, including net-zero goals, and provides international definitions and guidelines on various issues related to sustainable mining. These initiatives set important precedents for CE-driven partnerships, which will be increasingly vital as mining activity intensifies across all minerals in the foreseeable future.

Overall, these collaborative approaches establish a shared value system focused on circularity, contributing to a resilient and interconnected global economy. They demonstrate a collective responsibility to advance societal and environmental well-being. CE practices not only support IBAs, SLOs, and SDGs but also provide a framework for businesses to integrate circular principles into their operations, ultimately fostering a more resilient and interconnected global mining economy within the CE model.

8. Conclusions

8.1. Summary of Key Findings

The concept of a CE in the mining industry envisions a system where waste is minimized, leftover materials are reintegrated into the economy, and environmental impacts are significantly reduced, all contributing to societal and economic prosperity. For instance, common rock waste, such as slugs and tailings, can be revalorized with the right technologies to extract valuable metals that were previously overlooked. In terms of recycling, waste materials can be repurposed or transferred to other sectors to produce adjacent products like cement, bricks, or mortar. Additionally, innovative mining practices, such as underground and deep-sea mining, offer opportunities for enhanced efficiency and pollution reduction. However, these environments present unique challenges that must be addressed to successfully implement these methods. In a world with finite resources and increasing waste, the principles of a CE are crucial for pursuing a sustainable future. The primary obstacle to transitioning from a linear economy to a circular one is profitability. While the idea of a sustainable future is noble and well intentioned, the shift to a CE will not occur unless there is sufficient economic incentive for adopting new regulations and principles, as well as a significant net revenue return from investments in new technologies and practices.

8.2. Implications for the Future of Mining

The future of mining is undergoing a transformative shift towards responsible extraction and resource conservation, driven by a growing awareness of the industry’s environmental and social impacts. Across diverse landscapes, from arid deserts to lush ecosystems, the need to protect water resources and reduce pollution is catalyzing significant industry-wide changes. Water conservation has become a central focus, with initiatives aimed at assessing contamination risks, reclaiming mined land, and implementing advanced water treatment strategies. Innovation is crucial in tackling challenges such as coarse particle flotation, where traditional methods often struggle to balance mineral separation with onsite water consumption. The industry’s ability to adapt to varying water supply reliability highlights the importance of flexibility and strategic planning in mining operations. Whether through internal water reuse or collaboration with other sectors, innovative solutions are being developed to minimize water use and enhance resource efficiency. Ultimately, the future of mining depends on an interconnected approach that balances economic interests with environmental stewardship. This ensures that sustainable practices are adopted, benefiting both current and future generations.

8.3. Call to Action for Industry Stakeholders and Policymakers

For industry stakeholders and policymakers, the time to act toward a sustainable future in mining is now. Embracing responsible extraction and resource conservation practices is not only a moral imperative but also a strategic necessity for the industry’s long-term viability. Stakeholders must prioritize investments in research and development to innovate processes and technologies that minimize water use, reduce pollution, and rehabilitate mined land. Policymakers, meanwhile, play a crucial role in establishing clear regulatory frameworks that incentivize sustainable practices and hold the mining industry accountable for environmental negligence. Collaborative efforts between industry and government are essential to driving meaningful change, ensuring that economic growth is balanced with environmental and social responsibility. While initiatives like the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals and Brazil’s NSPQ articles have made strides, they are often implemented inconsistently across the globe, with limited enforcement and consequences. The effective communication of data, tools, and models derived from holistic exploration is critical for informed decision-making and fostering interconnectedness within the mining sector on both local and global scales. To achieve a true circular economy, it is imperative that all stakeholders commit to establishing circularity and hold themselves accountable for integrating CE model practices over traditional methods. By working together, we can pave the way for a mining industry that meets present needs while safeguarding our planet for future generations.