Integrative Framework for Platform-Based Business Models to Drive Climate Neutrality in Logistics

Abstract

To make possible the integration and harmonization as well as the orchestration of independent logistics operations, smart platforms and platform ecosystems are necessary to effectively connect the providers of sustainable transport solutions and those who need them. Since the beginning of 2023, incoming EU regulations regarding minimum standards for EU Climate Transition Benchmarks demand large companies to also report their emissions caused by subcontracting services. In response to this opening, we surveyed the past and ongoing experiences, we identified as well as explored the barriers that may determine a hindering effect, and we proposed an integrative framework for platform-based business models for sustainable logistics (PBM-SL) so as to contribute to designing business models for logistics, with the purpose of assisting any interested party in developing such a model for transport and logistics and of facilitating the insertion of sustainability issues among different platform solutions to optimize freight flows and drive logistics to climate neutrality.

1. Introduction

Well-integrated logistic networks are crucial for safe and resilient transport, as well as for smart mobility services for goods. These can also lead to creating efficient ways to store or transport materials and products. According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)—International Transport Forum data from 2019, each year, approximately 100 trillion ton-kilometers are logged globally to transport services. In 2020, over 5.3% of the total labor force in the European Union (EU) was employed in the field of logistics and freight transport. Around USD 650 billion (5% of the EU’s gross domestic product) has been created by the transport and logistics industry and more than 1.15 million companies are active in this field [1].

Externality reduction is a major concern for logistics companies. The integration of logistics networks enables the accurate prediction of the customers’ transport needs, scheduling purchase of raw materials and final product delivery. This consequently results in better utilization of cargo and warehouse space, time savings on loading and unloading activities and product delivery. The integration of logistics networks can also offer increased flexibility for logistics companies and businesses. The elements of difficulty for this issue are manifold, and the main challenges consist in (i) the integration, harmonization and orchestration of independent logistics operations due, in large part, to heterogeneous processes, and in (ii) the correct approach from the point of view of the drastic increase in the complexity of the problems due to extended logistics networks and large data volumes.

In order to make possible the integration, harmonization and orchestration of independent logistics operations, smart platforms and platform ecosystems are required, since these can effectively connect the providers of sustainable transport solutions together with those who need them. Virtual platforms in the field of logistics can function as marketplaces but these also have to ensure the access of third parties involved in the innovation by promoting the development of services and smart tools that are necessary to satisfy the dynamic needs of the logistic systems.

Most current business model research takes an economic-centered approach, and more focus should be applied to need instead of value, by identifying the requirements of the actors involved and trying to adapt to them. The main drawback is the poor coverage of the wider context, as well as the reduced integration of the potentially important factors that are necessary to support a sustainable model. The fitting of innovative collaborative logistics business models in possible forms of cooperation, horizontal, vertical, diagonal, integral or multi-modal digital marketplaces is still a neglected topic. Furthermore, the related literature is also limited in both practical and scientific aspects.

Furthermore, statistical data show that, at present, transportation is responsible for 25% of the total greenhouse gas emissions in Europe [2]. Since the incentives and constraints used to reduce pollution are more advanced in many industries, the challenge is that this share should increase in the field of transportation, too. Until now, most of the companies have concentrated on their primary (Scope 1) emissions together with the emissions caused by their energy use (Scope 2). These are the emissions that companies currently need to report, which due to public attention, many companies aim to decrease. However, these companies have rarely focused on emissions caused by subcontracting (Scope 3). This is because there is no need to report these emissions; thus, consequently, the companies do not collect data regarding them [3]. Even if, at a declarative level, many companies seem concerned about sustainability in supply-chain operations, at least in their sustainability reports, the reality in the logistics industry in general is that purchasing decisions are made by taking the costs as the primary factor when selecting different transport and logistics alternatives. In the case that low-energy and low-polluting alternatives are more expensive than other alternatives, they are not chosen.

Since the beginning of 2023, incoming EU regulations regarding minimum standards for EU Climate Transition Benchmarks and EU Paris-aligned Benchmarks have demanded that large companies also report their Scope 3 emissions.

In response to this background, this article discusses how our findings relate to past experiences from previous and ongoing European projects and proposes a more integrative and holistic approach to explore new business models.

This paper proposes an integrative framework for platform-based business models in sustainable logistics (PBM-SL) so as to contribute to the following goals:

• Gaining clear insights into the elements of platform-based business models for logistics;
• Facilitating the identification of the elements and competing options in platform-based business models along multiple dimensions, by assisting any interested party in developing business models for logistics support;
• Inserting sustainability issues into the integrative framework in the form of emissions caused by subcontracting (Scope 3) among the different platform solutions in order to optimize freight flows and drive logistics to climate neutrality.

This paper is organized as follows: in Section 2, we introduce the literature background, and in Section 3, a brief description of the adopted methodology is provided. In Section 4, we discuss the requirements of collaborative logistic networks. The experiences reflected from previous and ongoing European projects that address collaborative logistics, integrated logistic networks and sustainability are discussed in Section 5. Then, in Section 6, we present the integrative framework for platform-based business models in logistics, considering the assimilation of sustainability issues. Finally, conclusions are discussed in Section 7.

2. Literature Background

Collaborative logistics is a topic broadly dealt with both in practical and scientific literature, and it has become more and more obvious that it can be considered a critical factor in terms of increasing competitiveness [4,5]. The different types of collaboration, at the vertical level (supplier–client) and at horizontal level (integrator–integrator), lead companies to generate an exchange of information, knowledge and technology. Among these possible forms of cooperation in logistics—horizontal and vertical types of collaboration, integral to multi-modal digital marketplaces—horizontal collaboration is still a neglected topic and the related literature is yet limited [6]. The same situation is also found for lateral collaboration, integrating both the vertical and horizontal. The benefits of horizontal collaboration are generally recognized in the literature. The conducted studies show that a high percent of companies will implement in the future a form of collaboration strategy [7,8,9,10,11,12]. This requires the implementation of approaches that allow them to make decisions that influence the results expected. Often, horizontal collaboration can lead to substantial economic benefits such as risk sharing, cost savings, investments increasing and pooling know-how, in addition to the ecological benefit, for instance, CO₂ reduction [13,14,15].

A broad approach in order to understand the relevant factors needed for the analysis and the implementation of horizontal collaboration can be found in [6,13,16,17]. Cruijssen [8] identifies different typologies of horizontal cooperation in logistic activities. For each of them, the decision level (operational, tactical, strategic), competition among partners (presence/absence), combined assets (orders, logistic facilities, rolling stock, market power, supporting processes and expertise) and objectives (cost reduction, growth, innovation, quick response and social relevance) dimensions are investigated. For the most part, the focus lies on identifying the benefits of horizontal collaboration and the analysis factors necessary for its implementation, but the literature related to dedicated business modeling for logistic horizontal collaboration is, however, limited.

In the literature, business models are characterized from multiple perspectives, starting from the identification of a series of constituent elements and their association through the coordination and matching of these elements. The four elements constitutive model proposed by Hamel [18] and the nine-factor model proposed by Osterwalder [19] frequently appear to be highly recognized in the literature. The latter business model refers to the creation, transfer and acquiring of value, and it considers the process of business operations, the source of profit and strategic positioning.

Several studies provided taxonomies for business models in the logistics sector together with classifications extending classical business models of logistics [20]. There is no structural analysis explicitly examining the framework of digital business models in the logistics domain [21]. The existing conceptual frameworks for business models cover a multitude of elements, making the logical correlation between elements which are too complex, thus consequently increasing the difficulty of their application [22]. Some authors identify specific categories of logistics business models, in the form of cross-border business models, mutually beneficial business models, open business models [23], supply-chain integration services business models and multiple-platform business models. These can provide a reference for the logistics enterprises so as to carry out the business model innovation [24].

Digital marketplaces are generally seen as digital platform, allowing peers from both supply and demand sides to interact and initiate a transaction [25], as well permit both ownership transfer together with the temporary access of a product or a service [26,27]. At the industry level, practical solutions have been developed for digital marketplaces. For instance, freight marketplaces match companies looking to ship freight using one or multiple modes of transport (road, air, ocean and/or rail) with suppliers or brokers of logistics capacity; warehousing marketplaces facilitate responsive access to space and allow customers to flexibly distribute goods across locations. However, the related scientific literature for business models for multimodal marketplace is still missing.

3. Materials and Methods

Four stages of research stream maturity can generally be identified: (I) awareness, (II) framing, (III) developing and (IV) validation [28].

This paper follows an extensive review of the most representative and important projects involving collaborative logistics, integrated logistic networks and climate neutrality, included in the major directions of research and industrial technology transfer in the European Union. The analysis, as employed here, is useful for raising awareness amongst researchers and for initial framing. The paper uses a meta-synthesis approach to identify the key elements, the intercorrelations and the factors that can have a hindering effect so as to compile the findings in the literature and propose a conceptual framework for platform-based business models for sustainable logistics. Such frameworks would provide researchers and practitioners with an instrument for empirical research but also for further descriptive and normative research.

The methodological approach adopted in this paper consists in three main steps, represented in Figure 1:

1.

Understanding the collaborative logistics network is the awareness step. The main trends affecting the logistic climate neutrality, the identification of stakeholders involved in the system together with their interactions, the current behavior and the business development status, as well as the overall environment, are analyzed so as to be able to understand and to describe business models.

2.

Examining and evaluating past experiences. During the second step of the methodology, the knowledge of the system is assessed in a typical way to obtain a general view of the key outputs area of previous and ongoing projects. Our considered data corpus consists of a broad sample of studies that integrates both scientific and practitioner literature. The most representative and important projects involving collaborative logistics, integrated logistic networks and climate neutrality, from the major directions of research and industrial technology transfer, EU.1.3.—EXCELLENT SCIENCE, EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES and EU.2.1.5.—INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP, financed through the EU H2020, CEF Transport and FP7—Transport programs, were selected. The paper aims to draw on a wealth of experience from previous results, seeking a high level of association with the already proposed models. In this stage, the main research questions to be answered are as follows:

What are the main components and the key findings of these studies?

What are the factors that can have a hindering effect?

3.

Developing. The third step of the methodology is concerned with the development of the conceptual framework and the integration of sustainability issues. The integrated framework model we propose consists of a four-step subdivision of the business model concept and a fifth step to integrate sustainability issues. Each step is built on specific sub-criteria, elements and competing options of platform-based business models for logistics, along multiple dimensions. In this stage, the main research questions to be answered are:

Which are the main drivers and dimensions of a platform-based business model for logistic services?

How can sustainability issues be addressed and integrated into business models’ value proposition?

4. Understanding the Requirements of Collaborative Logistic Networks

4.1. Trends in Driving Logistics to Climate Neutrality

Lately, a lot of effort has been directed towards logistic networks integration and harmonization through operational connectivity to be able to optimize freight flows and drive logistics to climate neutrality. Sustainability is an important subject when faced with pollution and climate change, since one of the pillars of sustainability challenges in logistics is collaboration [29].

Businesses have their mode of operation set up in a particular way and consequently, speaking of collaboration and most businesses working together to instill change, there are inherent difficulties. The level of cooperation and management needed to make a full-on switch to sustainable logistics is considerable.

In the field of logistics, the main trends we identified are digitalization and automation, security awareness, resources, climate neutrality and resilient service areas. If we refer to climate neutrality, the main trends we found in driving logistics towards climate neutrality are user-centric technologies and services, new energy sources and collaborative logistic networks [30], as presented in

Table 1. Main trends in driving logistics to climate neutrality.

Trend	Elements
User-centric technologies and services	Automation, digital technologies and advanced satellite navigation services represent a paradigm shift to the digitalization of everything. The change towards technology involves major risks, mainly regarding data and data systems’ security awareness.
New energy sources	The limited availability and access to traditional energy resources, the security issues related to the energy field and the growing concern regarding pollution lead to sustainable energy use and the advancement of alternative business models.
Collaborative logistic networks and resource optimization	Transport modes are smartly used and combined; coordination and logistic collaboration are present. Fleets and assets are shared and used to the max. Synchro modality is present, optimizing and allowing the flexible use of different modes and routes in a network under the direction of a logistics service provider so that the customer (shipper or forwarder) is offered an integrated solution for their (inland) transport.

.

4.2. Stakeholders and Their Roles

Specific terms are used to depict the stakeholders involved in logistics processes and the roles they carry out in the supply-chain process [31].

The main stakeholders are the companies, the government in the form of public authorities, regulators and standardization agencies, the research and development institutions and the civil society.

Shippers are the owners of the cargo that needs to be shipped. They can be found, in the terminology, as: material suppliers, manufacturers, vendors and distributors.

Innovative solutions providers are the companies and technological institutes that develop and provide innovative technologies and solutions.

(Multimodal) transport operators/Logistics service providers (LSPs) represent the companies that organize and manage all aspects of the cargo shipment. There are various terms to refer to types of logistics service providers: transport service providers, carriers, freight forwarders, warehouse service providers, multimodal transport operators or LSPs.

The logistics service providers adapt to the beneficiary’s specific needs and have different service integration levels, namely XPL (party logistics). The highest levels of integration (5PL—logistics network management, optimizers, providers for e-solutions) involve fully integrated logistics solutions to comprehend the whole supply chain from beginning to end through multiple outsourced service providers, as well as integration achieved through the application of IT solutions so as to provide full visibility throughout the supply chain in ‘real-time’.

Still mostly theoretical, 6PL, generally defined as artificial-intelligence-driven supply-chain management, is fully integrated and includes elements of artificial intelligence (AI) that take over certain functions and optimize processes at the level of the logistics chain.

Freight hub and terminal operators can be found in the form of maritime and inland ports, railway terminals, airports, road terminals, logistics platforms and urban hubs, conditioned so that freight can be transferred from one mode of transport to another.

Public authorities, regulators and standardization agencies are government bodies that exercise control over certain activities in the transport and logistics sector, including standardization, social, safety, security and public-goods-related issues.

The stakeholders listed above can play one or more of the following roles in the supply-chain process [32]: they can be logistics service providers (LSPs) or logistics service buyers (LSBs). These two parties are the primary parties involved in the commercial transaction of buying logistics services. Regarding the technology area, the stakeholders can be logistics technology service providers, logistics technology service buyers, logistics technology service users or logistics technology service information recipients.

4.3. Business Models in Collaborative Networks

Collaborative transport and logistic networks’ successful adoption include several barriers, which have been studied extensively recently. Several issues could be identified in the freight transport horizontal collaboration sector, showing the most critical areas when developing logistics-related collaboration.

The critical areas are business models, information sharing, human factors, markets and collaborative decision support systems [33]. In business modeling, the initiators, coordinators, key actors and customers meet through an organizational setup under a governance mode. The value proposition connects them and facilitates access to key resources in a mechanism ruled by revenues and costs.

In traditional theories, a business model is always connected to value creation and capture. It defines the content, structure and governance of transactions, designed to create value. Novel business model concepts figure out value creation as a supply- and demand-side phenomenon, with value being created along the supply chain and its entire ecosystem. Be it multi-sourcing, resource-based or activities-based [34], the business model is one of the central elements that determines the increase in performance.

Business models as attributes of companies. A business model can be observed as an empirical phenomenon or as an attribute of real companies. Generally, a business model is a set of activities, as well as the resources and capabilities to be performed within the firm or beyond it, through cooperation with partners, suppliers or customers [35] together with the outcomes of performing these activities. Three major parts to each business model can be identified:

• a set of activities;
• outcomes of performing these activities;
• resources and capabilities.
• The set of activities represents the functions of the business model. The specialized literature abounds in presentations of the functions of business models, with many authors being in consensus regarding them [23,36]. A complete set of these functions as attributes of real companies is presented in

  Table 2. Business models function as attributes of real companies.

  	Main Functions of a Business Model	Empirical Observed Attributes
  1	Articulates the value proposition	Is mainly based on the technology
  2	Identifies a market segment	Identifies the users to whom the technology is useful Establishes the intended purpose
  3	Specifies the revenue generation mechanism	Identifies stakeholders Establishes distribution across the business model
  4	Defines the structure of the value chain	Creates the offering Distributes the offering
  5	Estimates the cost structure and profit potential	Estimates costs of producing the offering given the value proposition and the value chain structure chosen
  6	Describes the position of the firm within the value network	Links suppliers and customers Identifies potential partners and competitors
  7	Formulates the competitive strategy	Describes the way that the innovating firm will gain and hold a competitive advantage over rivals

  .

Business models as formal conceptual representations. As opposed to empirical observation, a business model can be seen as a conceptual tool that contains a set of elements, as well as their relationships, which allows for expression of the business logic of a company or cooperation among partner companies [19].

The elements of a generic business model concept are as follows:

• Product/service offer and the embedded value;
• Supply chain: how are upstream relationships with suppliers structured and managed?
• Customer interface: how are downstream relationships with customers structured and managed?
• Financial model: costs and benefits from (a), (b) and (c) and their distribution across business model stakeholders.

Horizontal and vertical types of logistic collaboration. No generally accepted design for business models for cross-company logistic networks can be given; rather a basis for the development of logistic models, which includes the most important elements, can be specified [6].

It is generally accepted that models of collaboration in logistics are divided into three main types: horizontal, vertical and lateral collaboration [37]. Synthesizing horizontal collaboration is when the firm collaborates at the same level with its competitors that may have different supply chains. A vertical collaboration forms when partners of the supply chain collaborate to gain supply-chain success. The combination of both horizontal and vertical collaboration intends to achieve more flexibility in lateral collaboration.

For the development of logistic horizontal collaboration business models, based upon a large number of case examinations, the key collaboration elements are identified as: “collaboration structures”, “collaboration objectives”, “collaboration intensity” and “collaboration modes” [38]. The four basic elements previously mentioned cannot be seen independently. Consequently, they are found in an interdependent relationship.

• Structure—possible logistic horizontal collaboration structures that describe the connections and relationships between supply-chain actors (namely shipper-centric, customer-centric and LSP-centric collaboration and the hybrid form that combines any two of these);
• Objectives—the most frequently met objectives driving the logistic horizontal collaboration, which are also the important performance measures to ensure close tracking of the collaboration results and evaluate how well the collaboration meets the expectation (namely the reduction in operational cost, procurement cost and CO₂ emissions, the improvement of capacity utilization, service level, predictability/flexibility and market coverage);
• Intensity—the main levels of logistic horizontal collaboration implementation range from autonomy to system-wide integration and are characterized by three criteria: the collaboration relationship for decision-making and coordination, the scope of collaborative activities and the time horizon against which the collaborative activities are planned. Depending on the possible or desired cooperation level, various characteristic forms of cooperation are conceivable (ranging from the joint tendering of transport services to the coordination between logistics and production planning within the joint processing of transport);
• Collaboration models—the most frequently met alternative modes of logistic horizontal collaboration that have a wide application base (namely collaborative distributions, sharing of logistics assets and facilities, freight modal shift collaboration, group purchasing and joint service).

Specific to logistic horizontal collaboration is the need for a specialized entity to set up, manage and develop a collaboration with a trustee. Most forms of horizontal cooperation require a neutral coordinator whose tasks and duties are similar to the current service offering of a logistic service provider [6]. If such a neutral, transparent and trusted party is not present, there is a severe risk that not all parties will efficiently work together in the long run on a fair give-and-take basis. The main keywords for the functions fulfilled by a trustee are neutrality, transparency and safeguarded confidentiality of the data provided [39].

5. Examining Past and Ongoing Experiences

The most representative together with important projects involving collaborative logistics, integrated logistic networks and climate neutrality, from the major directions of research and industrial technology transfer, EU.1.3.—EXCELLENT SCIENCE, EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES and EU.2.1.5.—INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP, financed through the EU H2020, CEF Transport and FP7—Transport programs, were selected for a detailed extensive analysis.

Regarding the research in the field, the focus still seems to be on the technical area, on the integration of communication and information technology, as well as on optimization in logistics, even if the obvious risk is to develop solutions that do not match with the beneficiaries’ needs, thus demonstrating limited integration with the business models of the involved stakeholders.

The specific outputs from past projects, as well as the logistics field collaboration topics of past or currently active projects, are summarized in

Table 3. Recent exemplary work in the area of collaborative logistics, integrated logistic networks and climate neutrality.

Acronym Programme	Scope	Key Outputs Areas
ADMIRAL Program: H2020 HORIZON-CL5-2022 Link: https://www.admiral-project.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Advanced Multimodal Marketplace for Low Emission and Energy Transportation is an ongoing project aiming to transform supply-chain management in freight transportation by developing a cutting-edge digital marketplace for multimodal logistics and seeks to shift the focus on indirect emissions, reduce overall emissions in logistics and transportation and enhance transparency throughout the supply chain.	Digitalization Collaborative logistics Climate neutrality Business models
FENIX (CEF/TRAN/M2016/1364071) Program: H2020-EU.2.1.5.—INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP - Link: https://fenix-network.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	European Federated Network of Information eXchange in LogistiX is aiming to support the development, validation and deployment of the digital information systems along the EU transport core network, based on DTLF’s suggestions. It develops a European federated architecture for data sharing and digital corridor information systems for the European logistics community.	Digitalization Collaborative logistics Ecosystem
CO3 Program: FP7-TRANSPORT Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/284926 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Collaboration Concepts for Co-modality aimed to develop and professionalize, as well as disseminate information on, the business strategy of logistics collaboration in Europe. The goal of the project was to deliver a concrete contribution to increasing load factors, reducing empty movements and stimulate co-modality, through collaboration between industry partners, thereby reducing transport externalities such as greenhouse gas emissions and costs.	Collaborative logistics Cross-modal integration Climate neutrality Business models
CLUSTERS 2.0 Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: http://www.clusters20.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	The CLUSTERS 2.0 project developed low-capital, cost-efficient and investment-intensive enhanced goods handling and transshipment solutions. Its hyper-connected open network of logistics clusters and hubs functions “in the frame of Ten-T”. CLUSTERS 2.0 laid the groundwork by developing ways to link freight hubs through the physical internet.	Digitalization Intermodal logistics Cyber-physical systems
NEWBITS Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: http://newbits-project.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	NEWBITS focused on business models for intelligent transport systems (ITS). It had results on coordinating the interaction of different means of transport in the best possible way through networked data communication.	Business models Cross-modal integration
FEDeRATED Link: https://www.federatedplatforms.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	FEDeRATED grew out of the Digital Transport and Logistics Forum (DTLF). FEDeRATED aims to create an EU network of platforms for logistics. The initiative focuses on developing data standards that can be used to exchange data between various stakeholders in the logistics ecosystems. The initiative is concerned with data security, ensuring that operationally and commercially sensitive data are protected while providing the infrastructure for deep data sharing, as well as process integration.	Digitalization Standardization Integrated logistics network Ecosystem
Platforms4CPS Program: H2020-EU.2.1.1.—INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP Link: http://www.platforms4cps.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Platforms4CPS was a foresight and road-mapping project supporting the development and integration of cyber-physical systems utilized in society and industry. Platforms4CPS targeted the transport, manufacturing, energy and health sectors. Regarding multimodal transport, future R&I topics were identified and matched with societal needs.	Multimodal transport Integration of cyber-physical systems
knowlEdge Program: H2020-EU.2.1.1.—INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP Link: https://www.knowledge-project.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	The project addresses the need for new AI solutions by developing a platform that ensures the secure management of distributed data together with facilitating knowledge exchange. As an outcome, barriers towards using AI are removed and product as well as service quality and business sustainability are achieved.	Platform for distributed data Business models
TRANSFORMERS (Horizon Europe) Program: FP7-TRANSPORT Link: https://www.transformer-project.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	TRANSFORMERS designs long-term systemic transformation frameworks for regions across Europe in order to accelerate the shift towards climate neutrality.	Climate neutrality
PIXEL (2020) Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://pixel-ports.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	PIXEL aimed at enabling the IoT-based connection of port resources, transport agents and city sensor networks and establishing a single-metric index to integrate diverse environmental impacts. The results were assessment plans and indexes.	Digitalization Logistics integration Climate neutrality
COG-LO—Horizon 2020 Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES – Link: http://www.cog-lo.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	COG-LO offers a framework and tools that add cognition and collaboration features to logistics processes. Operational and logistics frameworks that enabled ad hoc cross-border logistics operations were proposed. These frameworks can be beneficial for the further development of generic cross-logistics operations.	Collaborative logistics Tools
COFRET FP7 Program: FP7-TRANSPORT Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/265879 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Carbon footprint of freight transport reviewed existing methodologies for calculating the carbon footprint and greenhouse gas emissions of freight transport and logistics in the supply chains’ context. It evaluated their compatibility with the European standards, providing suggestions for the next steps needed to achieve a global alignment to support global standardization.	Climate neutrality Standardization
CLOSER FP7 Program: FP7-TRANSPORT Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/234180 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Connecting Long and Short-distance Networks for Efficient Transport, the CLOSER project focused on several themes, including emerging mobility schemes, interchanges between short- and long-distance transport for passengers and freight and the regulatory environment. With the help of 30 different indications, the project analyzed various methods for linking short- and long-distance modalities.	Regulatory framework Intra and cross-modal integration
LEAD Project, 2020–2023, H2020 Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://www.leadproject.eu/ (accessed on 16 August 2023)	LEAD will create a digital twin of urban logistics networks in six cities, to support experimentation and decision-making in on-demand logistics operations in public–private urban settings.	Digitalization Logistic optimization
Transforming Transport Project, 2017–2019 Program: H2020-EU.2.1.1.—INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/731932 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Transforming Transport Project demonstrated, in a measurable and replicable way, the transformations that big data will bring to the mobility and logistics market.	Digitalization
LSW, 2018–2023, COMPETE2020 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Logistic Single Window is a collaborative platform comprising the entire transport chain (private and public players), aiming to achieve a far more agile and efficient logistic chain.	Collaborative logistics Platform
ULaaDS [Horizon 2020 RIA] Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/861833 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Urban Logistics as an on-Demand Service explores innovative logistic solutions for effective multi-stakeholder collaboration and envisions zero-emission logistics contributing to sustainable urban ecosystems. It develops a platform for the city-wide management of urban logistics.	Collaborative logistics Climate neutrality Platform for urban logistics
AEOLIX [Horizon 2020 RIA] Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/690797 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Architecture for EurOpean Logistics Information eXchange (AEOLIX) project envisions the implementation of collaborative IT infrastructure for the operational connection of logistics information systems. It also utilizes 3rd party logistics services and a mutual exchange of information between the stakeholders. It develops the AEOLIX platform and AEOLIX toolkit, covering core logistics services to support and implement the business needs of end-users.	Digital Ecosystem Logistics collaboration Optimization
SCALE-UP [Horizon 2020 IA] Program: H2020-EU.2.1.1.—INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/871877 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	SCALE-UP project aims to increase the mobility of goods in urban ecosystems by employing multimodal transport systems focusing on zero-emissions and behavioral change towards the means of mobility. It proposes clean, safe and inclusive mobility solutions, as well as network optimizations for the optimal integration of hubs.	Mobility solutions Cross-modal integration Optimization Sustainability
SYNCHRO-NET [Horizon 2020 RIA] Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/636354 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Synchro-modal Supply Chain Eco-Net considers synchro-modal supply-chain operations, contributing towards cost-effective solutions that destress the supply chain and reduce emissions together with costs for logistics operations. Additionally, it supports integrated optimizations and synchro-modal risk/benefit analysis. It is a net tool for the optimization of the transport chain and governance recommendations.	Logistics optimization Cross-modal integration Asset utilization Climate neutrality
MOVE21 [Horizon 2020 IA] Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/953939 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Multimodal and interconnected hubs for freight and passenger transport contributing to a zero emission 21st century The MOVE21 project is envisioned to strengthen the effect of multimodal transportation systems in terms of efficiency, cost and emissions. Additionally, it explores potential barriers and impacts, collaboration models and policy integration.	Business models Collaborative logistics Policy integration
GECKO [Horizon 2020 CSA] Program: H2020-EU.1.3.—EXCELLENT SCIENCE Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/955422 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Governance principles and methods enabling decision makers to manage and regulate the changing mobility systems. The GECKO project aims to support authorities in developing the most appropriate regulatory framework, as well as a governance model, for the transition to a new mobility era of cooperative, inclusive, competitive, sustainable and interconnected mobility.	Governance and regulatory frameworks Technology innovations
U-TURN Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/635773 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	It proposes innovative collaboration practices and tools for achieving more efficient operations from both an environmental and a cost perspective for urban transportation.	Advanced tools Supply-chain collaboration
LOGISTAR-RIA Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/769142 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Enhanced data-management techniques for real-time logistics planning and scheduling.	Logistics integration Technology platforms Asset utilization
ILIAD-RIA Program: H2020-EU.2.1.1.—INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/732737 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Intra-Logistics with Integrated Automatic Deployment: safe and scalable fleets in shared spaces.	Digitalization (AI) Technology platforms Optimization
WINN-RIA Program: FP7-TRANSPORT https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/314743 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	European Platform Driving Knowledge to Innovations in Freight Logistics.	Logistics collaboration Technology platforms Sustainability
NOVELOG Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/636626 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	The project proposes new cooperative business models together with guidance for sustainable city logistics in the context of stakeholder collaboration and development, field testing and transfer of the best governance as well as business models.	Business models Sustainability Collaborative logistics
iDev40-IA Program: H2020-EU.2.1.1.—INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/783163 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Integrated Development 4.0 is a project that develops virtual representations of real physical implementation.	Digital transformation (AI) Logistic integration
NEXTRUST-RIA Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/635874 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	NexTrust’s objective is to increase efficiency and sustainability in logistics by developing an innovative business model with interconnected, trusted collaborative networks along the entire supply chain. The NexTrust project focuses on the basis for a formal integrated framework for logistics ecosystems by using digital technologies. However, despite these advances, these solutions have not been widely spread in pan-European logistics due to the lack of identification incorporation and control mechanisms.	Logistics collaboration Business models Logistics intermodal integration Sustainability
SELIS-RIA Program: H2020-EU.3.4.—SOCIETAL CHALLENGES Link: https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/690588 (accessed on 16 August 2023)	Towards a Shared European Logistics Intelligent Information Space proposes a shared European logistics intelligent information space, SELIS, connecting nodes, providing a distributed common communication and navigation platform for pan-European logistics applications.	Digital transformation Smart collaborative logistics Optimization Sustainability

. Some of the presented projects’ focus is wide, such as digitalization, logistics ecosystem and cyber-physical systems, and some are focused on narrower more specific objectives, such as governance schemes, coordination schemes, negotiations and the optimization of transport operations.

Modern logistics is characterized by fuzzy harmonization of material and information flows and by burdening levels of paperwork. It is, therefore, actual and necessary that technological innovation and digitalization find their place in solving these problems. The iDev40-IA, NEXTRUST-RIA and SELIS-RIA projects offered the first steps in this direction, providing the basis for a formal integrated framework for logistics ecosystems by using digital technologies. Despite these advances, the difficulty of absorbing these technologies paired with the resistance of the actors involved, for many reasons, to incorporating the identification and control mechanisms has determined a minor replication at the European level. The projects iDev40-IA, NEXTRUST-RIA, SELIS-RIA and LOGISTAR-RIA also considered the political and economic changes in Europe together with the associated complexity of logistics processes in terms of information exchange.

The SYNCHRO-NET project proposed synchro-modal supply chains and made the steps for developing these by building a multi-agent front-end. Later, the H2020 LOGISTAR-RIA project proposed connected information systems of supply-chain members over a single platform, automated negotiation and planning optimization in freight transport, as well as virtual logistics networks. Although those projects rely on the reactiveness and communication characteristics of multi-agents, the exact sequence of necessary logistics actions in advance is lacking.

Success in collaborative logistics goes beyond connecting information systems of supply-chain members and information sharing together with the valorization between relevant authorities (AEOLIX-RIA) or developing the regulatory framework and governance model (GECKO), as well as achieving policy integration Synchro-Net or MOVE21.

In order to develop a robust systemic framework for logistic virtual platforms for the control and synchronization of widely distributed logistics components, the above-mentioned aspects of complexity and uncertainty provide the essential knowledge for achieving the optimum level of integration, harmonization and optimization.

Additionally, to map diverse factors that may determine a hindering effect, an analysis using PESTLE [40] was carried out, summarizing the political (P), economic (E), social (S), technological (T), legal (L) and environmental (E) frequently identified barriers paired with their anticipated temporal effect.

From the political point of view (P), the reluctance of the freight transport sector to implement stricter regulations towards carbon neutrality on transport node owners is one of the most frequently identified barriers, but the reduction in the barrier’s effect over time is expected. Moreover, platforms need standards, interaction norms and proper governance.

From the economic point of view (E), huge investments are required to build transport infrastructure across the EU so as to facilitate the application of innovations, since this barrier’s effect over time is expected to be continuous.

From the social point of view (S), one of the most critical issues facing the logistics industry is workforce shortages—including an aging workforce in the logistics sector, unable to use new digital services. This is an obvious trend with the expected exacerbation of the barrier’s effect over time. While automation and robotics are expanding—simplifying complex tasks and removing manual paperwork—the need for skilled personnel will never be replaced.

The transport (T) analysis showed that the major barriers are the failure to standardize the data format to describe cargo and logistics services, the lack of uptake by logistic service providers, logistics service buyers and transport hubs and the lack of applicability of technology to specific needs of intermodal transport, together with corridor-based transport services. However, in this field, there is an expected significant reduction over time.

From the legal point of view (L), the lack of harmony between local, national and EU-level policies and ambition paired with the fact that there is no legal framework that deals with data generated from new and innovative sources seems to be the most frequent identified barrier, with an expected reduction in this barrier’s effect over time. Moreover, collaboration among companies imposes market regulations (e.g., anti-competition laws), but such regulations might act as legal barriers to horizontal collaboration. For example, the European Union Antitrust Act [41] states that agreements and business practices that restrict competition are generally not allowed. However, such regulations are more concerned with collaboration among big companies, and collaborative solutions are allowed for small and medium-sized companies if they do not coordinate prices or capacity [42]. To mitigate this barrier, a neutral trustee party is needed in horizontal collaboration projects to take responsibility for the collaboration’s legal foundations, ensuring that the shared data remain strictly confidential [39].

Finally, from the environmental point of view (E), the alignment with the goals for emission reduction, noise reduction and space use is still missing, but concerted efforts are foreseen in order to significantly reduce this gap over time.

6. Platform-Based Business Model for Logistic Services

6.1. Definition of Platform-Based Business Models for Logistic Services

Platforms are critical components of modern ecosystems. The basic condition for the existence of a platform is that the elements of the ecosystem depend upon common standards and interfaces [43].

A digital platform is defined as “a building block, providing an essential function to a technological system—which acts as foundation upon which other firms can develop complementary products, technologies or services” [44].

The platform business model focuses on creating value by facilitating, organizing and managing social, as well as economic, interactions [45] and, unlike a more “traditional” business model, hardly ever has as a component of a tangible product sold through a traditional sales channel [46].

In a simplistic definition, platform-based business models are tools that use digitalization with the purpose of optimizing the use of resources and reducing the costs of all participants in the logistics chain, creating scenarios in which any actor can play one or multiple roles. Through the platforms, matches are made between users and providers in a multi-sided model, and, as a result, a network effect is created. Their main function is to reduce search and matching costs.

They are similar to marketplaces, bringing together the main actors such as producers, logistic services providers from 1PL to 5 and 6 PL and customers creating an ecosystem of partners, but they present many differences compared to traditional fixed and linear value chains with which companies are used in the traditional logistics chain.

The key functions generating added value consist of facilitating interaction, collaboration and transaction of the services offered on the platform, by coordinating operations together with building trust.

The digitalization of the physical transport infrastructure and the introduction of cyber-physical systems are elements that traditionally were not required in the configuration of such a model, making it easy, from the point of view of technology, to develop such tools.

The major challenge for any such platform is to build trust as well as to summon a critical mass of transport service providers to make such platforms a reality. Due to network effects, the value of such platforms depends on and increases with the number of participants [20].

6.2. The Main Drivers and Dimensions

Similar to the main functions of a business model, identified earlier in Section 3, the main dimensions for a platform-based business model for logistic services are listed in

Table 4. Dimensions of a platform-based business model for logistic services.

Questions/Drivers	Dimensions of a Platform-Based Business Model for Logistic Services
What activities should be performed? Which stakeholders perform the activities? How are they performed? When? Where (at what level)? What resources are needed?	Articulates the value proposition Identifies a market segment Specifies the revenue generation mechanism Defines the structure of the value chain Estimates the cost structure and profit potential Describes the position of the firm within the value network Formulates the competitive strategy

, linked to the identified drivers, representing the basis for the development of a business model.

There is no consensus framework in regard to platform-based business models for logistic services and little agreement on the activities that are important in business models which should therefore be performed, such as who performs the activities, how they are performed, when they are performed, where (at what level) and what level of resources are needed [21].

Business modelling can take the form of tools used for innovation [47,48] using methods aimed towards designing digital business models [49].

Innovation is the key element that determines the dynamics of these models. Among the main drivers of innovation, it is worth mentioning the servitization of previously product-based business models [50], the development of use-based models paired with the digitalization of the economy.

There are several business model innovations that focus on the structural organization of businesses, facilitating horizontal and/or vertical cooperation or integration. Digital business models are based on the use of digital technologies to generate value [20].

6.3. Integrating Framework for Platform-Based Business MODELS for Sustainable Logistics (PBM-SL)

Various authors produce conceptual tools for assisting users in designing business models [21,48,49]. Some relevant examples are the business model canvas [19], the business model navigator [51] and the unified framework of the business model concept [52].

The integrated framework model that we propose is structured in three layers. The first layer consists of a four-part subdivision of the business model concept, more precisely, value proposition, value architecture, value network and value finance, as shown in Figure 2.

In the second layer, each of the four parts previously identified is assimilated with the four steps, Step 1 to Step 4, allowing granularity along the multiple dimensions of a platform-based business model for logistic services: it is also built on specific sub-criteria, elements and competing options of platform-based business models, identified for logistics.

Finally, a third layer containing Step 5 needed to integrate sustainability issues is proposed. The sustainability issues address the value proposition subdivision.

• Step 1—Value Proposition

Central to this step is to identify a clear customer value proposition [53], that typically consists of a mix of products and services which provide value to a customer segment [23]. This part should consider the below specific sub-criteria elements and competing options, detailed in

Table 5. Key offering fields for business models.

	Key Offering
1	Transport	Planning and execution of the transport of physical goods.
2	Warehousing	Planning the process of storing goods until they are ready for transport to retailers, distributors or customers, efficiently managing inventory and optimizing the shipment process.
3	Planning and administration	Obtaining and operating on relevant supply-chain information and then constructing a plan to secure a constant availability of goods, while ensuring they reach your customers as quickly as possible.
4	Management tools	Tools capable of managing the logistic processes in a continuous, integrated and optimized manner, providing real time visibility of cargo and on the procedures taking place.
5	Data services	Provides the basis for the future automatic control of logistics processes within a transparent value chain. Big data analysis is becoming increasingly important, especially when it comes to forecasting demand or capacity.
6	Technology	Allows the management of the flows of goods starting from manufacturing and production all the way to the end consumer, as quickly and efficiently as possible. It involves both machinery and vehicles together with computing software.

,

Table 6. User’s value.

	Main Value for User
1	Optimization and process management	Systematic approaches are applied for maximum efficiency, effectiveness and quality.
2	Freight consolidation	Boost profitability by significantly cutting costs and leading to more sustainable supply chains—carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are reduced.
3	Visibility	Provides cargo managers visibility into all processes and elements of the supply chain, including on customers, giving a clear view of the inventory and activity.
4	Matching/ intermediation	Used for bringing together all of the participants in the transportation value chain and making matches between users and providers.
5	Information management	Used for decision-making value creation for all of the participants in the transportation value chain.
6	Comparison/ booking	Used for selection of services, identifies potential solutions to the key offering, provides a list of options and allows reservation.
7	Tracking services	Used for location and tracing goods and/or products in transit. GPS sensors, used for geographical tracking, optical scanners and RFID used for cargo movements.

,

Table 7. User categories.

	User Type
1	Logistics services providers	Companies that organize and manage all aspects of the shipment of the cargo. There are various terms to refer to types of logistics service providers: transport ser-vice providers, carriers, freight forwarders, warehouse service providers, multimodal transport operators, LSPs.
2	Infrastructure providers	Companies that run public and private physical structures such as roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids and telecommunications
3	Freight hub and terminal operators	Can be found in the form of maritime and inland ports, railway terminals, airports, road terminals, logistics platforms and urban hubs, conditioned so freight can be transferred from one mode of transport to another.
4	Shippers and forwarders	Owners of the cargo that needs to be shipped, also called material suppliers, manufacturers, vendors and distributors.

and

Table 8. Digitalization aspects.

	Digitalization
1	Information management	Systematic approaches used to aggregate, analyze, validate and display data from all levels of the logistics system.
2	Optimizations	Solutions applied in order to develop and propagate the local and/or global efficient and cost-effective plan, to organize and execute the movement of goods and services from one location to another. They have a positive impact on every step of the supply chain.
3	Advanced analytics	Provides companies with means to obtain value from an increasingly massive amount of data and gain powerful competitive and cooperation advantages.
4	AI generative algorithms	Unsupervised and semi-supervised machine-learning algorithms that enable computers to analyze trends, patterns, relationships and structures and to generate micro-level solutions and macro-level supply and demand scenarios.
5	Information and communication technologies (ICT)	An interconnected ecosystem that integrates ICT hardware and software, as well as manages services and a wide range of entities—including third-party vendors, suppliers, service providers and contractors.
6	Intelligent transportation system (ITS) technologies	Technologies, applications or platforms that control, manage or improve the quality and performances of transport systems, increasing the operational efficiency of the supply-chain management.

.

Key offering fields of business models for sustainable logistics include one/a mix of the following: transport, warehousing, planning and administration, management software, data services and technology.

The main value for the user includes one/a mix of the following: optimization and process management, freight consolidation, visibility, matching/intermediation, information management, comparison/booking and tracking services.

User type identification is of great importance as business models are developed in order to serve the interests of the various players in the field of logistics. The stakeholders involved in the same business could find themselves in a relation of cooperation but as well in a situation of competition. Although they are willing to work together, the limits up to which each is willing to disclose sensitive information must be identified and carefully balanced in order to establish trust among players. The main categories of users for which they find their applicability are presented in Table 7.

Digitalization concerns one/a mix of the following: information management, simple optimizations, advanced analytics, AI generative algorithms, information and communication technologies (ICT) and/or intelligent transportation system (ITS) technologies. Digital services subsume all other digitally provided services, such as descriptive or predictive analytics. The novel models are focused on digital platform business models. From the main advantages of digitalization, it is worth mentioning the deeper customer experience, better decision-making results, more targeted selling and innovation guiding. Moreover, such models have as a main characteristic the fact that they are flexible, paired with the idea that additional products and solutions can be easily adjoined and combined to provide a wider, more suitable and dedicated solution to meet the customer needs.

• Step 2—Value Architecture

The overall infrastructure and logistics of the business guided by the principles of supply-chain management lead to the construction of the value architecture. Central to this step is to identify the technological and organizational infrastructure used to deliver products and services to customers [54]. This part considers the below specific sub-criteria elements and competing options, detailed in

Table 9. Capabilities concept.

	Capabilities	Logistic Management
1	Orchestration	Systematic approaches are used to seamlessly integrate technologies with people and processes to run real-time actions in an intelligent, optimized and efficient manner.
2	Control	Solutions are applied in order to enable the exploitation and the rationalization of reserves. It refers to resource control in terms of partial or total ownership of the required logistic resources.
3	Network connectivity	Provides solutions to link manufacturers, suppliers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers so as to make the network efficient by effectively handling customer demand.

,

Table 10. Transactions concept.

	Transactions	Platform Type
1	Digital marketplace	A platform that matches demand and supply to help ensure work efficiency in logistics, integrating different companies and allowing them to choose between their provided services. Everything is gathered in one place and the output of choosing the right service becomes really convenient.
2	Comparison/booking Platform	A platform that allows the comparison of proposed logistic services and/or resources in advance, thus determining customers request to reserve goods, storage space or services provided by various suppliers.
3	Digital service platform	Provides digital solutions and acts as an intermediary and modular component composed of resources, capabilities and digital services [55].
4	SaaS platform	Software-as-a-service solutions provide online software products for a negotiated user fee in private or in public cloud infrastructures [56].

,

Table 11. Relationships concept.

	Relationships
1	Intracompany	Solutions applied for logistic processes happening in-house, ensuring work efficiency by integrating and harmonizing internal services and resources.
2	Intercompany	Solutions applied for logistic processes between companies, ensuring work efficiency by integrating and harmonizing external services and resources.
3	Overarching	Solutions for planning and control of the entire ecosystem in which shippers, logistics service providers and all users should closely collaborate to reach efficient logistics and supply-chain operations.

and

Table 12. Source data.

	Source Data
1	Tracked and generated	Selecting specific metrics and events to track, then collecting, organizing and analyzing the resulting data. In the process, data are generated to perform optimization, improve business performance, customer experience and more.
2	Customer	Organizing and analyzing customer data collected during every interaction, enhancing the performance and the quality for the provided service.
3	External	Building external datasets from continuous interaction with data drawn from the broader environment in order to predict risks that might expose the supply-chain operations, thus increasing the prospect of mitigation measures.

.

Capabilities mainly refer to logistics management and concern one/a mix of the following: orchestration, control and network.

Transactions for platform-based business models derive directly from the characteristics of the platform type. The main categories are digital marketplace, comparison/ booking platform, digital service platform and SaaS platform.

Relationships: intracompany, intercompany, overarching.

Source data are used by digital services subsuming all other digitally provided services, such as descriptive or predictive analytics. They can be tracked and generated, customer, external or multiple.

Data are at the core of the sustainability improvements as an asset and value ex-changed (core interactions) between the parties. From the technology subsystem perspective, the sustainability transition requires improved data-sharing tools/platforms, which create increased visibility in the Scope 3 emissions. This increased visibility will work as a first step to support system-level change. In order to increase the role of emissions in the procurement processes, emissions need to be visible already when the supplier selection is done.

• Step 3—Value Network

Central to this step is to enable close relationships between customers and other stakeholders in order to improve the equilibrium between production and consumption as well as to identify the totality of actors related to the creation of the value proposition [18]. Specific supply channels for value negotiation, the designated players and roles, as well as the type of collaboration are part of this step [54]. This part takes into account the below specific sub criteria elements and competing options, detailed in

Table 13. Scale.

	Geographical Scale
1	Local	The coverage area is limited to a smaller, local scale, and, consequently, the number of participants and the complexity of relationships is limited.
2	Regional	The coverage area increases, and so does the number and type of interactions.
3	Global	Broader, global environment, a drastic increase in the complexity of the problems, due to extended logistics networks and large data volumes.
4	Independent	Independent logistics operations for enterprises regardless of specific geographic boundaries.

,

Table 14. Transport mode.

	Transport Mode
1	Road	Road dedicated business models
2	Rail	Rail dedicated business models
3	Inland	Inland waterways dedicated business models
4	Waterways	Sea dedicated business models
5	Intermodal	Intermodal dedicated business models

,

Table 15. Value chain.

	Value Chain
1	Horizontal	Horizontal collaboration involves companies working at the same level of the supply chain. A group of competing companies, i.e., shippers, carriers or receivers, agrees to collaborate on their logistic and transport activities [57].
2	Vertical	Vertical collaboration involves companies working at different levels of the supply chain [58]. Shippers or freight receivers outsource their services via long-term contracts to freight carriers, known as vertical integration [59].

,

Table 16. Pricing mechanism.

	Pricing Mechanism
1	Price-based	Cost-based pricing focuses on internal factors, and it ’does not consider either customer demand or competition.
2	Demand-based	It focuses on establishing prices through the lens of fluctuations in customer demand. Customers may be willing to pay different prices for the same product or service in different scenarios. The main focus is placed on how the value of a product is perceived by the customer, which is why the method is also called customer-based pricing.

and

Table 17. Revenue models.

	Revenue Models
1	Commission	Variable-pay remuneration for services rendered or products sold.
2	Charging for access	Charging for access to a community of users who have joined the platform not in order to interact with producers but for other unrelated reasons.
3	Fees	Charging a transaction fee is a powerful way of monetizing the value created by the platform without hampering the growth of network effects.
4	Pay per use	Payment model in which the customer pays for using the services.

.

Geographical scale. Local, regional, global, independent.

Transport mode. A detailed conceptualization for dedicated transport modes’ business models requires very specific detailing, which in this context is contrary to succinctness. Transportation is an integral part of supply-chain operations and a significant source of emissions caused within the EU. The recent emission reports indicate that despite the continuous efforts in the transportation sector to reduce their direct emissions, the results from the supply-chain perspective remain rather modest. An elaborate assessment of different transport modes and their sustainability now and in the future is needed so as to identify the sustainability impact of the main current transport modes and which new modes are arising at the macro and micro levels paired with the identification of the main technologies under development together with their expected impacts and their applications. Depending on the mode of transport to which the model is addressed, the following types of models can be identified as shown in Table 14.

Value chain. Collaboration is an old practice in the supply chain and can be mainly classified into vertical and horizontal referring to cooperation in the supply chain (see Table 15). The supply-chain management relies on parties’ logistics (e.g., 4PL service providers and beyond).

• Step 4—Value Finance

The equal distribution of economic costs and benefits among all actors involved is the last stage that must be taken into account when designing a business model for sustainable logistics. Central to this step is to provide a dimension considering both the stream of revenues, as well as the cost structure [52]. This part takes into account the below specific sub-criteria elements and competing options, as detailed in Table 16 and Table 17.

Pricing mechanism is mainly price-based or demand-based [60].

Revenue models consist of one of the following: commission, subscription plans, customized, fees, pay per use. Given the differences among users, their economic status, their motivations, their objectives, their incentives and the differing forms and amounts of value they derive from the platform, decisions about whom should be charged can be complex—especially since every decision taken about one user category impacts others in ways that may not be obvious [61].

• Step 5—Integrating Sustainability

Sustainability is primarily not a part of the value proposition, but concerted efforts are foreseen in order to significantly reduce this gap over time. It is important to identify how different sustainability dimensions are treated by stakeholders and partners, the scope of actions and the type of ’stakeholders’ involvement to better analyze their interests and expected contributions. Sustainability-related regulation is essential for achieving sustainability, as it sets up provisions, standards, limits and targets to align social and private goals.

The main regulations should be harmonized, especially regarding the control and mitigation of carbon emissions. These regulations are to be considered at the time of designing the platform-based business model for logistics.

Since the beginning of 2023, incoming EU regulations regarding minimum standards for EU Climate Transition Benchmarks and EU Paris-aligned Benchmarks demand large companies to also report their Scope 3 emissions. The ISO 14083 standard [62] came into effect, providing a globally aligned approach to quantifying and reporting greenhouse gas emissions in multimodal and global transportation chains. The new standard serves as the latest consensus for calculating and reporting logistics emissions, providing a reliable and consistent approach for all stakeholders involved. The reporting of emissions is also possible on a clearly defined aggregation level. Aggregation, in this case, means that transport legs and hub operations with similar characteristics are grouped and the aggregated emission intensity can be applied.

Our proposition is to insert, in the value proposition step of the integrative framework, sustainability issues in the form of emissions caused by subcontracting (Scope 3) among different platform solutions (see

Table 18. Sustainability.

	Sustainability
1	Scope 1 emissions	Primary emissions are those direct emissions that are owned or controlled by a company.
2	Scope 2 emissions	Emissions caused by an organization’s energy use; indirect emissions associated with the purchase of energy. Although Scope 2 emissions physically occur at the facility where they are generated, they are accounted for in an organization’s GHG inventory.
3	Scope 3 emissions	Emissions caused by subcontracting, indirect emissions, consequences of the activities of the company but which occur from sources not owned or controlled by it.

).

Solutions exist to deliver net zero for Scope 1 and 2 emissions, as an organization can source from renewable energy sources, transition to electric vehicles or identify other mixes. Scope 3 is often where the impact is, as for many businesses, Scope 3 emissions account for more than 70 percent of their carbon footprint. Little control can be applied to how Scope 3 emissions are addressed. Collaborative networks supervising solutions to reduce emissions with current suppliers or consider changes in the supply chain can be argued. However, in most areas, suppliers will have considerable influence on how emissions are reduced through their own purchasing decisions and provided services.

The novel models are focused on digital platform business models. From the main advantages of digitalization, it is worth mentioning the deeper customer experience, better decision-making results, more targeted selling and guided innovation. Moreover, such models have the main characteristic that they are flexible; in this way, additional products and solutions can be easily adjoined and combined to provide a wider, more suitable and dedicated solution so as to meet the customers’ needs.

Providing sustainable logistics services might be more expensive at least in the short run than providing services that do not aim to minimize emissions. In order to create successful business with sustainable logistics services, those sustainable services should be easily available, and the service providers should be able to prove the reliability and the level of produced emissions, as well as the used energy level and source.

7. Conclusions

The goal of identifying the elements and competing options in platform-based business models, as well as interrelating these elements through a tailored framework was achieved and the opportunity of integration of sustainability issues, in the form of emissions caused by subcontracting (Scope 3), was pursued. There is a clear possibility for establishing low-emission transport as a service category: consumers do not care how goods are transported, low-emission freight can be certified and added to legacy products and the customer groups can be clearly identified.

The results of the analysis of the most representative, as well as important, projects involving collaborative logistics, integrated logistic networks and climate neutrality from the major directions of research and industrial technology transfer led to contributions to the literature by clearly identifying key output areas and by analyzing and mapping various factors that may determine a hindering effect.

This research only provides a starting point in exploring platform-based business models for logistic services; yet there are plenty of limitations as well as possible extensions of this study to overcome with further research.

The proposed framework applies to a broad form of platform-based business models for logistics. But this breadth comes at the expense of depth: in-depth granular constructs will need to be developed for testable hypotheses, but these constructs may well be diverse for and across different business solutions.

Our proposition was to insert, in the value proposition step of the integrative framework, sustainability issues, in the form of emissions caused by subcontracting (Scope 3). Only a few attempts, yet those shy ones, for business models and processes for sourcing and offering multimodal low-emission transport chains are reported. This includes how to source low-emission freight and how to consolidate and offer multimodal freight paired with how the information should flow so that cargo can obtain a competitive advantage from using low-emission freight. The study may have to be extended to incorporate other dimensions of sustainability and it would certainly need to be more refined so as to allow the use of specific logistic mixes.

The proposed model has not yet been empirically illustrated with case studies, nor has a method of evaluation been proposed. At future stages of research, investigation and reporting by a case study would be quite useful as a foundation for ‘integrated’ research.

Specific business models dedicated to low-emission freight sourcing, comparing alternatives and the use of information on emissions in freight sales, as well as marketing paired with the progressing of the information exchange with authorities to support the decarbonization of freight, are to be tailored. This will facilitate the meeting of the supply and demand for low-emission freight on the highly fragmented logistic market. Establishing business models for enabling consumers to buy products with sustainable freight reduces emissions cost-efficiently and gives the participating companies a competitive advantage. Additionally, worldwide there is a clear and growing consumer demand for sustainable products.

As possible extensions of this study in further research, when sustainability solutions are integrated, we can expect business models to lead to major outputs for logistics networks, as well as to novel innovative solutions that have significant potential to reduce energy use and the emissions of supply-chain operations. Several of the most foreseen outputs are as follows:

• Indexes of logistics routes and services that are efficient in terms of energy, sustainability, distance and cost;
• Transport infrastructure corridor-level catalogues of low-emission transport and multimodal strategies and services to be included in the platform-based business models for sustainable logistics;
• CO₂ footprint calculation digital tools to estimate the footprint for freight delivery and to assign footprint shares in order to separate shipments in case of consolidated shipments (seamless cooperation between logistics network members).