Navigating Carbon Offsetting: How User Expertise Influences Digital Platform Engagement

Abstract

Exploring the nexus of technology and sustainability, this research delves into user engagement patterns on digital carbon offsetting platforms such as KlimaDAO. Drawing from the digital platform and storytelling literature, a set of hypotheses is put to the test using data from KlimaDAO’s initiative, which includes 1331 carbon offsets from 524 individuals. A stepwise logistic regression analysis confirms a curvilinear relationship: experts typically opt for a moderate level of offsetting, while the behavior of regular users spans a broad spectrum, from minimal to substantial offsetting. The analysis also confirms that experts are inclined to share their stories with a sense of optimism, whereas regular users seek out green credentials and prioritize high-quality carbon offsets. These insights not only enrich academic discourse but also have practical implications, underscoring the need to design carbon offsetting platforms that harness the positive narratives of experts while meeting the needs of regular users.

1. Introduction

The current climate emergency is a direct consequence of the Earth’s rising temperatures, primarily caused by the increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) [1]. This presents a crucial environmental challenge that requires immediate attention [2]. The actions of both individuals and organizations are key factors contributing to the escalation of GHG emissions [3,4]. There are numerous adverse effects associated with climate change, including extreme weather events, that require proactive responses [1]. Furthermore, areas such as public health, food security, and migration are significantly impacted by these changing climatic conditions [5].

The IPCC’s latest report in 2022 highlights that greenhouse gas emissions have been on the rise worldwide, posing a significant challenge to achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement [1]. This concerning trend emphasizes the urgent need for collaborative efforts from governments, civil society, and the private sector to effectively combat climate change [2,6]. Consequently, international regulations such as those established by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) play a vital role in addressing this global issue. Emission reduction strategies, such as carbon offsetting, have gained attention as a means to mitigate the effects of climate change [1].

The global collaboration required to achieve the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) outlined in the UN’s 2030 Agenda is crucial [7]. The SDGs are organized into five pillars: People, Prosperity, Planet, Peace, and Partnership. Within these pillars, specific goals address various aspects of climate change. SDG 13 falls under the Planet pillar and is particularly important in addressing this challenge. Other pillars include SDGs related to social development, economic growth, peace and justice, and cooperation among nations.

The European Green Deal sets a target for the EU to become carbon-neutral by 2050 [8]. This initiative is in line with the goals of the 2030 Agenda, which prioritize decarbonization and ecological transition. Additionally, the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive, implemented in 2023, aims to standardize sustainability practices across Europe [7], through its extensive set of environmental, social, and governance indicators audited. Governments set three carbon policies for firms in the supply chain, which are carbon cap, carbon tax, and cap and trade [9]. Furthermore, organizations need to easily be able to be carbon-neutral or -zero in order to satisfy their corporate social responsibility [10].

Carbon platforms have emerged as a key tool in assisting individuals and organizations in monitoring and managing their carbon emissions [11]. However, it is important to understand that there may be differences between expert users and regular users in their utilization of these platforms, as platforms tend to leverage the knowledge of expert users [12]. Equally important is the awareness of climate change in our daily lives and practices, including our reliance on digital technologies and information management, which have been recognized as crucial contributors to energy consumption and carbon emissions [3,13].

This paper confronts the pressing issue of the climate emergency, emphasizing the escalating greenhouse gas emissions [3]. To mitigate these effects, collective action is imperative [4,14]. The study examines the role of voluntary carbon offsets, which notably support specific SDGs, thereby advancing environmental sustainability. The significance of storytelling in climate action is underscored, as it crafts influential narratives surrounding the climate emergency that overcome the complex nature of the problem. Furthermore, the paper delves into the nuances of digital platforms designed for carbon offsetting, investigating the disparities between expert and regular users. A research gap reveals diverse climate actions on platforms contingent on user expertise (see Section 1.3). This gap is further probed in the hypothesis development in Section 2. The paper scrutinizes how digital platforms address climate challenges for both expert and regular users in Section 2.1 and draws upon the storytelling literature to elucidate these issues in Section 2.2. A natural experiment from KlimaDAO’s carbon offsets, a prominent digital platform, is detailed in the methodology in Section 3. The hypotheses are rigorously tested in the Results section. The paper culminates with a comprehensive discussion (Section 5) and a conclusion (Section 6).

1.1. The Climate Emergency and the Correlation between Voluntary Carbon Offsets and Specific SDGs

As the climate emergency continues to escalate, the correlation between voluntary carbon offsets and specific SDGs becomes increasingly important. The climate emergency and the SDGs are interconnected, particularly the Planet pillar (SDGs 6, 12, 13, 14, and 15), as described in

Table A1. Items and associated description for axis planet.

SDG Item	Description
SDG 6	Clean water and sanitation (ensure the availability and quality of water and its adequate sustainable management and sanitation for all).
SDG 12	Responsible production and consumption (minimize the consumption of natural resources and toxic materials used and reduce the generation of waste and pollutants throughout the production and consumption process).
SDG 13	Climate action (take urgent action to combat climate change and its effects, strengthening resilience, improving education and environmental awareness, meeting the commitments of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and increasing the capacity for effective planning and management in relation to climate change).
SDG 14	Life below water (conserve and sustainably use oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development, as they regulate the global ecosystem by absorbing heat and CO2 from the atmosphere).
SDG 15	Life on land (sustainably manage forests, fight desertification, stop and reverse land degradation and stop the loss of biodiversity, to provide food, materials, and products necessary for subsistence).

in Appendix B. This pillar encompasses challenges such as ensuring access to clean water resources, implementing efficient waste management systems, promoting environmental education initiatives, and conserving both marine and terrestrial ecosystems [15,16]. Achieving these goals necessitates global cooperation among diverse stakeholders ranging from individuals to organizations [16,17]. Additionally, Chen et al. [13] establishes a direct link between carbon offset mechanisms and other SDGs, suggesting how carbon offsetting can contribute to other SDG goals (i.e., no poverty, gender equality, affordable and clean energy, decent work and economic growth, and partnerships for the goals).

Amidst the urgent need to address the climate emergency, there are additional challenges that require our attention, such as promoting sustainable energy and cities [1]. It is important to acknowledge that individuals and businesses can take responsibility for the climate emergency by offsetting their carbon emissions through various platforms [18]. One of the goals is to achieve decarbonization and effectively combat climate change [5,7,19]. Therefore, improving carbon offset platforms, which encourage more committed behavior from all users regardless of expertise level, can significantly facilitate collective climate action.

A way to reach decarbonization is by educating citizens [18]. This education can take the form of providing clear and accessible information about the carbon offsetting process, the impact of individual actions on carbon emissions, and easy access in terms of pricing and information to carbon offsets. Digital platforms allow the private sector to advance measures for climate action [20,21], following initiatives outlined by specific SDGs. These SDGs, through platforms, promote sustainable infrastructure, financial resources, and timely alliances in developing countries (SDGs 9.1, 17.3, 17.16, 17.17), as described in

Table A2. Specific SDGs aligned with voluntary carbon offsets.

SDG Sub-Item	Description
SDG 9.A	Facilitate the development of sustainable infrastructure in developing countries.
SDG 17.3	Mobilize financial resources for developing countries.
SDG 17.16	Improve the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development.
SDG 17.17	Foster effective partnerships.
SDG 15.A	Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystems and biodiversity.
SDG 15.B	Finance and incentivize sustainable forest management.
SDG 16.6	Create effective and transparent and accountable institutions.
SDG 16.10	Ensure public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms.

. They also contribute to preserving biodiversity and ecosystems (SDGs 15.A, 15.B), promoting more responsible institutions (SDG 16.6), and fostering information transparency (SDG 16.10). In other words, with compensatory investments, individuals and companies take responsibility for their emissions, promoting emission reduction and carbon removal [11,16,21].

1.2. The Power of Narratives in the Climate Emergency

Narratives, or structured stories, are powerful tools in shaping our understanding and response to the climate emergency [22,23]. They transform complex scientific data into relatable stories, stirring emotions and driving action. With the rise in digital media, video narratives have become particularly influential, often more so than images or text alone [24].

Our emotional responses play a significant role in how we address the climate emergency [25,26]. Narratives harness these emotions, personalizing the crisis and emphasizing its urgency. By sharing real-life impacts of climate change, stories foster empathy, pushing us beyond mere statistics to seek tangible solutions [23,27,28]. Narratives bridge this gap, using analogies, metaphors, and relatable characters to make the science accessible. One example is the relevance of effectively communicating the threats of a significant increase in temperatures in the short term. The threat of a two-degree Celsius rise in planet temperatures by 2100 underscores the urgency of understanding climate science [1,2]. However, the dense data can be daunting for many [29], thus narratives are essential to seek societal change.

In essence, narratives are intertwined with our cultural values. They can be used to align climate action with these values, reinforcing our inherent commitment to sustainability [25]. They not only depict potential futures but also guide informed decisions, making the abstract tangible. For instance, the narrative of regions becoming uninhabitable due to rising sea levels is compelling [30]. Yet, it is equally important to share stories from communities that are making a difference despite limited resources. Such narratives shape beliefs about our shared future [15,31,32]. An example of how narratives resonate with our cultural fabric can be seen in

Table A3. Examples of effective climate narratives.

Effect	Description
The “David Attenborough Effect”	Renowned natural historian Sir David Attenborough’s documentaries, such as “Planet Earth” and “Our Planet”, use compelling storytelling to showcase the beauty of the natural world while also addressing the challenges posed by climate change. By engaging audiences with breathtaking visuals and emotionally resonant narratives, these documentaries foster empathy and a sense of responsibility for the planet.
Community Resilience Stories	Narratives that showcase communities coming together to adapt and mitigate the impacts of climate change can be inspiring and empowering. These stories demonstrate the tangible benefits of collective action and encourage others to take similar measures.
Futuristic Scenarios	Climate fiction, or “cli-fi”, explores potential futures in a world affected by climate change. Novels like Kim Stanley Robinson’s “New York 2140” or movies like “Snowpiercer” offer glimpses into dystopian or hopeful futures, encouraging reflection on the consequences of our actions today.
Corporate Responsibility Tales	Businesses and brands are increasingly using narratives to demonstrate their commitment to sustainability. By sharing stories about environmentally conscious practices, these entities can influence consumer behavior and encourage other businesses to follow suit.

in Appendix B.

Addressing the climate emergency, especially through carbon offsetting, is intricate. Narratives simplify this complexity, eliciting emotions and spurring collective action [23,33]. For instance, storytelling has empowered local decision-makers to address rising sea levels [1,34].

1.3. Users Offsetting Carbon in Digital Platforms

The widespread adoption of digital platform models in various industries [35,36] indicates their relevancy in the fight against the climate emergency. These platforms enable communication, knowledge sharing, and transactions among stakeholders, promoting collaborative efforts [36,37,38]. However, the expertise of users greatly affects the effectiveness and impact of these platforms, and organizations should leverage this expertise [12].

Effectively levering expert and regular users in carbon platforms is crucial for maximizing their potential impact on sustainability. Expertise refers to a deep understanding and proficiency in utilizing this ecosystem [39]. In the context of climate change, experts have the knowledge and abilities to leverage digital platforms for precise tracking, reporting, and validation of carbon emissions as well as initiatives aimed at offsetting these emissions. Similarly, research has shown that climate change engagement is greater among those more attached to their local areas, supporting the notion that place attachment influences engagement in climate actions [4]. The literature on collaborative crowd sourcing, such as idea competitions, highlights the significance of incorporating both experts and regular users in the platform to enhance its effectiveness, as their behaviors differ [40].

Effective communication and collaboration can be challenging in cross-domain collaboration. Experts may face difficulties due to differences in their thought worlds and knowledge domains, which can create cognitive gaps and knowledge fault lines [41]. These barriers can hinder the coordination and integration of knowledge, potentially resulting in subpar performance [41]. Regular users bring diverse perspectives, experiences, and motivations to the carbon platforms [12,37].

Their engagement is essential for promoting widespread participation and behavior change towards carbon reduction. Their participation can contribute to the democratization of climate action and ensure that the platform caters to a wide range of user needs and preferences. Furthermore, regular users can serve as a source of innovation and creativity, bringing fresh ideas and perspectives to the table [40].

Research gap: Climate action on digital carbon offset platforms is performed differently by experts and regular individuals.

Further investigation is needed to understand how expertise impacts climate action initiatives on digital platforms and how to bridge the gap between experts and regular users. It is crucial to explore the differences between these two groups to create an inclusive digital environment that fosters collective climate action. This exploration helps leverage digital platforms as effective tools for addressing climate change and achieving sustainability goals outlined in global agendas such as the UN’s 2030 Agenda [7] and the European Green Deal [8].

2. Hypothesis Development

Prior research has emphasized the role of digital platforms in facilitating collaboration and interaction among various actors, including experts, consumers, and external stakeholders. Various studies suggest that digital platforms can facilitate knowledge integration and coordination, thus accelerating the process of innovation [41]. Storytelling and information sharing on digital platforms are effective in engaging users and fostering behavior change for sustainability [23,33].

2.1. Digital Platforms in Carbon Offsets

Digital platforms, defined as technologically mediated tools, facilitate interactions among diverse user groups [37,38]. These platforms have a layered architecture, influencing their organizational structures, and drive unique economic dynamics [35,42]. Most research is on modularity, socio-technical, and economic dimensions while also considering factors like ownership, governance, and objectives. A key element is trust, which plays a central role in these platforms and can be fostered through transparency, user ratings, or by implementing a centralized oversight mechanism.

There are two main types of digital platforms: transaction platforms and innovation platforms [12]. Transaction platforms, such as online marketplaces and app stores, serve as intermediaries for buying and selling goods or services. Innovation platforms, like Android and iOS, provide a foundation for third-party developers to create innovative applications. These platforms leverage computational resources and digital data to generate value through diverse functionalities. They generate revenue primarily through licensing, commissions, or advertising [43].

Most climate action digital platforms fall in the category of transaction platforms. Transaction platforms, such as Alibaba.com and Uber, serve as connectors between different groups of users [12]. These platforms derive their value from the increasing number of users they attract [43]. Their primary goal is to enable efficient matching and reduce friction in order to facilitate information and service exchanges among third parties. They generate revenue through fees for access, commissions, or advertising. While these transaction platforms offer numerous benefits that contribute to societal progress, they also present challenges. For example, social media platforms like Facebook allow for collective action but introduce risks such as misinformation and surveillance. Similarly, sharing economy platforms like Gojek create new job opportunities but may exploit workers and neglect employment safeguards [44].

Over recent years, digital platforms have emerged as major players in various fields, including climate action, by leveraging their specialized capabilities to drive concrete solutions [37,38]. For example, platforms like Earth Hero (https://earthhero.com/ accessed on 3 January 2024) allow individuals to track and reduce their carbon footprints. Similarly, initiatives such as the Digital Climate Alliance (https://www.digitalclimate.io/ accessed on 3 January 2024) empower companies from different sectors to use digital tools for sustainability purposes. In addition, the United Nations (https://offset.climateneutralnow.org/ accessed on 3 January 2024) platform enables individuals and organizations to take climate action by supporting UNFCCC certified projects in developing countries. These platforms not only facilitate collaboration and knowledge sharing but also expedite the adoption of practices that promote resilience against climate change. As a result, they make substantial contributions towards environmental sustainability and global efforts for climate action. By bringing together diverse stakeholders with a shared goal of combating climate change, these platforms demonstrate the transformative potential of digital technology in addressing global challenges.

While carbon offset platforms hold promise as tools for addressing climate change, there exists a distinct difference in usage patterns between expert and regular users [12,40]. Notably, there may be significant disparities in both the quantity and quality of carbon offsets selected by expert users compared to their regular counterparts. This difference can be attributed to the deep knowledge and understanding that expert users have, while regular users often approach these platforms with a more immediate and direct need to offset their carbon footprint.

2.1.1. Quality of Carbon Offsets

Digital platforms have revolutionized the way carbon offsetting is approached, granting users transparent access to resources and user-friendly interfaces, as has happened in other industries [42,43]. Expert users take advantage of these sophisticated features, analytics, and data-driven insights alongside their specialized knowledge to make well-informed decisions [45]. Furthermore, expert users, being more cognizant of the potential for difficult “fuzzy accounting” in carbon offsets [14], might exhibit less concern about the precise quality of carbon offsets. Their expertise could lead them to understand the sometimes imprecise and inaccurate nature of these trade-offs, resulting in a more flexible approach to the quality of offsets they select. Thus, expert users select high quality or low quality differently based on their needs.

On the other hand, regular users approach these digital platforms with a fresh perspective [12]. They rely on the user reviews, ratings, and success stories available in the digital environment to guide their decision making. These regular users often trust the collective wisdom of the platform’s community and are more inclined to choose offsets that have received positive feedback and proven results [40]. Furthermore, regular users may integrate knowledge differently or seek different information without expert knowledge, so they must rely on externally validated quality markers [46]. In this way, the digital platform acts as a tool for quality assurance. Regular users depend on transparent reporting and peer recommendations within the platform to ensure that their contributions align with high standards. This reliance on digital validation and community-driven quality assurance supports our hypothesis that carbon emissions offsets associated with climate-related actions tend to be of higher quality for regular users compared to experts when it comes to online platforms.

Hypothesis 1.

Regular users on carbon platforms prioritize higher-quality carbon emissions offsets compared to expert users.

2.1.2. Number of Carbon Offsets

Carbon platforms have emerged as pivotal tools for both individuals and organizations, enabling them to monitor and mitigate their carbon emissions effectively Sipthorpe et al. [47]. These platforms extend beyond mere offsetting mechanisms; they are instrumental in disseminating knowledge and cultivating environmental awareness. Yet, the engagement with these platforms is not uniform across all user groups. Expert users, with their comprehensive understanding and skills, harness the full potential of these platforms. They proficiently track, report, and validate their emissions, navigating the platforms’ complexities with ease Rolland et al. [12]. This proficiency not only allows for more accurate carbon management but also fosters a more consistent and strategic approach to offsetting activities.

Conversely, regular users often face a steeper learning curve on digital platforms. Their interactions may be less frequent and less adept, possibly due to a lack of understanding or a sense of being overwhelmed by the technicalities involved. Despite this, their engagement is essential for broadening the reach of climate action initiatives. The motivations driving regular users to participate in carbon offsetting are diverse. Some are deeply committed to environmental stewardship, incorporating carbon offsetting into a broader, sustainable lifestyle and viewing it as a vital part of their contribution to addressing climate change. Others may engage on a more episodic basis, perhaps prompted by specific social events or influenced by their peers, treating carbon offsetting as a one-off activity rather than an ongoing commitment. This sporadic engagement often subsides as the motivating event or peer influence fades, indicating a more transient and less ingrained approach to environmental responsibility among this user group.

Hypothesis 2.

Expert users consistently engage in carbon offset activities with moderate frequency, while regular users’ participation is less predictable, either sporadic or very frequent, but rarely moderate.

2.2. Storytelling in Digital Platforms

In today’s digital age, storytelling stands out as a potent tool for sharing information, particularly about climate change [20]. As noted in Section 1.2, well-crafted narratives simplify intricate climate data, stirring emotions and spurring collective action [6]. Digital platforms amplify the accessibility and influence of these stories, reaching a broader audience [11].

Such platforms, defined by their tech-driven interfaces, bridge diverse users, promoting collaboration and knowledge exchange. They are more than just tools; they are thriving ecosystems built on trust. This trust is nurtured through transparent practices, user insights, and community engagement. In this evolving digital landscape, businesses face the challenge of embracing low-carbon solutions. Storytelling serves as a guide, steering users to make eco-friendly choices [6,26].

The art of digital storytelling has proven effective in captivating audiences [32]. While there is limited data-driven research on its direct impact on consumer behavior, real-world examples hint at its strength. Take Procter & Gamble’s sustainability campaign, for instance. It adeptly turns dense climate topics into engaging tales, underscoring the idea that meaningful change stems from stories that resonate.

Additionally, blending visuals with captivating narratives elevates user engagement. By customizing stories for distinct audiences, digital platforms can craft climate-centric messages that align with their values [27]. This tailored approach demystifies the overwhelming subject of climate change, making it more approachable. It is a tactic that holds special promise for digital carbon offset platforms, catering to a spectrum of users, from those eager to see the fruits of their contributions to individuals or organizations keen on expanding the climate dialogue [24,48].

2.2.1. Green Credentials

Regular users on digital platforms often give more importance to visible green credentials and concrete evidence of carbon offsets compared to expert users. This behavior is largely influenced by what is known as compensatory green beliefs—a concept where individuals partake in positive environmental actions to offset their less eco-friendly behaviors [14]. These regular users, possibly lacking in-depth understanding of the complexities in environmental trade-offs, generally seek simple, clear evidence of environmental benefits. Their preference for visible green credentials is driven by a desire for immediate, understandable proof that their actions contribute to environmental sustainability. They are more inclined towards tangible proofs, like certificates or visual representations of carbon offsets, which provide them with a sense of achievement and assurance about the effectiveness of their efforts.

In the context of digital platforms, the storytelling aspect significantly influences user perceptions and actions towards climate issues [25,31]. Narratives that emphasize green credentials, such as accounts of successful carbon offsetting projects, are particularly impactful for regular users. These narratives, coupled with user-friendly digital interfaces that showcase visible green credentials, play a vital role. They not only engage regular users but also build trust and encourage their active participation in climate action [15,23].

Hypothesis 3.

Regular users on digital platforms prioritize green credentials more than expert users.

2.2.2. Tonality of Communication

The significance of narratives, especially those crafted into engaging stories, is crucial in shaping perceptions and influencing decisions, particularly in the context of climate action. These narratives adeptly translate complex scientific concepts into emotionally resonant and relatable tales, thereby motivating individuals to engage in significant actions [22,28]. Beyond merely presenting data, these narratives offer a vivid portrayal of the real-life impacts of climate change and propose viable solutions. Utilizing literary devices such as analogies, metaphors, and compelling characterizations, they effectively demystify the complexities of climate science, making it accessible to a diverse audience. Importantly, these narratives do not solely focus on the negative aspects of climate change; rather, they often highlight positive initiatives and the potential for beneficial change, thus instilling hope and underscoring the possibility of progress in the face of challenges.

The impact of these narratives, particularly when disseminated via digital platforms, is greatly influenced by their tonality [15]. Users with in-depth expertise in climate science tend to use language that is both sophisticated and precise, reflecting a deep comprehension of the subject matter. Conversely, regular users, despite offering a variety of perspectives and experiences, may lack this level of expertise, resulting in a more varied tonal expression in their communications. This divergence in tonality is especially evident in asynchronous digital interactions, highlighting a distinct difference in communicative styles between these user groups. Consequently, this leads to the hypothesis that expert users on digital platforms are likely to adopt a more complex and optimistic tone, particularly in communications related to carbon offsetting.

Hypothesis 4.

Expert users on digital platforms tend to use a more positive tonality in communications regarding carbon offsetting, in contrast to regular users.

3. Methodology

3.1. Study Design

This research employs a natural experiment involving carbon offset activities on a digital platform named KlimaDAO, as illustrated in Figure A1. KlimaDAO is a decentralized autonomous organization leveraging blockchain technology to drive climate action by using tokenized carbon credits [11]. Participants in this event, named “Love Letter to the Planet”, had the choice to select different qualities of carbon offsets and could also share a message linked to their selection. This unique setup provided us with a valuable opportunity to validate the hypotheses.

KlimaDAO, a decentralized autonomous organization, is leading a transformation in the voluntary carbon markets by strategically using carbon offsets and credits. Utilizing blockchain technology, KlimaDAO tackles longstanding challenges in governance and product delivery in this field. Blockchain’s integration enables rapid growth and more decentralized decision making, key for promoting transparent and cost-effective trading of carbon credits. This approach is in line with current trends in carbon markets, where blockchain’s potential to enhance transparency and efficiency is increasingly acknowledged [47]. KlimaDAO’s primary goal is to incorporate cutting-edge carbon market technologies into emerging economies, thereby improving the liquidity, accessibility, and transparency of carbon credit transactions. This marks a significant step towards more open and reliable carbon trading platforms.

KlimaDAO presents a distinctive solution for offsetting carbon footprints. It goes beyond traditional offsetting methods by providing users with the ability to select their preferred quality of carbon assets. This choice promotes sustainability goals and allows individuals to contribute meaningful messages to the community. KlimaDAO uses these messages using storytelling techniques, as seen in Figure A2. The tool emphasizes the importance of considering both the quantity and quality of carbon offsets, encouraging informed decision making and transparency in addressing environmental concerns.

3.2. Data Collection

The current climate emergency has necessitated the adoption of innovative solutions to track, verify, and offset carbon emissions. One such solution is the utilization of decentralized platforms like the Polygon blockchain to build digital platform such as KlimaDAO. Carbon offset data has been published on the Polygon blockchain, a decentralized platform where data are stored in a manner that ensures their authenticity and integrity. Such platforms not only ensure data transparency but also provide a tamper-proof mechanism to verify the authenticity of the data.

Any person can access and verify the data directly on the Polygon chain via the following link: graphlooker.com. The data are collected from a real-world application without any intervention or manipulation by the researchers. The data were collected on 21 August 2023. They provide insights into carbon offsets that commenced on 2 March 2022 and continued until 11 August 2023.

3.3. Variables and Measurement

The study aims to understand the nuances of user engagement on digital platforms designed for carbon offsetting. To achieve this, several variables of interest were identified and operationalized as follows:

• Type of User. There were two categories of users: expert users and regular users. This differentiation occurs when the individuals personalize their name and align themselves with the KlimaDAO. To do this, they have to register their name, which requires some familiarity and a willingness to spend USD 100 for a domain. The process of acquiring a Klima domain is illustrated in Figure A3.
• Carbon Footprint. The carbon emissions associated with the user performed in the associated blockchain (i.e., Ethereum network) usage are contingent upon the degree and timing of network engagement. This quantification of carbon utilized by a user in correlation to their blockchain address was conducted utilizing the tool available at https://github.com/Offsetra/ethereum-emissions-calculator accessed on 12 August 2023.
• Quality of Offsets. The efficacy of carbon offsets can vary widely. For example, offsets associated with atmospheric carbon capture are often viewed as top-tier choices, whereas some might not be as dependable. KlimaDAO empowers users by allowing them to choose their desired carbon offset quality. Nature-based offsets such as MCO2, NCT, or NBO are recognized as premium options and are coded as “1”, while other options are coded as “0”. An average score is then determined for each user based on their transactions.
• Number of Offsets. The platform allows users to offset their emissions multiple times. This variable was measured by keeping track of the average number of instances in which a user participated in offsetting activities on the platform. It was subjected to a square root transformation to reduce skewness and variance.
• Green Credentials. Users can request proof of their offsets, as illustrated in Figure A4.
• Tonality of Communication. Users can send messages during the offsetting process. Examples of these messages are depicted in Figure A2 and Figure A4. The sentiments of these messages were evaluated using sentiment analysis methods to gauge their overall positive or negative tone. After assigning a tonality code to each transaction, an average sentiment score was computed for each user.

3.4. Usage of AI Tools in This Paper

Throughout the development of this paper, the authors employed ChatGPT to enhance the clarity and linguistic quality of the text. For instance, one of the uses of AI tools included translating sections originally written in Spanish into English. Additionally, the team utilized AI to convert tables from Microsoft Word into LaTeX format. Another application involved formatting the output from the statsmodels Python library into LaTeX. Moreover, the authors submitted English-written paragraphs to the AI for improvements in readability and to identify any logical inconsistencies. While certain suggestions from the AI were adopted, others were not. Following the use of this tool, the authors thoroughly reviewed and revised the content as necessary, assuming full responsibility for the final published material.

3.5. Statistical Analysis

In order to thoroughly examine the data and confirm the different hypotheses, a logistic regression was utilized. This approach enables the discerning of differences between a binary outcome (i.e., type of user, which is 1 for expert users and 0 for regular users). This technique also allowed us to control for the carbon footprint of each individual while testing the different hypotheses.

Data analysis was performed using Python v3.10.12, a widely used programming language recognized for its proficiency in data science and statistical analysis. Several Python libraries were utilized to process and analyze the data, including pandas for manipulating the data, numpy for numerical computations, and scipy and statsmodels for advanced statistical functions. To assess the sentiment of the messages, we employed the Vader library, which specializes in sentiment analysis and is known for its accurate assessment of text tonality.

The original dataset initially included 4030 offsets from 1660 entities. Upon removing test and nonsensical offsets, the dataset were reduced to 3211 offsets from 1580 entities. As this study focuses on individual behavior, offsets made by organizations were excluded due to their unique patterns. This further narrowed down the dataset to include 1331 offsets made by 524 individuals.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the dataset, highlighting key variables related to carbon offsetting by individuals.

Variable	Min	Max	Median	Mean	SD
$\left[1\right]$ Expert Users	0.00	1.00	0.00	0.20	0.40
$\left[2\right]$ Carbon Footprint	0.00	3,282,873	553	21,098	164,688
$\left[3\right]$ Quality of Offsets	0.00	1.00	0.00	0.31	0.43
$\left[4\right]$ Number of Offsets	1.00	10.05	1.00	1.36	0.83
$\left[5\right]$ Green Credentials	0.00	1.00	0.00	0.42	0.47
$\left[6\right]$ Tonality of Message	−1.00	1.00	0.33	0.39	0.55

presents descriptive statistics for this refined dataset.

Table 2. Correlation matrix displaying the relationship between variables, and its associated level of statistical significance (** for $p<0.01$, *** for $p<0.001$).

	[1]	[2]	[3]	[4]	[5]
$\left[1\right]$ Expert Users
$\left[2\right]$ Carbon Footprint	−0.02
$\left[3\right]$ Quality of Offsets	−0.29 ***	0.07
$\left[4\right]$ Number of Offsets	0.00	−0.02	0.13 **
$\left[5\right]$ Green Credentials	−0.30 ***	0.02	−0.01	0.01
$\left[6\right]$ Tonality of Message	0.21 ***	−0.00	−0.13 **	−0.07	−0.15 ***

provides the Pearson’s correlation matrix.

3.6. Data Availability

In the pursuit of transparency and reproducibility, the dataset utilized in this study will be made available upon the paper’s publication. It is worth noting that the dataset has been anonymized to ensure the privacy and confidentiality of the entities involved. Specifically, the addresses associated with the entities using the platform have been removed. This measure was taken to ensure that all data were anonymized and properly handled, aligning with ethical research standards. The code used for the various tests conducted in this study will also be shared upon publication.

4. Results

To rigorously assess the behavioral differences between expert and regular users on the digital carbon offset platform, we conducted a series of stepwise logistic regression analyses. These analyses were designed to empirically evaluate a set of hypotheses concerning the carbon offsetting behaviors of these two user groups. The initial control model accounted for the carbon footprint variable. This was followed by a series of increasingly complex models—H1, H2, H3, and the comprehensive full model—each representing a hypothesis being tested. The marginal effects of the variables across different models are detailed in

Table 3. Marginal effects for the different models in a logistic regression on expert users (* for $p<0.05$, ** for $p<0.01$, *** for $p<0.001$).

	Control	H1	H2	H3	Full
Variable	Model	Model	Model	Model	Model
$\left[2\right]$ Carbon	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
Footprint	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
$\left[3\right]$ Quality		−0.40 ***	−0.47 ***	−0.46 ***	−0.43 ***
of Offset		(0.07)	(0.08)	(0.07)	(0.07)
$\left[4\right]$ Number			0.15 **	0.18 ***	0.18 ***
of Offsets			(0.06)	(0.05)	(0.05)
(Number			−0.02 *	−0.02 **	−0.02 **
of Offsets)2			(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
$\left[5\right]$ Green				−0.28 ***	−0.26 ***
Credentials				(0.04)	(0.04)
$\left[6\right]$ Tonality					0.08 **
of Message					(0.03)
N	524	524	524	524	524
df residuals	522	521	519	518	517
df model	1	2	4	5	6
Log-likelihood	−259.56	−231.10	−227.22	−196.57	−193.27
Pseudo $R^2$	0.0	0.11	0.13	0.24	0.26

.

The results of the full model lend strong support to all four hypotheses, with significant p-values underscoring the robustness of the findings. Specifically, Hypothesis 1, which suggests that “Regular users on carbon platforms prioritize higher-quality carbon emissions offsets compared to expert users” is supported by a marginal effect of −0.43 *** (see Section 2.1.1). Hypothesis 2’s assertion that “Expert users consistently engage in carbon offset activities with moderate frequency, while regular users’ participation is less predictable, either sporadic or very frequent, but rarely moderate” is evidenced by a primary-term marginal effect of 0.18 *** and a squared-term effect of −0.02 ** (see Section 2.1.2). The Hypothesis 3, positing that “Regular users on digital platforms prioritize green credentials more than expert users” is validated by a marginal effect of −0.26 *** (see Section 2.2.1). Finally, Hypothesis 4, which states that “Expert users on digital platforms tend to use a more positive tonality in communications regarding carbon offsetting, in contrast to regular users” is confirmed with a marginal effect of 0.08 ** (see Section 2.2.2).

The statistical significance of each model compared to its predecessor was determined using a likelihood ratio test, as shown in

Table 4. Likelihood ratio test results (* for $p<0.05$, ** for $p<0.01$, *** for $p<0.001$).

Comparison	${\mathit{\chi }}^2$	df	p-Value
H1 model vs. control model	56.91	1	***
H2 model vs. H1 model	7.77	2	*
H3 model vs. H2 model	61.30	1	***
Full model vs. H3 model	6.59	1	**

. The results indicate that each subsequent model provided a statistically significant improvement over the one before it. The H1 model, which introduced additional variables beyond the control model’s carbon footprint, showed a marked improvement, with a chi-square value of 56.91 ***, indicating a significant difference with one degree of freedom. The H2 model further built on H1, yielding a chi-square of 7.77 * with two degrees of freedom. The H3 model, compared to H2, showed a substantial increase in chi-square value to 61.30 ***, with one degree of freedom. Finally, the full model, encompassing all the variables, also demonstrated a significant improvement over the H1 model, with a chi-square of 6.59 **, with one degree of freedom.

A battery of statistical diagnostics was conducted to validate the suitability of the proposed logistic regression model for the data. Multicollinearity was scrutinized by ensuring that the correlation coefficients between variables did not exceed 0.3, as presented in Table 2, and by verifying that the variance inflation factor (VIF) remained below the threshold of 5. The model’s specification was examined using a link test, which found no indications of mis-specification. Additionally, the potential relevance of interaction and polynomial terms was investigated, yet none contributed significantly to the model.

Residual analysis revealed that 96.5% of the standardized residuals fell within the range of –2 to 2. Outliers beyond these bounds were subjected to a thorough investigation, revealing that none exhibited Dbeta values exceeding 1, all maintained leverage statistics in proximity to their expected values, and none presented with high Cook’s distance measures. This review of the residuals suggests an absence of influential data points that could distort the model’s results.

5. Discussion

In the face of an increasing climate emergency, digital platforms have emerged as powerful tools for facilitating climate-focused initiatives. These platforms play a crucial role in connecting individuals and organizations with actionable measures to address climate issues. The effectiveness of these platforms hinges on their user-centric design and the quality of experiences they provide. Research emphasizes the importance of enhancing user experiences to drive collective action on climate change. Additionally, understanding the dynamics between expert users and regular users on these platforms is key to unlocking their full potential. In this section, we will explore three key areas: carbon offsets and SDGs, the role of digital platforms, and storytelling’s impact on climate action.

5.1. Carbon Offsets and SDGs

The pressing climate emergency, characterized by escalating greenhouse gas emissions, necessitates a holistic strategy to address its profound impacts [6]. This urgency is rooted in the significant rise in GHG emissions due to both individual and organizational behaviors. These emissions contribute to diverse challenges, including extreme weather events, public health crises, and migration patterns. The essence of sustainability lies in meeting current needs without compromising future generations’ ability to meet theirs. In this context, the SDGs provide a crucial framework for balancing developmental needs with environmental stewardship [7].

Carbon offset platforms, particularly those focusing on the Planet axis of the SDGs, are instrumental in pursuing climate neutrality. These platforms align with the United Nations’ efforts to combat climate change, allowing individuals and organizations to contribute to projects that adhere to the Planet SDGs. The UN carbon offset platform exemplifies a global cooperative effort, showcasing a variety of projects aimed at sustainable development, including renewable energy initiatives, reforestation, and waste management programs. Since 2015, the United Nations Carbon Footprint Compensation Platform has facilitated over 2 million certified emission reductions (CERs), signifying concrete actions taken to mitigate carbon footprints.

However, the effectiveness of these carbon offsetting initiatives can be influenced by the complex nature of environmental compensatory beliefs and actions. Individuals and organizations often engage in “fuzzy accounting” [14], where the precise impact of their environmentally positive actions versus their negative ones is not always clear or accurately quantified. This complexity can lead to a mismatch between the perceived and actual effectiveness of carbon offsetting efforts. Therefore, it is crucial for carbon offset platforms and policies to address this ambiguity by providing clearer guidelines and more transparent methodologies for calculating the impact of offsets. This approach would align the actions taken under these platforms more closely with the intended outcomes of the SDGs, ensuring that contributions towards offsetting carbon emissions are as effective and impactful as possible.

5.2. Digital Platforms

Digital platforms have become indispensable tools in the realm of carbon offsetting, serving as a nexus between intention and tangible action, as seen in the KlimaDAO platform [11]. These platforms connect individuals and organizations to crucial climate initiatives, offering a streamlined approach to carbon management. However, the efficacy of these platforms is deeply intertwined with their usability and the user experiences they provide. Recent insights from Sipthorpe et al. [47] indicate that blockchain technology, integral to these platforms, enhances transparency and trust—key factors influencing user engagement.

The research reveals a notable distinction in preferences between regular and expert users of carbon platforms. Regular users place greater emphasis on high-quality carbon emissions offsets compared to their expert counterparts. This preference may be influenced by the positive same-side network effect, whereby the value of the platform for regular users increases as more regular users join [37], due to a signaling process. Regular users, who lack the in-depth knowledge of expert users, often rely on externally validated indicators of quality to inform their decisions [46].

In addition, regular users demonstrate a preference for tangible proof of offsets, considering it as a means to establish trust and enhance the digital platform’s credibility [37]. These green credentials, such as verified documentation, serve as an indicator of reliability and assure users of the trustworthiness of the platform [46]. On the other hand, expert users tend towards positive communication during offset-related interactions. Their extensive knowledge and understanding of carbon offsetting enable them to approach the platform from a different perspective compared to regular users.

To fully utilize these platforms, it is important to comprehend and address the specific requirements of different user groups. The concept of a layered modular architecture, as discussed by Yoo et al. [35], provides insight into this dynamic. It proposes that users with different levels of expertise engage with digital platforms in diverse manners. By understanding these interactions, platforms can be designed to encourage and accommodate the distinct preferences of both expert and regular users, thus maximizing their effectiveness in addressing climate change.

5.3. Storytelling

In today’s climate discourse, storytelling has emerged as a powerful medium [30,32]. Narratives, whether highlighting community resilience, as showcased by KlimaDAO, or demystifying complex scientific data, strike a profound chord. They bring the expansive and often intangible idea of climate change closer to home, making it tangible and urgent. The KlimaDAO case study stands as a testament to the transformative power of narratives in influencing perceptions and inspiring action [21,28]. In our contemporary world, storytelling transcends mere information sharing; it is a formidable instrument for organizations to shape public sentiment and advance their missions.

Amid the urgent climate challenges, carefully crafted narratives serve as bridges, making complex and sometimes intimidating data accessible to a wider audience. Expert users often adopt a positive tone in their messaging, a strategy known to resonate and inspire communities [32]. Such optimism becomes crucial when navigating the multifaceted challenges of climate change.

This study delves deeper into the nuances of digital platforms designed for carbon offsetting, spotlighting platforms like KlimaDAO [11]. These platforms, especially those centered on transactions, serve as hubs connecting a diverse user base. Storytelling’s prominence in these digital spaces is evident, crafting impactful narratives that confront the climate emergency and navigate its complexities [33]. By simplifying this intricate subject, narratives stir emotions and inspire collective action. For example, KlimaDAO offers users the unique feature of embedding messages in their carbon offsets, allowing them to craft their own climate narratives. At their core, these narratives within digital platforms play a pivotal role in making climate discussions accessible to all, ensuring that the message reaches wide and varied audiences.

6. Conclusions

In the context of digital platform engagement, distinct behavioral disparities emerge between regular and expert users, particularly within the domain of carbon offsetting. Drawing upon the KlimaDAO platform as an illustrative example, empirical evidence suggests that regular users manifest a pronounced inclination towards high-caliber carbon offsets, valuing palpable demonstrations of their ecological contributions [39]. In juxtaposition, expert users, fortified with an intricate understanding of the platform’s mechanics, manifest a broader spectrum of offset preferences and articulate their perspectives with discernible optimism. This investigation accentuates the instrumental role of digital platforms, exemplified by KlimaDAO, in advancing climate-oriented endeavors congruent with the SDGs [7], specifically those pertaining to the planet axis. It further underscores the need for such platforms to astutely discern and adapt to the subtle variances in user behavior. To optimize user engagement, it is recommended that platforms enhance user interface experiences, assimilate pedagogical resources, and amplify the affirmative narratives frequently conveyed by expert users. A holistic strategy towards user behaviors is paramount in ensuring the enduring effectiveness and resilience of digital climate-focused initiatives.

6.1. Limitations

The research presented possesses inherent limitations that warrant acknowledgment. A notable concern is the potential oversight in certain uncharted areas within this domain. The methodology employed, which categorizes users solely based on their engagement with KlimaDAO, may not provide a comprehensive representation of their expertise. Furthermore, an over-reliance on quantitative methodologies could inadvertently sideline more nuanced, qualitative insights. It is also wise to exercise prudence when generalizing these findings to other platforms, given the unique dynamics and characteristics inherent to each.

6.2. Future Research

When delving into the current body of research, the intricate dynamics between sustainability, SDGs, digital platforms, and narrative strategies become apparent, especially against the backdrop of efforts to mitigate the climate emergency. While the research to date offers profound insights, the multifaceted nature of this field signals a need for further scholarly investigation. Key areas poised for future inquiry include the delineation of strategies to enhance user engagement on digital platforms, a detailed dissection of narrative elements that elicit strong resonance with the community, and the formulation of approaches to ensure narratives drive enduring, actionable outcomes. An in-depth assessment of these critical areas will be instrumental in refining strategic interventions, thereby bolstering the impact of digital initiatives in the global discourse on the climate emergency.

6.3. Recommendations for Policymakers and Managers

In the quest for sustainable practices and effective carbon offsetting, the integrity and origin of information shared on platforms are paramount for policymakers and managers. Experts, armed with deep knowledge and a constructive approach, frequently convey their carbon offset strategies with optimism. Harnessing these expert insights can galvanize and steer the broader community towards an increase in positive attitudes towards climate change mitigation when the message is framed positively [4]. Recognizing the emphasis regular users place on concrete evidence, it is essential for platforms to amplify their transparency. This can be achieved by crafting interfaces that vividly showcase offsets through visual displays, real-time monitoring, and comprehensive explanations. To further enhance trustworthiness, platforms might consider alliances with third-party validators. Such collaborations, resulting in displayed certifications or badges, fortify the evidence presented to users. While experts articulate carbon offset endeavors with clarity and positivity, it is predominantly the regular users who champion superior-quality offsets. As such, platforms must be adeptly designed to resonate with these users, equipping them with the requisite tools and knowledge to effect meaningful societal change.