Modern technologies and their educational applications facilitate relaying scientific knowledge to students through investigation and experimentation [
9]; they increase students’ effective participation in the educational process and develop their creative and critical thinking skills, self-efficacy, and self-regulation [
10,
11]; they enhance learning aptitude [
12], motivation [
13], computer skills [
14], and online interactions [
15,
16]; they offer students access to various information sources compared to the limitedness of traditional teaching; and they equitably provide students with the continuity of learning through life. Such benefits of modern technologies in education represent an integral part of the education sustainable development goal (SDG4) [
17]. Given these benefits, a number of digital applications and tools that can be utilized in science teaching have emerged, such as immersive virtual platforms, interactive modeling, and simulation software [
18,
19,
20].
Such digital applications and tools require teachers to possess a certain level of digital competence. This competence is a key skill of the 21st-century teacher as well as one of the eight major competencies of the European Union [
21] and serves as a cornerstone in education development. For teachers, possessing digital competence is vital to increase the incorporation of technologies into their teaching practices, which ultimately leads to sustainable educational development [
22]. Digital competence transcends the mainstream concept of a teacher’s basic knowledge of technology and computer programs towards a comprehensive concept that encompasses the knowledge, skills, and attitudes related to digital, moral, and legal factors [
23]. It also covers information management, creating digital content, and employing digital systems and classes enhanced with digital tools to achieve the effective integration of technology [
24]. Even though there has been considerable attention paid to the concept of digital competence and the importance of its integrative uses in educational practices [
25], there is not a unified, comprehensive definition of this concept [
26]. The lack of such a definition is a result of digital competence being a wide concept related to various fields, in addition to its complexity and sensitivity in social and cultural contexts [
27,
28,
29].
However, there have been attempts to define digital competence from several aspects [
23]. For example, Ferrari [
30] offered a definition that is based on three main domains: knowledge, affective, and skills. It was defined as the skills, knowledge, values, and abilities necessary for using technology with high proficiency in carrying out tasks such as problem solving as well as creating and sharing content. Ilomäki et al. [
29] defined digital competence from a comprehensive perspective in which technological fields and scientific knowledge intersect with the technological skills that an individual needs in order to effectively learn and interact in a digital knowledge community. More comprehensively, the European Council’s definition of digital competence centers on the optimal use of technology in education in a safe and responsible manner that fosters learning, work, and participation in society [
31].
1.1. Conceptual Frameworks of Digital Competence and Literature Review
It is important that digital competence relies on conceptual frameworks, models, and standards that include several competence fields through which teachers’ level can be evaluated [
32] and their professional development needs can be determined. Therefore, a number of progressive frameworks and models on teachers’ digital competence have been developed globally [
12] such as the technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPACK) framework [
33]; the ISTE standards of the International Society for Technology in Education for enhancing teachers’ use of technology [
34]; and the UNESCO ICT Competency Framework, which identifies 18 competencies in information and communications technology distributed over six aspects [
35].
Despite the popularity of some digital competence models, the European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators (DigCompEdu) was built as a European-Union-wide framework that was later used globally. This framework focuses on measuring educators’ digital competence; identifying their strengths and weaknesses; as well as determining the professional and training needs for the integrative use of technology in educational processes [
36,
37]. The framework consists of twenty-two digital competences organized into six areas, as shown in
Figure 1. The first is the professional engagement area, which centers on using digital technologies for institutional communication and professional cooperation. The second is the digital resources area which is related to creating, modifying, and sharing digital sources and resources. The third area is teaching and learning, which covers the implementing and management of digital technologies in teaching practices and self-learning. The fourth area is assessment, which includes using digital tools in implementing various assessment strategies while developing and improving the assessment process. Empowering learners is the fifth area, which focuses on learners’ accessibility to digital technology in order to satisfy their various needs and desires as well as to ensure their effective participation in the educational process. Finally, facilitating learners’ digital competence is the sixth area, which refers to enabling learners to innovatively and effectively use digital technologies for communication, information technology, and problem solving [
36].
Due to the importance of teachers having sustainable digital skills that promote the development of societies [
38,
39], the growing significance of teachers’ digital competence, and the DigCompEdu’s prominent presence in the digital skills landscape, numerous studies have utilized this framework, among others, to assess teachers’ digital competence. These studies have also examined the utilization of technology in science classrooms and investigated teachers’ perspectives and challenges and the factors influencing the effective implementation of digital technologies.
In science teaching, the accessibility of digital technologies has been particularly emphasized. This availability of technology enables students to access current scientific information, thereby enhancing their learning experiences [
40]. The beneficial outcomes that digital technologies achieve for students encourage teachers to use them. Science teachers are motivated to integrate technology into their classrooms, especially when this integration is supported and when they are given the chance to reflect on their teaching practices [
41]. Studies have reported examples of successful use of the internet to promote inquiry-based science classrooms [
42].
Mukminin et al. [
43] used path analysis to examine the factors that influence science teachers’ integration of digital resources in education in some Indonesian rural areas. It was revealed that attitude played the most significant role in predicting teachers’ use of digital technologies, while self-efficacy was found to be insignificant. Other factors such as knowledge, skills, and facilitating conditions were not found to be significant in teachers’ integration of digital technologies. The intention to use such technologies was reported to be the only influential factor.
Using the DigCompEdu framework, Vieira et al. [
44] examined the digital competence of 20,935 science teachers in Portugal. The findings revealed that teachers specializing in biology and geology achieved higher scores in digital proficiency in comparison to their counterparts in other subjects. Additionally, physics and chemistry teachers reflected higher levels of digital competence than teachers of mathematics and natural sciences. It was also revealed that there were significantly positive correlations among all competence areas across the STEM subjects.
Alshahrani [
45] used a descriptive method to examine the digital skills required to use the Madrasati platform in Saudi Arabia from the point of view of middle-school science teachers. The study also attempted to ascertain whether there were statistically significant differences attributed to the educational qualification and years of experience variables. It was revealed that teachers indicated a high level of agreement that digital skills were necessary to use the platform. It was also revealed that the educational qualification and years of experience variables had no statistically significant impact on teachers’ responses.
The presence of cognitive and performance aspects of digital-age skills among science teachers was examined in another descriptive study [
46]. The study attempted to identify if the years of experience, the level taught, and gender variables had a significant impact on the presence of digital-age skills among science teachers. It was reported that the years of experience variable significantly influenced the presence of the cognitive aspect of digital-age skills among science teachers, in favor of teachers who had less than ten years of experience, while it had no significant impact on the performance aspect. As for the level taught, it had a significant impact on both the cognitive and performance aspects of digital-age skills, favoring secondary school teachers. There was no significant impact, however, for gender on the presence of cognitive and performance aspects of digital age skills among science teachers.
A descriptive approach was used by AlSaree et al. [
16] to investigate the digital skills that middle-school science teachers in Saudi Arabia needed as well as to measure the level at which they possessed these skills. The findings showed that the teachers possessed these skills at a moderate level. It was also revealed that the effective use of the internet was the skill with the highest rating, followed by the skills of using email and virtual classroom management.
Alzahrani [
47] conducted a study to examine the extent to which high school science teachers utilize technology, specifically Microsoft 365 on the Madrasti platform, according to their own perspectives. Through the distribution of a questionnaire to 135 female science teachers, the findings indicated a high level of technology usage among them. Furthermore, the study revealed that there were no statistically significant differences among the participants regarding their level of education, years of experience, and participation in professional development training programs.
In another study on high school science teachers, Aal Ziad [
48] conducted a study aiming to investigate their utilization of technology, specifically augmented reality. The study involved one hundred teachers and nine supervisors in Saudi Arabia. The findings indicated that, from the teachers’ perspectives, there was a high level of technology usage, whereas the supervisors perceived it to be moderate. Additionally, the study concluded that there were statistically significant differences among the participants in relation to their level of education. Notably, there were also significant differences based on years of experience, favoring older teachers.
Muammar et al. [
49] investigated the digital competence of fifty-one faculty members at UAE universities and found that the majority of participants rated themselves as digitally competent in all six areas of the framework. In another study, Pérez-Calderón [
50] applied the DigCompEdu to 109 teachers in Spain. The study revealed that the teachers’ digital competence ranged from medium to high. The study also revealed that the level of digital competence was affected by the gender, age, and years of experience variables, favoring males, younger teachers, and teachers with fewer years of experience, respectively. In an attempt to understand the factors related to teachers’ digital competence, Lucas et al. [
51] applied the DigCompEdu to a sample of 1071 elementary and secondary school teachers in Portugal and found that the level of teachers’ digital competence varied based on the gender variable, favoring males, and on the age variable, favoring younger teachers. The study also showed that personal factors such as age, gender, experience, and self-confidence in using technology and social media were more indicative of teachers’ digital competence than contextual factors such as infrastructure and accessibility to technology. Based on cross-sectional studies, Çebi and Reisoğlu [
52] applied a questionnaire to 518 pre-service teachers in Turkey. Their digital competence level was revealed to be medium while there were statistically significant differences based on the gender variable in favor of males and on the specialty variable in favor of computer and educational technology specialties.
In Saudi Arabia, Al Khateeb [
53] attempted to measure the digital competence of a sample of 110 teachers of English using a questionnaire based on the European Digital Competence Framework for Citizens (DigComp). The study indicated a low level of participant digital competence where the majority of the participants were classified as “simple” in all areas, revealing a level that was incompatible with the skills of 21st-century teachers. Using the TPACK Model, Al-Abdullatif [
54] revealed that the level of digital competence of 113 pre-service teachers was very low, while [
55] indicated that pre-service teachers possessed a higher level of technological knowledge than that of content and pedagogical knowledge. The study also found a correlation between the teachers’ TPACK level and the gender, age, and teaching experience variables.
As for teachers’ perceptions of using digital technologies, Alnofaie [
56] explored the perceptions of digital technology use of English foreign language teachers and university students in Saudi Arabia. Although the results pointed out that the participants lacked an understanding of their utilization of digital technologies and the pedagogical strategies, they held a positive perception towards usefulness and ease of use of digital technologies. The findings showed that PowerPoint, email, and virtual learning environments were the most frequently used digital technologies for the purpose of presenting content, conducting assessments, resources sharing, and communication.
Using the qualitative method, Alsultan [
57] conducted a study on science teachers to investigate their perceptions towards the integration of digital game-based learning in their instructional practices. The results indicated that teachers perceive that integrating digital game-based learning into science education in Saudi Arabia can enhance their students’ cognitive and affective learning outcomes. Furthermore, the science teachers mentioned some logistical barriers that hinder the integration of digital technologies in their practices such as the availability of educational games that can be adopted in the context of Saudi.
Alblaihed [
58] utilized the TPACK model to conduct a study to explore the perceptions of Saudi primary pre-service science and mathematics teachers towards the integration of digital technologies into their classrooms and practices. The finding revealed that integrating technologies is important and plays a crucial role in the teaching and learning process. Furthermore, participants who used technology in their teaching practices believed that students’ performance was improved.
Although information and computer technologies have been emphasized in modern education, the incorporation of these technologies still faces hesitance on the part of many teachers [
59]. The literature indicates that science teachers infrequently and inconsistently integrate digital technologies into their teaching practices [
60,
61]. In addition, Cope and Kalantzis [
62] argued that the integration of technologies in teaching practices does not guarantee enhanced learning outcomes. This argument emphasized that teachers’ possession of the knowledge and experience in digital technologies does not automatically guarantee their successful integration into teaching practices [
63]. It is important that technology is utilized within the context of meaningful science and not solely for the sake of using technology itself [
60].
1.2. The Factors Influencing Digital Competence
Teachers’ use of digital technologies depends mainly on their acceptance of such technologies and their ability to integrate them into their teaching practices [
8]. In the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), illustrated in
Figure 2, Davis [
64] provides a number of factors influencing teachers’ acceptance and use of technology. Building on the TAM model, several studies have focused on the factors that influence teachers’ acceptance of digital technology. Of these factors, teachers’ perceptions towards technology and its uses in the educational environment serve as motivating factors for technology-related activities [
65]; affect teachers’ behavior [
66]; and predict technology integration in their classes [
67]. Of these perceptions, there were the perceived usefulness [
68,
69,
70,
71,
72]; the type of digital tools, their number, and ease of use [
51,
71,
72,
73]; subjective norms [
69,
70,
71]; teachers’ self-confidence and competence [
3,
73]; their openness to modern technologies [
51]; and professional factors related to professional development in digital technology [
3]. These factors indirectly affect the actual use of technology through affecting the behavioral intention factor, which directly affects the actual use of technology.
Based on the TAM Model, a connection can be discerned between teachers’ acquisition of digital competence and their behavioral intention of using this competence [
68,
69]. Based on the above, it is evident that a number of factors influence digital competence directly such as the behavioral intention of using digital technologies or indirectly such as attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control as set forth by the Theory of Planned Behavior [
74] and Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior [
75].
1.5. Operational Definitions of the Study Terms
Digital competence is defined as the optimal use of digital technologies in the educational process in a safe and responsible manner for the purposes of learning, work, and participation in society [
31]. Operationally, it is defined as the digital competence of science teachers and their ability to acquire digital skills and use digital technologies in the educational process according to DigCompEdu in six areas: professional engagement; digital resources; teaching and learning; assessment; empowering learners; and facilitating learners’ digital competence.
Teachers’ perceptions towards using digital technologies are defined as the beliefs that teachers have about the benefits of digital applications; their readiness to use them; their attitudes towards them; and the challenges they face in integrating technology into their teaching practices [
79]. These perceptions include attitudes, values, opinions, and affective behaviors [
80]. Operationally, they are defined as the beliefs that science teachers have about using digital technologies in the educational environment including the following: perceived usefulness; ease of use; compatibility with the standards and trends of the science subject; and subjective norms about believing that an individual or a group of individuals, such as a principal, an educational supervisor, peers, or students, would support a behavior like teachers’ use of digital technologies.
Digital tools are defined as electronic hardware that covers a range of devices such as computers, laptops, data projectors, interactive whiteboards, tablets, and mobile learning environments [
81,
82,
83,
84].
Digital applications and technologies are defined as software applications, which include various digital tools such as social media platforms, educational websites, simulations, multimedia applications, animations, games, and videos [
81,
85,
86].