How Does Outdoor Spatial Design Shape the Microclimate, Comfort, and Behavior in Traditional Chinese Villages? A Systematic Review Across Scales, Contexts, and Users

Abstract

Traditional Chinese villages, which have long supported villagers’ comfort level of daily activities, are increasingly affected by global climate change and rural reconstruction, prompting growing research interest in their outdoor microclimate design. This systematic review aims to synthesize and evaluate the outdoor microclimate spatial design mechanism studies in traditional Chinese villages noted for their uniqueness and complexity. Following the PRISMA method, this study was carried out on November 27, 2024, by retrieving studies from the Scopus and CNKI databases and applying predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria; 42 empirical studies were systematically reviewed. It identifies current research trends, summarizes concepts, frameworks, indicators, and methodologies with a focus on the design mechanisms considering scales, contexts, and user groups, and outlines directions for future research. The findings reveal a growing number of publications, with case studies predominantly concentrated on three concepts: physical microclimates, human comfort, and behavioral responses, characterized as distributed in south-east areas. Based on these concepts and their correlations, this study proposes a classification framework based on multiple scales, contexts, and user groups. Within this framework, the study found that relative humidity and PET (physiological equivalent temperature) emerge as the most commonly used indicators, while field measurements, simulations, surveys, and observations are identified as the primary methods. The review further reveals that unique outdoor spatial design characteristics shape physical microclimates, human comfort, and behavior indicators influenced by contexts and users from the macro to the micro scale. Future research should advance existing studies by enriching the current contextual framework and explore more microclimatic factors. This review offers a comprehensive overview and actionable insights for outdoor microclimate design, policymaking, and the promotion of climate adaptation and villagers’ public health in different traditional rural settings.

1. Introduction

Traditional Chinese villages are the result of long-term human adaptation to nature and embody unique cultural, economic, and ecological values [1]. To harmonize the relationship between humans and the natural environment, these villages draw on traditional wisdom and incorporate various spatial features in their construction, creating settlement environments that are well adapted to local climates and ways of life, thereby achieving a state of harmonious coexistence with nature [1,2,3]. Some of them have become hot tourist destinations in recent years [4]. However, global climate change and rapid urbanization have posed significant challenges to the microclimates in outdoor spaces. For example, increased and extreme temperatures, air pollution, and large-scale rural reconstruction have had a significant impact on vulnerable traditional villages, causing a decrease in comfortable days [5,6,7,8]. In recent years, Chinese rural revitalization policies and many rural design practices have been launched [9]. However, traditional outdoor spaces are still facing problems such as complicated, limited public spaces, reduction in or disappearance of greening, and visually oriented and homogeneous planning due to large-scale and rapid rural construction [8,10]. These problems might still affect the traditional outdoor microclimate. Therefore, studying how to improve the microclimate by spatial design in a traditional village has become more important in microclimate studies.

Microclimate research originated from interdisciplinary fields such as meteorology, geography, and the built environment, covering physical microclimate, comfort, and behavioral response. Physical microclimate refers to the climate conditions in the near-surface space within a small area [11], covering from the ground to a height of ten meters to one hundred meters, ranging from one meter to several kilometers in horizontal scale [12,13], mainly including temperature, humidity, wind speed, and radiation [14]. Human comfort is a key indicator for evaluating the microclimate [14,15] and means a state of satisfaction with the microclimate [11,16,17]. In the outdoor spatial design field (landscape architecture), microclimate research mainly focuses on spatial design mechanisms, namely the impact of space design on the microclimate [18]. Specifically, there has been a surge of studies exploring how outdoor spatial design characteristics can influence the physical microclimate [19], human comfort, and behavior [1,11,13], forming a basic theoretical framework [14,20].

Building on this theoretical framework, relevant review papers continue to focus predominantly on urban outdoor spaces. Globally, beyond discussions of research trends, frameworks, indicators, and methodologies, reviews emphasize spatial mechanisms under different conditions, such as countries, scales, seasons, and climate zones. For instance, Maroofee et al. (2018) studied the spatial mechanism in Malaysia with a tropical climate and explored the relationship between open space characteristics, microclimate, and comfort [21]. Lai et al. (2019) examined urban spatial strategies that enhance thermal environments and comfort on multiple scales by type and climatic zones [22]. Li D. et al. (2022) reviewed urban outdoor thermal comfort mechanisms from the perspective of surface materials [23]. In China, due to the differences in spatial characteristics, several reviews have addressed similar topics tailored to Chinese contexts. For example, J. Li & Liu (2020) summarized microclimate design mechanisms suitable for Chinese urban environments [20]. Likewise, Wu junyu & Liang (2019) summarized microclimate-related research by various spatial types and urban spatial mechanisms [13]. However, while existing reviews have explored urban-based microclimate design mechanisms from multiple dimensions, studies focusing on traditional Chinese villages remain limited. To date, only one review focuses on Chinese villages. Zheng (2023) reviewed research progress and emerging trends related to the climate adaptability of rural settlements [15]. However, this research still remains at the level of an overview of the mechanisms, limiting the study’s capacity to systematically and effectively inform outdoor microclimate design practices.

Rural and urban environments differ significantly, as villages—especially traditional ones—exhibit greater complexity and uniqueness than urban contexts. First, traditional villages are influenced by long-standing history, culture, and natural geography and climate distribution [1]. Second, village users such as villagers, tourists, returning young people, and left-behind elderly people are different from urban users dominated by city residents, and existing studies have found that villagers and urban residents exhibit different thermal perceptions and behaviors [24]. Therefore, existing frameworks, parameters, methodologies, and spatial mechanisms still need to be re-evaluated to suit the complex and special traditional rural environment [25,26].

Given these gaps, this review systematically synthesizes the growing body of empirical research on outdoor microclimate spatial mechanism studies across scales, contexts, and users in traditional villages, aiming to address the following research questions:

• What are the current research trends and distributions concerning the microclimate spatial mechanisms?
• What conceptual framework could effectively represent the microclimate spatial mechanisms in traditional villages?
• What are the key indicators and appropriate methodologies commonly used to assess spatial microclimate?
• How do specific microclimate spatial mechanisms vary across scales, contextual conditions, and user groups?

In this review, Section 2 details the review methods. Section 3 presents the general results and primary findings, addressing each research question in depth. Section 4 focuses on the significance, limitations, and further research. Section 5 provides an overview of the findings and research opportunities.

2. Methods

The search strategy was developed based on the PRISMA 2020 method [27], which supports authors in reporting the results of systematic reviews and meta-analyses in a comprehensive and transparent manner [28]. Given the fragmented and diverse rural research studies, this method is particularly suitable for systematically and comprehensively organizing scattered evidence. In addition, its transparency also enhances the rigor and replicability of the review and helps to identify and report bias effectively. The review followed three stages (Figure 1): identification, screening, and inclusion, conducted independently by the first author. The PRISMA 2020 checklist is provided in the Supplementary Materials Table S1.

2.1. Identification

To identify relevant articles, the databases Scopus and CNIK (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) were selected as they cover mainstream literature in both English and Chinese separately. Then, to include as many relevant studies as possible, the keywords were identified and organized into three groups within a keyword library (KWL) based on the research topic: microclimate, outdoor space, and village (

Table 1. Keyword library (KWL).

Groups	Search Terms
Microclimate	“microclimate” OR “thermal environment” OR “thermal comfort” OR “climate adaptation” OR “microclimate comfort”
	AND
Outdoor space	“open space” OR “public space” OR “outdoor area” OR “outdoor”
	AND
Village	village OR rural OR country OR countryside

).

The selected keyword groups were then further combined with the following query strings in Scopus: ‘(TITLE-ABS-KEY (microclimate) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“thermal environment”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“thermal comfort”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“climate adaptation”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (outdoor) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“outdoor area”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“open space”) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (“public space”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (village) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (rural) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (country) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (countryside) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (settlement)) AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”))’. This search string means the search results are limited to the title, abstract, or keywords (TITLE-ABS-KEY) and further refined by document type to articles only (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”)). The reason for refining by articles is that review papers, as secondary sources, could introduce bias into the topic [29]. In addition, the query strings in CNIK were also translated from English, targeting the title, abstract, and keywords, with the document type limited to articles (Figure 1). Dissertations and reviews were excluded for the same reason given above. Finally, the searches of Scopus and CNIK were conducted on 27 November 2024, and 644 articles were identified. The complete list of all literature from the search results was downloaded in Excel 2020 (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA) for screening.

2.2. Screening

In the second stage, the papers were screened through a three-step process based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria (IEC) (

Table 2. Inclusion/exclusion criteria (IEC).

Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
1. Unique research papers	1. Duplicate papers
2. English and Chinese papers	2. Other-language papers
3. Empirical findings	3. Other types of papers *
4. Relevant papers: relevant to China, research fields *, KWL (Table 1), spatial types and research scope *, and the research questions	4. Irrelevant papers: irrelevant to China, research fields *, KWL, spatial types and research scope *, and the research questions
5. Available full-text papers	5. Not fully available full-text papers
6. Paper with high quality	6. Paper with low quality (untrustworthy and logically inconsistent articles)

* Other types of papers are non-empirical studies, reviews, academic dissertation, conferences, project introduction, policy suggestions, book chapters, posters, etc. Research fields are built environment, architecture, environmental science, geography, urban planning, landscape architecture, urban studies, etc., while irrelevant fields are botany and construction technology, etc. Spatial types and research scope are public space, open space, and outdoor space, while irrelevant types and ranges are city, indoor, modern village, urban village, personal courtyard, university, etc.

). First, duplicate entries, non-English/Chinese publications, irrelevant document types, and papers not meeting IEC 1–4 were excluded based on their titles. Second, titles with potential inclusion were selected for abstract screening, applying IEC 3–4. Finally, their full texts were imported into Zotero 7.0.22 (Digital Scholarship, Vienna, VI, USA), a reference management software, for eligibility assessment of relevance and quality by IEC 3–6 (Figure 1).

2.3. Inclusion

After screening, 42 full-text articles (14 in English and 28 in Chinese) were included (Table 3). Compared to other review studies, this number is not extensive, possibly due to the relatively late emergence of academic attention to Chinese rural microclimate mechanisms [9]. As a result, the statistical generalizability of the findings may be limited, particularly for villages in underrepresented climate zones such as extremely cold regions. Nevertheless, the included studies are well distributed across key regions and cover diverse spatial types and methodologies. This diversity substantially enhances the representativeness and robustness of the results of this review. Table 3 shows the overview of the included studies.

Subsequently, the included literature was systematically read and extracted, organized, and presented using the Excel software. We finally extracted and summarized four types of data: (1) basic information: title, authors, year, and publication; (2) research scales, contexts, and users; (3) research focus, definition, scope, and correlations; (4) indicators, methodologies, and mechanisms used to answer each research question. It is worth noting that some studies did not explicitly state the contexts, such as climate zone and topology. In such cases, the authors searched for and inferred relevant information such as location and maps based on the characteristics of the villages [30], which does not pose a risk of bias to the study.

Table 3. Summary of included studies.

Author	Year	Research Objects (Village)	Methods	Research Contents
[31]	2013	Xitang, Zhejiang Province; Hongcun, Anhui Province	Field Measurement	The study verifies the cooling effect of ‘cold alleys’ in traditional settlements.
[32]	2014	Daqitou Village, Xiaozhou Village, Guang Dong Province	Simulation	The current thermal environment conditions of three villages (incl. a modern village) and their comparison, with a focus on the influence of spatial mechanisms on thermal environment and comfort.
[33]	2016	Pingshan, Xidi, Lucun, and Xixinan, Anhui Province	Field Measurement, Formula	This study evaluates and compares the overall and individual conditions of thermal comfort of three villages, analyzing the influence of outdoor spatial characteristics on microclimate and thermal comfort.
[34]	2017	Nanshe Village, Lingnan Region, Guangdong province	Field Measurement	This study analyzes the temperature variation patterns and differences of four different outdoor underlying surfaces of residential buildings and analyzes the spatial factors.
[35]	2018	Songkou Ancient Town, Yongtai County, Fujian Province	Field Measurement	This study analyzes how landscape elements in waterfront spaces, plaza spaces, and street–alley spaces of historic towns influence the spatiotemporal variations of the microclimate and proposes corresponding design strategies.
[25]	2018	Dayuwan Village, Huangpi District, Hubei Province	Field Measurement, Survey	The study investigates the relationship between environmental characteristics and the diurnal variation of the microclimate, evaluates user behavior and usage patterns, and proposes corresponding mitigation strategies.
[36]	2018	Zhonglou Village, Daqitou Village, and Shuikong Village, GuangDong Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study analyzes the climate adaptability of the overall spatial system and core spatial elements of the villages and explores the organizational patterns of space and scale.
[37]	2018	Lutaoyang, Taiwan Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study identifies areas of high outdoor thermal heat stress, evaluates current and predicts future changes in thermal conditions of the village located in a heat risk zone, and analyzes tourists’ thermal comfort under different shading conditions.
[38]	2019	Tongli Ancient Town, Jiangsu Province	Field Measurement	This study analyzes the relationship between spatial typologies in outdoor public spaces of traditional water towns and their effectiveness in shaping microclimate perception and proposes corresponding design strategies.
[39]	2020	Yangtou Village, Fujian Province	Field Measurement	This study analyzes the spatiotemporal characteristics of microclimate variations in traditional villages and summarizes the mechanisms through which different spatial layouts and landscape elements influence the winter microclimate of public spaces in these villages.
[40]	2020	Puyuan Village, Fujian Province	Field Measurement, Formula	This study conducts on-site microclimate measurements in the village, analyzing the patterns and characteristics of microclimate elements. Using human thermal comfort, it assesses comfort levels within different village spaces and explores the influence of spatial elements on the village microclimate.
[41]	2020	Songkou Ancient Town, Fujian Province	Field Measurement, Formula	This study explores the relationship among spatial characteristics, microclimate elements, and tourists’ thermal comfort in the village.
[42]	2021	Gaodang Village, Guizhou Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study evaluates the indoor and outdoor thermal environment of the village during summer and explores its relationship with spatial characteristics.
[43]	2021	Kanez Village, Xinjiang Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study evaluates the thermal environment issues in outdoor public spaces of arid and hot regions and proposes corresponding mitigation strategies.
[44]	2021	Fangyu Village, Shandong Province	Simulation	This study analyzes the wind and thermal environments of the village, focusing on the coupling relationship between spatial morphology and characteristics of wind speed and thermal radiation.
[45]	2021	Hengtang Village, Zhejiang Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	At both the village planning and individual dwelling levels, this study analyzes and summarizes the spatial characteristics and structural strategies adopted to adapt to the local climate.
[46]	2021	Mazha Village, Xinjiang	Simulation	An assessment of thermal comfort was conducted, alongside an investigation into how street layout and internal landscape elements influence the microclimate and the mechanisms underlying thermal comfort.
[47]	2021	Bayu Ancient Towns, Chongqing Municipality	Field Measurement, Simulation	Using historic and cultural towns in the Bayu region as case studies, this research investigates the relationships between landscape patterns, street networks, architectural layouts, and the mountainous terrain and wind environment, in order to reveal the mechanisms by which spatial forms at multiple scales adapt to the local climate.
[48]	2021	Zhongtian Village, Hunan Province	Field Measurement	This study investigates the relationship between village spatial morphology and the wind–thermal environment.
[26]	2021	Mi Zhi Cave Dwellings, Shanxi Province	Field Measurement, Simulation, Survey	This study evaluates the thermal comfort and heat adaptation behaviors of residents in cave-dwelling regions.
[49]	2022	Baoping Village, Hainan Province	Field Measurement, Observation	Through summer outdoor thermal environment measurements and behavioral observations in the village, this study explores the impact of temperature and wind speed on human thermal comfort and proposes several suggestions for optimizing the outdoor thermal environment in tropical regions.
[50]	2022	Zhoutie Town, Jiangsu Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study investigated the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of air temperature reduction induced by water bodies in the village. Correlation analysis was conducted between morphological indicators of the village and the cooling intensity of water bodies across different buffer radii. Based on this, a regression model was constructed to predict water body cooling intensity using village morphological parameters.
[51]	2022	Xufan Village, Henan Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study evaluates the impact of water-adaptive spaces in traditional pond-based settlements on the local microclimate. It analyzes the morphological characteristics of the settlement and simulates the effects of water bodies and spatial form elements on human thermal comfort.
[52]	2022	Cai Jia and Da Nihe Village, Shaanxi Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study explores the mechanistic relationship between microclimate and spatial morphology of the village in northwest China.
[1]	2022	Shecun Village, Jiangsu Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	The current work discusses the relationship between the spatial form of landscape outside traditional villages, street space, and public space inside the villages and microclimate factors and tries to present useful tips for designers.
[53]	2022	Linpan Village, Sichuan Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	The study investigates the relationship between spatial characteristics, site selection, overall spatial forms such as street space and public space, and climatic factors, with the aim of providing practical insights for designers.
[4]	2023	Manjingbao, Manchunman, and Man Village, Yunnan Province	Field Measurement, Survey	This study investigates the microclimatic characteristics of traditional Dai ethnic villages and integrates thermal comfort indices, aiming to identify the microclimate comfort zone specific to traditional Dai settlements under the distinct climatic conditions of the region.
[54]	2023	Lefeng Village, Shaanxi Province	Simulation	This study evaluates and simulates the thermal comfort of outdoor public spaces in traditional villages, examining the relationships between multiscale spatial structures, organizational forms, and microclimate within the settlements (incl. spatial mechanisms).
[55]	2023	Huanglongxian Village, Jiangsu Province	Field Measurement, Simulation, and Survey	The study investigates the correlations between different types of outdoor spaces—such as courtyard spaces, street and alley spaces, waterfront areas, and recreational spaces—and microclimatic factors as well as human thermal comfort.
[56]	2023	Haifangwei Village, Shandong Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	In response to the seasonal and hierarchical ventilation demands of cold coastal regions, this study analyzes the influence patterns of three spatial morphological features—settlement orientation, street configuration, and courtyard layout—on natural ventilation, and proposes appropriate strategies for regulating and optimizing the spatial form of coastal military defense settlements in cold regions.
[57]	2023	Maan, Zhaoxing, and Gaoyou Village, Guizhou Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study focuses on two distinct types of traditional Dong ethnic villages to summarize their climatic adaptation patterns and experiential strategies.
[8]	2023	Guan Weizi Village, Henan Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study analyzes and evaluates the thermal comfort of green spaces in the village.
[58]	2023	Banling, Langtou, and Chaoxi Village, LingNan	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study examines the influence of topographical features and architectural forms on solar exposure and ventilation conditions in traditional settlements located in China’s southern subtropical climate.
[10]	2023	Shimengao Village, Anhui Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study measures and validates the spatial layout and three distinct outdoor spaces of the village and investigates the spatiotemporal distribution and influencing factors of thermal comfort.
[3]	2023	Mingyuewan Village, Jiangsu Province	Simulation	This study evaluates the spatial accessibility of the entire village and its key nodes and examines the correlation between spatial accessibility and wind conditions, thermal environment, and climatic comfort.
[59]	2024	Tongli Ancient Town, Jiangsu Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	To analyze the impact of water body morphology on microclimatic perception in public spaces of traditional waterside settlements, this study focuses on how variations in water surface area influence thermal comfort.
[60]	2024	Fengtai Village, Chongqing Municipality	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study investigates the impact of traditional settlement spatial configurations on the wind environment in regions characterized by hot, humid, and low-wind climatic conditions.
[61]	2024	Changfang Village, Anhui Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study investigates the overall microclimate conditions and the spatiotemporal variations in outdoor thermal comfort in the Chaohu Lake region, as well as the relationships between spatial characteristics, microclimate, and thermal comfort.
[62]	2024	Fangjialiang Village, Hebei Province	Field Measurement	This study investigates the mechanism of landform and building layout on the thermal environment of villages in cold mountainous areas.
[63]	2024	Dayu wan Village, Hubei Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study analyzes the effects of 15 different predefined landscape design strategies—such as tree planting, building greening, and albedo adjustment—on thermal comfort across the four seasons.
[64]	2024	Tukeng Village, Fujian Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study examines the role of the maze-like layout of traditional coastal villages in Fujian in improving the wind environment. The research reveals that the nonlinear street networks and clustered building forms create multiple buffer zones, which effectively reduce wind speed and enhance wind regulation, thermal comfort, and disaster resilience.
[65]	2024	Da Nihe Village, Shanxi Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study reveals the spatiotemporal thermal effects of LPS (water storage project) on rural settlements and evaluates the thermal impacts of both current and hypothetical underlying surface types on air temperature.

Table 3. Summary of included studies.

Author	Year	Research Objects (Village)	Methods	Research Contents
[31]	2013	Xitang, Zhejiang Province; Hongcun, Anhui Province	Field Measurement	The study verifies the cooling effect of ‘cold alleys’ in traditional settlements.
[32]	2014	Daqitou Village, Xiaozhou Village, Guang Dong Province	Simulation	The current thermal environment conditions of three villages (incl. a modern village) and their comparison, with a focus on the influence of spatial mechanisms on thermal environment and comfort.
[33]	2016	Pingshan, Xidi, Lucun, and Xixinan, Anhui Province	Field Measurement, Formula	This study evaluates and compares the overall and individual conditions of thermal comfort of three villages, analyzing the influence of outdoor spatial characteristics on microclimate and thermal comfort.
[34]	2017	Nanshe Village, Lingnan Region, Guangdong province	Field Measurement	This study analyzes the temperature variation patterns and differences of four different outdoor underlying surfaces of residential buildings and analyzes the spatial factors.
[35]	2018	Songkou Ancient Town, Yongtai County, Fujian Province	Field Measurement	This study analyzes how landscape elements in waterfront spaces, plaza spaces, and street–alley spaces of historic towns influence the spatiotemporal variations of the microclimate and proposes corresponding design strategies.
[25]	2018	Dayuwan Village, Huangpi District, Hubei Province	Field Measurement, Survey	The study investigates the relationship between environmental characteristics and the diurnal variation of the microclimate, evaluates user behavior and usage patterns, and proposes corresponding mitigation strategies.
[36]	2018	Zhonglou Village, Daqitou Village, and Shuikong Village, GuangDong Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study analyzes the climate adaptability of the overall spatial system and core spatial elements of the villages and explores the organizational patterns of space and scale.
[37]	2018	Lutaoyang, Taiwan Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study identifies areas of high outdoor thermal heat stress, evaluates current and predicts future changes in thermal conditions of the village located in a heat risk zone, and analyzes tourists’ thermal comfort under different shading conditions.
[38]	2019	Tongli Ancient Town, Jiangsu Province	Field Measurement	This study analyzes the relationship between spatial typologies in outdoor public spaces of traditional water towns and their effectiveness in shaping microclimate perception and proposes corresponding design strategies.
[39]	2020	Yangtou Village, Fujian Province	Field Measurement	This study analyzes the spatiotemporal characteristics of microclimate variations in traditional villages and summarizes the mechanisms through which different spatial layouts and landscape elements influence the winter microclimate of public spaces in these villages.
[40]	2020	Puyuan Village, Fujian Province	Field Measurement, Formula	This study conducts on-site microclimate measurements in the village, analyzing the patterns and characteristics of microclimate elements. Using human thermal comfort, it assesses comfort levels within different village spaces and explores the influence of spatial elements on the village microclimate.
[41]	2020	Songkou Ancient Town, Fujian Province	Field Measurement, Formula	This study explores the relationship among spatial characteristics, microclimate elements, and tourists’ thermal comfort in the village.
[42]	2021	Gaodang Village, Guizhou Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study evaluates the indoor and outdoor thermal environment of the village during summer and explores its relationship with spatial characteristics.
[43]	2021	Kanez Village, Xinjiang Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study evaluates the thermal environment issues in outdoor public spaces of arid and hot regions and proposes corresponding mitigation strategies.
[44]	2021	Fangyu Village, Shandong Province	Simulation	This study analyzes the wind and thermal environments of the village, focusing on the coupling relationship between spatial morphology and characteristics of wind speed and thermal radiation.
[45]	2021	Hengtang Village, Zhejiang Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	At both the village planning and individual dwelling levels, this study analyzes and summarizes the spatial characteristics and structural strategies adopted to adapt to the local climate.
[46]	2021	Mazha Village, Xinjiang	Simulation	An assessment of thermal comfort was conducted, alongside an investigation into how street layout and internal landscape elements influence the microclimate and the mechanisms underlying thermal comfort.
[47]	2021	Bayu Ancient Towns, Chongqing Municipality	Field Measurement, Simulation	Using historic and cultural towns in the Bayu region as case studies, this research investigates the relationships between landscape patterns, street networks, architectural layouts, and the mountainous terrain and wind environment, in order to reveal the mechanisms by which spatial forms at multiple scales adapt to the local climate.
[48]	2021	Zhongtian Village, Hunan Province	Field Measurement	This study investigates the relationship between village spatial morphology and the wind–thermal environment.
[26]	2021	Mi Zhi Cave Dwellings, Shanxi Province	Field Measurement, Simulation, Survey	This study evaluates the thermal comfort and heat adaptation behaviors of residents in cave-dwelling regions.
[49]	2022	Baoping Village, Hainan Province	Field Measurement, Observation	Through summer outdoor thermal environment measurements and behavioral observations in the village, this study explores the impact of temperature and wind speed on human thermal comfort and proposes several suggestions for optimizing the outdoor thermal environment in tropical regions.
[50]	2022	Zhoutie Town, Jiangsu Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study investigated the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of air temperature reduction induced by water bodies in the village. Correlation analysis was conducted between morphological indicators of the village and the cooling intensity of water bodies across different buffer radii. Based on this, a regression model was constructed to predict water body cooling intensity using village morphological parameters.
[51]	2022	Xufan Village, Henan Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study evaluates the impact of water-adaptive spaces in traditional pond-based settlements on the local microclimate. It analyzes the morphological characteristics of the settlement and simulates the effects of water bodies and spatial form elements on human thermal comfort.
[52]	2022	Cai Jia and Da Nihe Village, Shaanxi Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study explores the mechanistic relationship between microclimate and spatial morphology of the village in northwest China.
[1]	2022	Shecun Village, Jiangsu Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	The current work discusses the relationship between the spatial form of landscape outside traditional villages, street space, and public space inside the villages and microclimate factors and tries to present useful tips for designers.
[53]	2022	Linpan Village, Sichuan Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	The study investigates the relationship between spatial characteristics, site selection, overall spatial forms such as street space and public space, and climatic factors, with the aim of providing practical insights for designers.
[4]	2023	Manjingbao, Manchunman, and Man Village, Yunnan Province	Field Measurement, Survey	This study investigates the microclimatic characteristics of traditional Dai ethnic villages and integrates thermal comfort indices, aiming to identify the microclimate comfort zone specific to traditional Dai settlements under the distinct climatic conditions of the region.
[54]	2023	Lefeng Village, Shaanxi Province	Simulation	This study evaluates and simulates the thermal comfort of outdoor public spaces in traditional villages, examining the relationships between multiscale spatial structures, organizational forms, and microclimate within the settlements (incl. spatial mechanisms).
[55]	2023	Huanglongxian Village, Jiangsu Province	Field Measurement, Simulation, and Survey	The study investigates the correlations between different types of outdoor spaces—such as courtyard spaces, street and alley spaces, waterfront areas, and recreational spaces—and microclimatic factors as well as human thermal comfort.
[56]	2023	Haifangwei Village, Shandong Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	In response to the seasonal and hierarchical ventilation demands of cold coastal regions, this study analyzes the influence patterns of three spatial morphological features—settlement orientation, street configuration, and courtyard layout—on natural ventilation, and proposes appropriate strategies for regulating and optimizing the spatial form of coastal military defense settlements in cold regions.
[57]	2023	Maan, Zhaoxing, and Gaoyou Village, Guizhou Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study focuses on two distinct types of traditional Dong ethnic villages to summarize their climatic adaptation patterns and experiential strategies.
[8]	2023	Guan Weizi Village, Henan Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study analyzes and evaluates the thermal comfort of green spaces in the village.
[58]	2023	Banling, Langtou, and Chaoxi Village, LingNan	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study examines the influence of topographical features and architectural forms on solar exposure and ventilation conditions in traditional settlements located in China’s southern subtropical climate.
[10]	2023	Shimengao Village, Anhui Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study measures and validates the spatial layout and three distinct outdoor spaces of the village and investigates the spatiotemporal distribution and influencing factors of thermal comfort.
[3]	2023	Mingyuewan Village, Jiangsu Province	Simulation	This study evaluates the spatial accessibility of the entire village and its key nodes and examines the correlation between spatial accessibility and wind conditions, thermal environment, and climatic comfort.
[59]	2024	Tongli Ancient Town, Jiangsu Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	To analyze the impact of water body morphology on microclimatic perception in public spaces of traditional waterside settlements, this study focuses on how variations in water surface area influence thermal comfort.
[60]	2024	Fengtai Village, Chongqing Municipality	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study investigates the impact of traditional settlement spatial configurations on the wind environment in regions characterized by hot, humid, and low-wind climatic conditions.
[61]	2024	Changfang Village, Anhui Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study investigates the overall microclimate conditions and the spatiotemporal variations in outdoor thermal comfort in the Chaohu Lake region, as well as the relationships between spatial characteristics, microclimate, and thermal comfort.
[62]	2024	Fangjialiang Village, Hebei Province	Field Measurement	This study investigates the mechanism of landform and building layout on the thermal environment of villages in cold mountainous areas.
[63]	2024	Dayu wan Village, Hubei Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study analyzes the effects of 15 different predefined landscape design strategies—such as tree planting, building greening, and albedo adjustment—on thermal comfort across the four seasons.
[64]	2024	Tukeng Village, Fujian Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study examines the role of the maze-like layout of traditional coastal villages in Fujian in improving the wind environment. The research reveals that the nonlinear street networks and clustered building forms create multiple buffer zones, which effectively reduce wind speed and enhance wind regulation, thermal comfort, and disaster resilience.
[65]	2024	Da Nihe Village, Shanxi Province	Field Measurement, Simulation	This study reveals the spatiotemporal thermal effects of LPS (water storage project) on rural settlements and evaluates the thermal impacts of both current and hypothetical underlying surface types on air temperature.

3. Results

3.1. General Results

Figure 2 shows that the 42 studies reflect a growing global relevance and importance. According to the figure, the evidence suggests that the majority of the articles were published from 2018 to 2024 (84%). This surge may be attributed to the Chinese government’s launch of its policies aiming at rural revitalization in 2017 [9]. Furthermore, the figure shows that research in Chinese CNKI databases started earlier and accounts for a higher proportion of the total studies (65%). This may be due to the geographical advantage that Chinese publications have in accessing relevant data.

Figure 3 shows the year and focus of microclimate mechanisms. Although each article has different research topics, the articles mainly focus on three aspects: microclimate, comfort, and behavior. Before 2014, there was only one paper that started to focus on microclimate. Chen, Fu, and Zheng (2013) investigated the cooling effect of cold alley space in traditional settlements [31]. Subsequently, an increasing number of articles began to focus on the combination of microclimate and human comfort. For example, Li and Zhao (2014) started to simulate the thermal environment and comfort in three villages in the Pearl River Delta [32]. Starting in 2018, some studies focused on behavior. Jin et al. (2018) investigated the relationship between microclimate comfort, user distribution, and usage frequency in a village [25]. Eventually, focusing on microclimate only accounted for 21%, microclimate and comfort accounted for 65%, and related behaviors accounted for 9%.

Figure 4 shows the frequency of scales, contexts, and users. First, most research is concentrated on the meso scale (90%), possibly due to its broader scope of spatial mechanisms. Second, as shown in the figure, contexts include the historical period of village establishment, regional cultures, climatic zones, and geomorphological conditions. Most studies focus on the periods from the Tang to Qing dynasties, which aligns with the overall spatial–temporal distribution of traditional Chinese villages [66]. In terms of cultural regions, research is relatively evenly distributed, with a notable concentration in the eastern and southern cultural zones, while western areas such as Tibet and Inner Mongolia remain underrepresented [67]. Regarding climatic and geomorphological contexts, most studies are concentrated in the “hot-summer cold-winter” and “hot-summer warm-winter” zones [30], both of which are located in eastern and southern China. However, extremely cold regions have received considerably less attention. These indicate that most studies have been conducted in the eastern and southern regions, likely due to the higher distribution of traditional villages in these areas. This might be caused by the dense distribution of villages in this region. Finally, regarding user groups, most studies do not identify specific user groups since the studies focus solely on physical microclimate or using calculation methods. Thus, available data indicate that more research targets villagers than tourists [33].

The papers were published across 36 different journals, with the highest proportions being found for Environmental Research and Public Health (8%) and Buildings (8%) in English and Building Science (8%), Huazhong Architecture (8%), Western Journal of Human Settlements (8%), and Nanfang Architecture (8%) in Chinese. This indicates that a significant number of microclimate studies were featured in prominent journals.

3.2. Definitions, Scopes, and Framework

Based on the focus of included papers, this section reviews and redefines relevant concepts, including traditional villages and their outdoor spaces, physical microclimates, human comfort, and behavior, along with their interrelationships. The aim is to propose a classification framework of outdoor spatial mechanisms suited to traditional village contexts.

Existing studies defined traditional villages as a complex formed by the interaction of natural elements and human factors in a certain historical period and geographical environment [1,38]. For outdoor spaces, Xiong et al. (2022) divided outdoor spaces into site selection, edge spaces, streets and lanes, and public spaces, while Lv et al. (2021) categorized them into points, lines, and surfaces, which include buildings, streets, and open spaces such as village entrances, ancestral halls, private homes, streets, squares, and ponds [1,48]. Likewise, Tuoheti et al. (2021) emphasized the open public spaces of Karez, primarily composed of the Karez channels, green zones, and activity areas [43]. Some studies also define them based on user usage functions. Jin et al. (2018) argued that traditional rural areas play a central role in village life [25]. Washing, dining, and engaging in folk traditions are frequently exhibited in spaces such as those under willow trees, beside ponds, and in ancestral halls in public spaces, while Huang et al. (2018) observed that tourists in outdoor spaces exhibit adaptive behavior such as adjusting clothing and using an umbrella in public spaces [37]. Similarly, Chen et al. (2020) classified Yangtou Village’s public spaces into residential, transit, and resting areas based on villagers’ activities and the functional nature of the spaces, such as courtyards, streets, and gathering places [39]. Xiao et al. (2023) concentrated on courtyard spaces, describing them as semi-open spaces between buildings, commonly located next to street spaces, and frequently used by villagers for daily activities [10].

Although existing studies have defined and classified traditional villages and outdoor spaces from different perspectives, the current definitions and scope remain limited in addressing complex and unique village contexts. According to official statements, traditional villages refer to settlements established before the Republic of China era, distinguished by rich cultural heritage, relatively well-preserved structures, and formal recognition by the state for their historical, cultural, scientific, artistic, social, and economic significance, which possess rich scenic conditions [68].

Additionally, traditional villages can be classified by different scales and contexts such as historical period, regional culture, climate zone, and topology. According to spatial scale, traditional villages include macro-scale external environments such as site selection, meso-scale internal village morphology, and micro-scale individual residential buildings [15]. This means that the micro scale refers to small-scale, human-perspective spaces. Therefore, in outdoor spaces, the micro scale includes building details, specific greenings, and surface materials. In terms of historical development, most existing traditional villages were established from the Tang to Qing dynasties [66]. From the regional culture perspective, traditional villages can be categorized into 16 zones, such as Lingnan culture and Bashu culture region [67]. Regarding climatic and geographical distribution, they are found across all climate zones and landforms but are mainly concentrated in the subtropical monsoon and temperate monsoon regions, characterized by hot summer and cold winter or cold climates, and are typically located in mountainous, hilly terrains, and along rivers [69,70]. In terms of spatial use, current studies focus not only on the primary user villagers and tourists but also should consider future returnees, such as retired urban residents and returnee youth who may become an integral part of the rural community [71]. In summary, traditional outdoor spaces can be defined as settlements officially recognized and established before the Republic of China era, encompassing multi-contextual outdoor spaces used by villager-oriented multi-user groups [45,72].

Regarding microclimate, existing studies discuss its definition, connotation, and characteristics of key concepts. The first is physical microclimate, which is the unique physical climatic condition formed in a near-ground space influenced by design variables [4,39,49]. This microclimate includes key aspects of the thermal environment [1], which can be measured by four main variables: solar radiation, air temperature, surface temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity. The second is human comfort, which refers to an individual’s subjective perception and satisfaction with the outdoor environment [10] experienced by rural space users such as villagers and tourists [1]. Microclimate behavior as the third concept refers to actions individuals take to maintain comfort, such as adaptive and attendance behavior. For instance, tourists adapt differently from locals. They rely more on behavioral adaptations like adjusting clothing or seeking shade due to less flexibility in their schedules, while villagers adapt more easily due to their familiarity with the local climate [37]. Existing studies provide a relatively clear understanding and classification of microclimate fundamentals. Nevertheless, it remains necessary to further incorporate the diverse rural user groups in relation to comfort and behavioral patterns.

Together, traditional rural outdoor microclimate design mechanism studies can be defined as evaluating multi-contextual traditional rural outdoor spatial characteristics related to localized physical near-ground microclimatic conditions, human comfort, and behavioral responses of a villager-dominated multi-user group. Based on this definition, a new conceptual framework tailored to the traditional rural microclimate design mechanisms is put forward (Figure 5). It broadly illustrates how multiple scales and contextual traditional rural spatial design elements influence the physical microclimate, which influences the comfort and behavioral responses of multiple users. Specific contents will be discussed in the following section.

3.3. Indicators and Methodology

This section outlines the key indicators and methods used to assess microclimate. It provides detailed explanations of each indicator, including their common distributions, definitions, relevance, and the tools and methods used for evaluation. Additionally, it highlights the connections, differences, and advancements in these methods.

Table 4. Nomenclature of indicators.

Ta	Air temperature (°C)	SET	Standard Effective Temperature
Va	Wind speed (m/s)	THI	Temperature–humidity index
RH	Relative humidity (%)	WBGT	Wet-bulb globe temperature
G	Global radiation (w/m2)	UTCI	Universal thermal climate index
WD	Wind direction	PMV	Predicted mean vote
Tmrt	Mean radiant temperature	TSV	Thermal sensation vote
Tg	Globe temperature (°C)	TCV	Thermal comfort tote
Tsurf	Surface temperature	TP	Thermal preference
SH	Sunlight hours	TAC	Thermal acceptability
FCW	Frequency of calm winds	TE	Thermal expectation
PET	Physiological equivalent temperature	SU	Space usage behavior
		AB	Adaptation behavior

shows the nomenclature of indicators.

3.3.1. Indicators

Figure 6 presents how often the microclimate indicators were addressed. It shows that four primary parameters, namely air temperature (Ta), wind speed (Va), global radiation (G), and humidity (RH), are most commonly used in assessing physical microclimates. Air temperature directly influences convective heat exchange between the human body and its outdoor environment and indirectly influences radiative, evaporative, and respiratory heat exchanges [73]. Global radiation refers to the total amount of solar radiation received at a surface, including both direct radiation from the sun and diffuse radiation scattered by the atmosphere [74].

Figure 7 reveals that the PET (physiological equivalent temperature) is the most frequently used indicator, followed by the PMV (predicted mean vote), TSV (thermal sensation vote), and TCV (thermal comfort vote). PET simulates the thermal balance of the human body in complex outdoor environments by translating it into equal temperatures in standard indoor conditions using simulation and calculations [75,76]. By fully accounting for meteorological factors, geographical location, clothing, and individual characteristics, PET is particularly valuable and accurate for evaluating outdoor comfort and microclimate [51,75]. Therefore, PET provides a realistic and accurate representation of dynamic outdoor environments, making it a widely adopted indicator for evaluating outdoor microclimate. In contrast, PMV represents the average of participants’ subjective thermal sensation votes on a Likert scale from −4 (very cold) to +4 (very hot), with zero as a neutral state [52]. Although PMV also considers temperature, humidity, wind speed, radiant temperature, clothing, and metabolic rate, its ability to account for complex dynamic conditions is limited, making it more suitable for indoor environments. Moreover, TSV and TCV also represent averaged subjective ratings, but they focus on perceptions of warmth and coldness (TSV) and overall comfort level (TCV) [4].

Only a few of the papers involve behavior indicators (

Table 5. Behavior indicators.

Classifications	Indicators	Ref.
Space usage	Number of users	[25]
	Time slot	[37,49]
	Frequency	[26,50]
	Duration	[49]
	Behavior types	[49]
Adaptive behaviors	Adjusting clothing	[26,37]
	Using sun-shading umbrellas	[37]
	Resting underneath shading objects	[37]
	Drinking hot water and tea	[26]

). Specifically, the space usage behavior is divided into number, duration, frequency, and behavior type indicators, while adaptive behaviors mainly refer to behaviors such as adjusting clothing, using sun-shading umbrellas, resting underneath shading objects, and drinking hot water and tea or moving to sunshine [24,26,37].

3.3.2. Methodologies

Figure 8 presents the frequency of methods per indicator in the selected papers. The methods are categorized into five types: objective measurements, simulations and calculations, subjective surveys, and observations. Among these, field measurements are the most commonly employed method for assessing microclimate. Simulations and calculations are frequently used to evaluate both microclimate and human comfort indicators. Subjective surveys are primarily applied to assess human comfort, whereas observations are exclusively used to capture behavioral indicators.

(1)

Field Measurements

Field measurements provide a reliable means of measuring the rural microclimate due to their real record. Researchers typically follow three steps to measure microclimate data using various tools. First, researchers often use a 24 h automatic meteorological station as a reference point to collect local climate data to compare physical indicators. For example, Li and Zhou (2017) set up a portable automatic meteorological station on a 10 m high roof to record outdoor physical parameters for comparison with other microclimate factors [34]. However, due to the high cost and limited collecting range of meteorological stations, some studies directly download government meteorological data. Next, the researchers select a series of locations with specific spatial characteristics and monitor their thermal environment parameters using a transportable meteorological station. Wang et al. (2018) deployed 11 measuring points using a transportable meteorological station, the Lutron LM-8000, in the Songkou Traditional Town for three days to examine how rural outdoor landscape elements affect the microclimate [35].

Although transportable meteorological stations offer comprehensive, longer-term data and reduce possible errors from manual measurements, deploying more stations would be expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, most studies choose two or three single-function portable instruments, with the choice depending on the indicators being measured. For example, Jin et al. (2018) used a TES thermometer and hygrometer along with a thermal anemometer to measure the air temperature, air humidity, and wind speed at nine points, recording data once every 60 min at 1.5 m above the ground [25]. Similarly, Li and Zhou (2017) employed T-type thermocouples and extension wires to collect vertical temperature gradients centrally [34]. Finally, the results are analyzed using different methods. For instance, Wang et al. (2018) analyzed the correlation between landscape elements and the physical microclimate based on field measurement [35].

(2)

Simulations and calculations

Measuring in a real rural environment presents challenges, as controlling variables can be time-consuming and labor-intensive. However, advances in computer technology have made numerical modeling and calculation more popular. Numerical modeling involves simulating and predicting microclimate phenomena through mathematical models and computer algorithms [77], and these models tend to be integrated into software. Among the selected studies, ENVI-met emerged as the most widely used simulation tools [52], with version ENVI-met 5.5 (GmbH, Essen, Germany) being the most frequently adopted [54,61,63]. The strength of ENVI-met lies in its ability to comprehensively simulate dynamic climate factors, evaluate thermal comfort in whole areas, and provide a detailed, intuitive representation [1,53]. For example, Ye (2021) used ENVI-met to simulate local microclimate by inputting physical climate parameters and generating maps to assess the spatial effects on thermal comfort [46].

After simulation, a large number of studies often use the results of field measurement to verify and calibrate the Envi-met models, which ensures that the model’s prediction results are reliable and representative. Specifically, the simulated meteorological data are compared with the actual observed meteorological data to show if it has a high degree of coincidence [51] so that researchers can adjust the model parameters to make the model closer to the actual situation. Ma et al. (2021) applied on-site measurement for four days to conduct an Envi-met validation process, achieving a high degree of coincidence calculated by RMSE and R² models [26]. In addition to ENVI-met, the combination of Rhino (McNeel, Seattle, WA, USA)’s plugin: Ladybug and CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) or Fluent is also used for simulation and verification for complex terrain conditions [42] and focuses on a more professional wind environment separately [44,47]. Therefore, ENVI-met microclimate software is considered a reliable tool, primarily used in urban microclimate studies, environmental planning, architectural design, and landscape evaluation [10,46].

RayMan, in contrast, a diagnostic model, poses fisheye photographs to compute shading rates and incorporates customized outdoor climate data to estimate PET, which is crucial for assessing outdoor thermal comfort under different research purposes [37]. For example, Huang et al. (2018) input fisheye photos and future climate data into RayMan to calculate hourly PET distributions, allowing them to analyze the long-term shading effect under future climate scenarios [37]. Recently, some studies have started to combine both models to take advantage of different software to provide a comprehensive and accurate understanding of the thermal environment. For example, Xiong et al. (2022) applied ENVI-met to examine the relationship between spatial forms and local microclimate factors, while they used Rayman to calculate PET values separately in traditional Jiangnan villages [1]. Aside from RayMan, a small number of studies used formulas and other software to conduct calculations. For example, Wang et al. (2018) inputted temperature and humidity values into the THI formula for calculating thermal comfort [35]. In addition, Xiao et al. (2023) applied BIO-met software to calculate human thermal comfort [10].

(3)

Survey and observation

In addition to measurement and simulations, subjective survey and observation methods are often used to evaluate human comfort and behavior. For example, Li Jiaxin et al. (2023) distributed 338 valid TSV questionnaires at 31 measuring points, and the comfort level of the traditional village in Xishuangbanna was explored [4]. Similarly, Jin et al. (2018) observed the distribution and usage periods of users at each test point in public spaces by behavior annotation [25].

In summary, field measurements, simulations, calculations, observations, and surveys are essential methods for evaluating microclimate. For objective methods, measurements provide real-time data on climate variables, often using portable meteorological stations. However, due to the high cost and time commitment, validated simulations such as ENVI-met are suited for simulating and calculating complex and dynamic environments and broad spatial analysis and predictions. Other methods, such as RayMan and formula analysis, are also used to analyze human comfort according to different research purposes and conditions. For subjective methods, surveys and behavioral observations are effective tools for evaluating human comfort and behavior.

3.4. Spatial Design Mechanisms

This section further reports the spatial mechanisms influencing key microclimatic indicators under four contextual backgrounds and two user group conditions at three scales: (1) macro-scale site selection and natural surroundings, (2) meso-scale village geometry and spatial configuration, and (3) micro-scale building units and landscape elements.

3.4.1. Site Selection and Natural Surroundings

This section adopts a macro-scale perspective to investigate how site selection and natural surroundings influence microclimate and human comfort under four contextual scenarios.

The site selection and natural surroundings are typically structured according to the traditional wisdom ‘feng shui’ model, in which villages are situated on flat terrain at the center of the landscape, backed by mountains, facing water, and encircled by dense ‘feng shui’ forests and agricultural land. This spatial mode is traditionally believed to enhance the local microclimate and support a virtuous cycle among agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fisheries [78,79].

Historical perspective reflects the evolution of the “Feng Shui model” from simplicity to complexity, which can be divided into four stages: First, during the pre-Qin period (before the Qin Dynasty), site selection ideas mainly stemmed from practical living experiences. This period marked the initial emergence of environmental awareness, as considerations of surrounding natural features and orientation began to influence settlement decisions [80]. Existing studies have found that villages from this period, typically located to the north of water bodies, with a higher proportion of surrounding water and shorter distances to water sources, tend to benefit from improved microclimatic conditions. For example, Wu (2022) found that the surrounding water body ratio is positively correlated with cooling intensity, and shorter distance to water bodies was also associated with stronger cooling effects across seasons in summer [52]. Second, in the Qin–Han dynasties, the rise of the Yin-Yang and Five Elements theory, along with the invention of the si nan (an ancient compass), led to an emphasis on harmony between mountains and water and a clearer understanding of directional orientation. During this period, Feng Shui theories became increasingly systematized [80]. Studies have shown that the principles of “backing mountains and facing water” and accurate directional judgment contributed to improved microclimate. For instance, Ye (2021) indicated that in canyon-located villages, wind combined with evaporation from water bodies and canyon breezes increased village humidity by 13% and reduced air temperature by 4 °C in summer [46]. Third, during the Wei, Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties, the widespread use of compasses and the emergence of regional Feng Shui schools led to the near-perfection of Feng Shui theory. Site selection emphasized the principles of “storing wind and accumulating qi (air or energy)”. For example, Li et al. (2021) found that a C-shaped mountain enclosure blocked and reduced the monsoon in winter. In summer, breezes flowed through mountain valleys, and air circulation between mountains and water bodies brought cooler, more even air from the water to the land, reducing village temperatures [48]. Fourth, during the Ming and Qing dynasties, Feng Shui concepts reached their peak and were widely disseminated, culminating in the development of doctrines such as the “Four Qi Principles” and the integration of “Form School and Rationale School” (Xingfa and Lifa) [80]. During this period, greater emphasis was placed on harnessing natural air by aligning the villages with the airflow through watercourses and mountain formations, as well as the villages’ position. For instance, Xue et al. (2016) found that the enclosed mountain layout guided airflow through the combined effects of mountains and water bodies, enhancing evaporation and thermal circulation [33]. This process improved heat dissipation, reduced temperature, increased humidity, and enhanced thermal comfort. Similarly, Hu et al. (2021) found that villages located at the foot and shaded side of mountain slopes received less solar radiation, which helped reduce ambient temperatures [42].

While Feng Shui principles were widely adopted, their practical implementation varied notably among different cultural zones. In the Lianghuai and Wu-Yue cultural regions, Huizhou culture embodied humanistic values such as reverence for natural landscapes. Xue et al. (2016) found that natural mountains and water bodies contributed to lower summer temperatures, increased humidity, and improved heat dissipation, thereby enhancing overall thermal comfort [33]. This is attributed to valley winds that carried water vapor upward during the day, reducing temperature through thermal convection, while at night, descending cool air from the mountains increased ambient humidity. Similarly, in the Jiangnan cultural region, site selection emphasized the harmony between humans, buildings, nature (tian ren he yi), and the integration of Qi theory (energy flows) [81]. Xiong et al. (2022) indicated that a village adopted “backing the mountain and facing the water”, forming an enclosed space that helped block cold winter winds and reduce wind speed. In summer, the evapotranspiration of the water bodies contributed to lowering air temperature, while also facilitating local air circulation [1]. Together with the large open farmland acting as an airflow corridor, this configuration accelerated air movement and reduced air temperature. Comparable findings in the Lingnan region have also been reported by Lei et al. (2023), who found that winter wind speeds were lower due to mountain obstruction, while in summer, wind could flow through the terrain without significant hindrance [58]. In addition, in the Fujian–Taiwan region, Hakka culture emphasized the concept of ‘shuikou guanlan’, highlighting the importance of using mountainous terrain to contain and manage water bodies as a strategy to influence local climate. Cheng et al. (2020) studied villages situated in canyons intersected by rivers and found that proximity to surrounding water bodies significantly lowered temperatures and enhanced local airflow, leading to a marked increase in ambient humidity during autumn [41].

For climate classification, most studies focus on adopting natural strategies to reduce summer temperatures, while a few studies have also examined thermal insulation in severely cold areas. In the hot summer and cold winter region, where summers are hot and humid and winters are cold and damp, site selection often leverages mountainous enclosures to achieve a balance of warmth in winter and coolness in summer, thereby improving the microclimate. For instance, Xue et al. (2016) and Xiong et al. (2022) found that in villages influenced by ‘backed by mountains and facing water’, the surrounding mountainous enclosure generates valley winds and thermal circulation in summer, which increases wind speed and reduces air temperature [1,33]. At night, cold air sinks, lowering temperatures and increasing humidity. In winter, mountains act as a buffer to block cold winds from the north, while water bodies contribute to cooling and humidification. Similarly, in the hot-summer, warm-winter zone, where temperatures are high and humidity levels are elevated, villages mainly rely on water bodies for cooling. Cheng et al. (2020) found that proximity to surrounding water bodies helps lower temperature and enhance local airflow [41]. In mild climate zones, studies indicate that villages located at the foot of hills and on shaded slopes are more effective at cooling. Hu et al. (2021) concluded that such locations receive less solar radiation in summer, resulting in lower temperatures, whereas sun-facing slopes tend to be hotter due to prolonged exposure [42]. Notably, a few studies have focused on severely cold regions, where villages benefit from lower elevations to retain heat. In autumn and winter, Bian et al. (2024) observed that vertical temperature generally decreases with altitude, except on north-south facing slopes exposed to sunlight [62]. This suggests that villages located at lower altitudes are better protected from the cold.

From the perspective of topography, significant variations in microclimatic performance are observed across different landform types. In mountainous and hilly settlements, villages often enhance microclimate and thermal comfort through natural enclosures formed by mountainous elevation differences, surface vegetation, the synergistic effects of mountains and water bodies, and the villages’ orientation toward shaded slopes [1,42,48,57]. For example, Lv et al. (2021) demonstrated that elevation differences of mountains promote air circulation within open spaces and provide shielding from solar radiation, thereby improving solar protection in summer [48]. However, Ye (2021) noted that the low specific heat capacity of mountain soils might reduce comfort since the surface temperatures rise rapidly under sunlight, often exceeding ambient temperatures [46]. In plain regions, settlements are typically located near rivers, lakes, or areas with abundant groundwater resources [82], where the presence of surrounding water bodies and higher water body rates play a significant role in enhancing microclimate and comfort. Zang et al. (2023) found that in villages situated south of Taihu Lake, humid winds originating from the lake are drawn into the settlement, contributing to reduced temperatures and elevated humidity during summer [3]. Likewise, Cheng et al. (2023) showed that an increase in the area of surrounding water bodies can significantly reduce the summer overall PET [8]. Furthermore, studies have indicated that villages located in basin regions often benefit from the evapotranspiration of surrounding agricultural land. For instance, Li Jing et al. (2023) found that transpiration from adjacent farmlands can lower surrounding temperatures by up to 5 °C, increase wind speeds, help channel moisture-laden breezes into the village, thereby enhancing summer humidity levels [54]. Ye (2021) found that vegetation and farmlands (e.g., arbors, shrubs, vineyards) could reduce ambient temperatures by up to 2 °C and improve thermal comfort, as evidenced by lower PMV values in nearby areas during high-heat scenarios [46].

Overall, from the perspective of historical and cultural regions, site selection and surrounding environments have been largely influenced by the “Feng Shui model”, such as backing onto mountains and facing water, or being enclosed by mountains. In addition, from the perspectives of climate and topography, the “Feng Shui patterns” such as elevation differences in mountainous areas and the lower elevations of village position also contribute to better adaptation to local climates and topography. These macro spatial characteristics have been shown to enhance microclimatic conditions and improve thermal comfort for villagers.

3.4.2. Village Geometry and Nature Configuration

Village geometry and nature configuration refer to general and regional spatial morphology inside villages, as well as the extensive internal greening and paving. These elements influence the relevant microclimate and comfort.

From a historical perspective, villages in the pre-Qin period were loosely arranged without explicit planning, and their spatial forms largely followed the natural topography. During the Qin and Han periods, some villages began to adopt a “central-axis symmetrical” architectural layout, and functional zoning became more defined. Existing studies have shown that spaces with building shadows, internal water bodies, and vegetation lower summer solar radiation and air temperatures, thereby enhancing thermal comfort. In contrast, densely built areas with poor airflow tended to retain midday heat, reducing comfort levels [10,43,46]. Subsequently, during the Wei, Jin, Tang, and Song periods, a spatial structure characterized by “axis–node–network” emerged, emphasizing specific public space design. The openness of the space and the street scale of this period improved the microclimate and comfort. In summer, higher SVF, larger water surface areas, the presence of vegetation, street layouts aligned with prevailing summer winds, and canyon effects caused by varying street forms all contributed to increased wind speeds, lower temperatures, and enhanced thermal comfort. In winter, open spaces with low street H/W ratios facilitated greater solar radiation absorption and improved air exchange, leading to better thermal conditions [38,47,49,59]. However, overly dense vegetation near large water bodies could sometimes reduce comfort by increasing humidity and excessively lowering temperatures [35,55]. Finally, in the Yuan, Ming, and Qing periods, more standardized and typified layouts—such as the “chessboard pattern”—emerged, accompanied by increased building density, which improved microclimate and comfort. Studies have indicated that the grid-like streets in a chessboard layout aligned with prevailing wind directions, improving ventilation [3]. Moreover, the higher building density led to reduced spacing between structures, high shading ratios, narrow street canyons, and lower solar radiation exposure, ultimately reducing the village’s standard effective temperature (SET) [42,83].

In terms of topography, villages in mountainous and hilly regions are typically constructed in accordance with the natural terrain and river systems. Their layouts often take elongated, stepped, curved, or irregular forms to facilitate access to arable land and water resources [82]. Studies have shown that stepped spatial configurations in mountainous settlements can enhance wind flow and improve the microclimate during summer. For instance, Zhang Q. et al. (2023) found that mountain-type villages are generally arranged along the terrain in a stepped layout perpendicular to contour lines [57]. The elevation differences between dwellings create “wind ladders” that facilitate vertical airflow, thereby enhancing the local microclimates. In contrast, villages located in basins often adopt a clustered layout. Groups of buildings positioned near natural elements—such as vegetation, water bodies, and farmland—and arranged in a staggered manner according to terrain features have been found to improve microclimate and thermal comfort. Ye (2021) reported that cooling effects were most pronounced in building clusters near plants, water systems, and crops [46]. Similarly, Li X. et al. (2021) observed that staggered spatial layouts can effectively reduce wind speeds, thereby contributing to enhanced comfort levels. Finally, in plains where topographic constraints are minimal, villages tend to exhibit a “centralized and orderly” layout, maximizing the use of open space [47]. Due to this situation, existing research indicates that plain villages often feature denser building patterns and narrower streets, which help optimize the summer microclimate and comfort. For example, Lei et al. (2023) found that higher-density building patterns result in streets with higher H/W ratios, ranging from 1.9 to 5.5, which led to a reduction in the SVF to approximately 44.5% and an increase in shading percentage to about 63.6% [58]. This configuration effectively reduced solar radiation and air temperature, increased wind speed, and ultimately improved thermal comfort during the summer. However, the hard pavement in villages during this period may have reduced comfort. Y. Cheng et al. (2022) showed that the PET value had a considerable positive correlation with the proportion of artificial hard underlying surface, resulting in discomfort [51].

Regarding local cultural influences, distinct characteristics emerge across different cultural regions. In the Lianghuai and the Wuyue cultural area, the Huizhou region demonstrates a unique “diagrammatic worship” in its overall village layout, which contributes to microclimate enhancement through the strategic incorporation of water features [84]. A notable example is the “Nine Dragons Playing with a Pearl” pattern, where several narrow alleys lead to a central, low-lying pond, and this pond is connected to open drainage channels along the alleys, enabling rainwater runoff to flow into the pond, evoking the imagery of nine dragons frolicking in water. Existing research has found that this model improves the microclimate and comfort. For example, in summer, Yao et al. (2024) found that this spatial configuration increased air humidity and reduced ambient temperature, thereby enhancing thermal comfort [61]. This may be due to the large amount of evaporation from the channels, which lowers the temperature. In addition, southern cultural regions such as Lingnan and Fujian–Taiwan also exhibit climate-responsive features such as “cold alleys” (traditional narrow alleys for cooling) that improve physical microclimates and comfort. For instance, Chen X. et al. (2013) observed that in “cold alleys”, high H/W ratios, shading areas, and traditional thick walls composed of high-thermal-mass materials, such as adobe, brick, and reinforced concrete, helped retain cool air at night and release stored heat during the day, thus moderating outdoor temperatures during spring and summer [31].

In addition, climatic regions play a critical role in shaping the spatial configuration of settlements across regions. In hot summer and cold winter regions, where precipitation is abundant, microclimate and thermal comfort are often improved through waterfront spaces and narrow alleys, as well as the integration of water bodies. Ma C. D. et al. (2019) identified that waterfront spaces and low H/W streets are generally more comfortable [38]. Moreover, Yao et al. (2024) and Y. Cheng et al. (2022) found that villages characterized by higher water body rates exhibited higher air humidity and lower temperatures and PETs, thus enhancing thermal comfort in summer [51,61]. In winter, Jin et al. (2018) noted that vegetation not only increased humidity but also helped block cold seasonal winds, further contributing to comfort. In hot summer and warm winter regions, the climate is not only hot but also humid, with frequent typhoons and heavy rainfall [25]. In these areas, systematic spatial layouts and narrow streets are commonly adopted to improve the microclimate. For example, Xiao Y. et al. (2018) found that a village has a spatial system composed of cool alleys, ponds, greenery, and courtyard spaces—forming a “lane–corridor–courtyard–hall” configuration that contributes to moderating humidity, reducing solar radiation, and enhancing wind conditions [36]. In addition, Xiao Y. et al. (2018) and Li K. & Zhao (2014) indicated that combo-like layout aligned with the prevailing wind direction and narrow alleys can enhance wind speed and reduce temperature [32,36]. However, they also stated that narrow alleys may lead to increased humidity and temperature. Therefore, in this region, appropriately wider street spaces are more conducive to reducing humidity. In warm regions, spatial density and comfort are generally moderate. Therefore, Li J., Qu, et al. (2023) found no strong correlation between overall spatial SVF and PET. However, open spaces with higher SVF can still experience stronger solar radiation, temperature, and PET values [4]. Additionally, this study found that vegetation plays a critical role in enhancing comfort and semi-enclosed spaces as it provides more comfortable PET levels due to increased shading in spring. Finally, in cold and severely cold regions, thermal insulation is prioritized. Villages typically adopt wind-resistant and compact layouts to reduce the impact of cold winds. During autumn and winter, Bian et al. (2024) found that building layouts oriented perpendicular to prevailing winds, combined with compact spatial configurations, effectively mitigated gust effects and enhanced thermal insulation [62]. The average temperature difference between buildings in such layouts was measured at 1.25 °C.

Overall, meso-level village geometry is also influenced by the Feng Shui and regional cultures, climates, and topographies. Regarding spatial geometry, chessboard and stepped layouts, shaded and greenery spaces, greater spatial openness, and higher building density tend to enhance microclimate and comfort. Moreover, natural configurations such as a higher proportion of water bodies and vegetation also contribute to improved microclimate and comfort. Nevertheless, some studies have noted that villages exhibit excessively high densities, narrower streets, and hard underlying surfaces, which may further undermine microclimate performance and comfort.

3.4.3. Building Units and Landscape Elements

Building units and landscape elements focus on the building units, small-scale greenery, and surface materials within the spaces on the micro level. These characteristics affect microclimate, comfort, and behavior.

At the micro scale, existing studies have not found significant influences from historical periods or geographical features. However, microclimate may be shaped by climate and cultural regions. First, in hot-summer and cold-winter regions such as the Lianghuai region, the Confucian notion of “moderation and balance” is reflected in traditional Jiangnan villages through the regulation of building height. Studies have found that lower building heights can enhance summer wind speed. Xiong et al. (2022) indicated a positive correlation between reduced building height and increased average wind speed in summer [1]. In winter, wind mitigation strategies are also employed in Fujian villages by landscape structures [1]. Chen X. et al. (2020) found that retaining walls function as effective windbreaks, reducing airflow and lowering wind speeds in sheltered areas [40]. Regarding planting, scattered deciduous trees and multi-layered plant configurations are commonly adopted to optimize outdoor comfort across seasons. Qin & Zhou (2024) found that scattered deciduous trees can provide effective ventilation, reduce temperatures in spring, summer, and autumn, and receive more solar radiation to keep warm in winter, while scattered plant arrangement reduced average humidity by up to 0.68% in summer and 0.82% in autumn [63]. Xiong et al. (2022) further demonstrated that mixed plantings with varying canopy heights in semi-open green spaces improve comfort in both summer and winter [1]. Second, in hot-summer and warm-winter regions, especially in the Lingnan region, large evergreen trees are often planted in front of houses to regulate the microclimate. Chen. et al. (2022) reported that large evergreen trees can reduce ambient temperatures and enhance air circulation during summer [49]. This may be due to the fact that large evergreen trees provide a larger area of shade and regulate wind speed through the canopy. Third, in warm regions, building eaves and local materials are considered to effectively enhance the microclimate. In the Bashu region, the design of building eaves is considered beneficial for summer microclimate regulation by providing shade. Li et al. (2021) emphasized that extended eaves contribute to mutual shading between buildings, improving thermal comfort [47]. In the Thornychu region, traditional blue bricks and bluestone slabs are traditionally used to reduce temperature and maintain humidity. This may be because bluestone materials are more easily obtained in mountainous areas. Through comparative experiments, Lv et al. (2021) found that using local blue bricks for walls and pavements resulted in the lowest average air temperatures in summer, outperforming materials like cement and stone [48]. Similarly, bluestone-paved roads exhibited lower temperatures compared to asphalt, sandy soil, and cement surfaces. Finally, in cold regions, certain areas employ small-scale water bodies (e.g., canals and ponds) to increase local humidity and moderate the thermal environment under arid conditions. Zhao et al. (2024) reported that traditional water storage systems (LPS) effectively raise the surrounding relative humidity in summer [65]. Similarly, Chen X. et al. (2020) observed that water channels in narrow alleys increased spatial humidity, with levels exceeding 60% in the afternoon, thereby contributing to thermal comfort in winter [40].

Regarding rural user groups, existing studies primarily focus on villagers and tourists, including spatial usage and adaptive behavior. Regarding villagers, a windward open space can improve their usage behavior. For example, Chen W. et al. (2022) observed that the open space in the south-facing direction exposed to the prevailing wind resulted in higher wind speeds and greater comfort, encouraging longer use [49]. However, they also indicated that wall shielding in the space tends to have higher summer temperatures, resulting in discomfort and shorter stays [49]. This may be due to the wall blocking the cool breeze. K.-T. Huang et al. (2018) observed that in summer, with higher solar radiation, villagers tend to come out of indoors and engage in outdoor activities in semi-open shaded areas after 15:00 [37]. Moreover, studies have documented that large trees and shade facilities can facilitate tourists’ adaptive behavior, which are different preferences in open spaces. In summer, K.-T. Huang et al. (2018) observed that due to the limited shaded areas in open spaces, villagers primarily cope with summer heat by seeking shelter under large trees or within shaded alleys, while tourists tend to adjust their clothing, use umbrellas, or rest in cooler, shaded spots [37]. In winter, X. Ma et al. (2021) found that villagers favor clothing adjustments, using hot-water bottles, and drinking hot beverages like tea to stay warm due to their practicality and low cost [26].

In summary, building units contribute to improved microclimate and comfort through detailed design elements such as reduced building heights and extended eaves. Likewise, landscape features, including localized plant arrangements, small water bodies, the use of local paving materials, and the presence of retaining walls, also play a significant role. In terms of behavioral responses, windward open spaces, the presence of large trees, and shading facilities enhance both villagers’ and visitors’ spatial usage and adaptive behavior.

4. Discussion

4.1. Implications

In response to the challenges posed by urbanization and climate change to rural microclimate environments, these findings offer important theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, a systematic PRISMA review was conducted, resulting in the inclusion of 42 Chinese- and English-language studies. So far, this review has identified prevailing research trends, synthesized key concepts, frameworks, indicators, and methodologies, and focused on spatial mechanisms across different scales, contexts, and user groups. The findings indicate the following:

1. General results: This review reveals a growing trend in microclimate design mechanism studies, with a primary focus on three key microclimatic dimensions: physical microclimate, human comfort, and human behavior. Compared with the three dimensions themselves, spatial design has conducted extensive explorations on microclimate and comfort, while behavioral aspects remain underexplored. Regarding different conditions, this review found that the research is more focused on the eastern and southern regions characterized by “hot-summer cold-winter” and mountainous regions, and rarely on high-altitude plateau areas with particularly extremely cold areas, such as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, studies on which are almost nonexistent. This is likely due to the “hot-summer cold-winter” climate and mountainous regions having rich traditional village distributions [69,70]. However, there are unique ethnical cultural characteristics and climatic design wisdom in plateau areas. For example, in regions such as Nyingchi in Tibet and western Sichuan, rich climate-adaptive wisdom can be found in site selection that integrates agricultural grasslands and in the use of materials such as loess and timber [85]. However, the outdoor microclimate design strategies in these areas still warrant further investigation.

2. Definitions, scopes, and framework: This review redefines key concepts and scopes and synthesizes their interrelationships into a new conceptual framework. Existing research tends to offer fragmented and unsystematic definitions and classifications. To address this gap, we summarize authoritative interpretations from multiple perspectives and propose revised definitions and categories to enhance the understanding of the microclimate mechanisms. Based on these revised definitions and scopes and existing correlations, we propose a new framework: multiscale and context-specific rural design characteristics influence microclimate and thermal comfort, which in turn shape the behaviors of diverse rural user groups. This is similar to the findings of Wu et al. (2023) and Wu J. & Liang (2019), who summarized the mechanisms in urban environments [13,14]. However, they did not propose a clear framework and specific explanation to express the spatial mechanisms, making it difficult to guide specific design practices. Additionally, simplified urban-centered models are not applicable to complex and unique rural settings.

3. Indicators and methodology: This review has found that primary rural physical indicators are air temperature, wind speed, thermal radiation, and humidity, which are basically consistent with the urban review [20]. In addition, comfort indicators mainly focus on PET, PMV, TSV, and TCV, while J. Li & Liu (2020) found that PET, PMV, UTCI, and SET* are the four most commonly used thermal comfort indices in urban areas [20]. This may be due to the complex conditions in rural areas, where subjective indicators are better suited to reflect the diverse villagers’ genuine thermal perceptions and experiences. Regarding behavior indicators, only space usage and adaptive behaviors have been found. However, existing urban reviews have not addressed behavioral aspects. Finally, this study has found that the main research methods include field measurement, simulation calculation, survey, and observation, while urban research is relatively richer, including scale models, remote sensing, outdoor laboratories, etc. [22]. This may be attributed to the fact that these methods had the advantage of controlled variables in earlier urban studies [22]. However, with the advancement of computing, field measurements combined with simulation validation have become more efficient, accurate, and low-cost, making them commonly used in both city and rural research [22].

4. Spatial design mechanisms: This study has reviewed spatial characteristics that may affect the physical microclimate, comfort, and behavior across four contexts from the macro to micro scale. The results indicate that most studies have confirmed that on a macro scale, the traditional “feng shui model”, including site selection, has a dominant influence on microclimates and comfort and is influenced by different cultural, terrain, and climate regions. At the meso scale, spatial geometries such as chessboard-like layouts and natural configurations adapted to local cultures and conditions contribute to improved microclimates and comfort levels. At the micro scale, building units that use detailed design and local materials also play a significant role. The study further reveals that villagers and tourists exhibit different behavioral responses, which are facilitated by spatial features such as windward open spaces and the presence of large trees.

An existing review on cities [22] shows an effort to mitigate urban heat islands. For example, Lai et al. (2019) concluded that compact spaces, streets that follow wind speed, vegetation, and water bodies can improve microclimate and comfort [22]. These strategies are suitable for urban outdoor environments with high density, where hard pavement is dominant and urban residents are the main users. However, traditional villages were influenced by culture and adapted to local conditions, resulting in entirely different spatial characteristics such as natural surroundings, local surfaces, and water ponds. In addition, the comfort and behavior responses of villagers and tourists are different [24]. Therefore, urban strategies are inapplicable to rural contexts. Igloos in the Arctic, bamboo houses in Southeast Asia, and cave dwellings in the Mediterranean also demonstrate climate-responsive features through building layout, landscape design, and surface materials, similar to the principle of adapting to local conditions observed in China [86]. However, due to the complexity and uniqueness of China’s historical, geographical, climatic, and cultural contexts, traditional Chinese villages exhibit distinctive climate adaptation characteristics, particularly in terms of cultural practices such as “fengshui” and chessboard layouts and the diversity of climatic and topographical conditions.

Together, the findings of this review may contribute to modern microclimate design theory from the perspective of traditional Chinese villages.

For practical purposes, landscape designers, urban planners, and policymakers will have a better understanding of how traditional Chinese rural villages influence microclimate and users and scientifically adopt climate-responsive design strategies based on these classifications to improve the rural microclimate. In this way, the findings could contribute to rural sustainability and climate change.

4.2. Limitations

This review has certain limitations that should be acknowledged. First, some relevant studies might have been excluded or omitted since access to the databases was restricted and keywords were limited due to different terminologies. For example, unpublished or non-open access materials, such as dissertations, could not be included, and studies addressing the rural aspects of cities, such as “villages” in urban settings or comparative studies between a city and a village, may have been omitted. In addition, new studies are continually emerging, and the keyword strategy will need to be updated in future reviews.

4.3. Future Research

In light of our findings, future research is encouraged to enrich the existing contextual frameworks through empirical exploration of more diverse climate and cultural regions, seasons, and user groups. This would contribute to a more comprehensive and context-sensitive understanding of the traditional Chinese village microclimatic design mechanisms. Future studies should also explore more microclimatic factors, such as the socio-economic impacts of microclimate.

5. Conclusions

Under the impact of global climate change and urbanization, traditional Chinese rural outdoor spaces are experiencing a climate adaptation crisis. However, few reviews have focused on outdoor microclimate design mechanisms in rural areas. This systematic review aims to synthesize and evaluate the outdoor microclimate spatial design mechanism studies in traditional Chinese villages noted for their uniqueness and complexity. It identifies current general research trends; summarizes concepts, frameworks, indicators, and methodologies; focuses on spatial mechanisms across scales, contexts, and user groups; and outlines directions for future research. Finally, it has been shown that different traditional rural outdoor spaces can generally regulate microclimate and provide a more comfortable environment due to different spatial characteristics, and there is still a need for improvement in some areas with a scientific design strategy. In addition, this review has also identified important research gaps and shown that more factors need to be considered, such as more applicable contexts, user groups, and factors. This review can hopefully serve as a valuable resource for scholars seeking to expand their knowledge and for landscape designers, urban planners, and policymakers aiming to enhance microclimates in rural environments so as to improve the quality of life for both villagers and tourists.