Theoretical Justification, International Comparison, and System Optimization for Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets in China
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Literature Review
1.3. Methods
1.3.1. Literature Analysis
1.3.2. Normative Analysis
1.3.3. Comparative Analysis
2. The Theoretical Justification for Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets in China
2.1. The Rights System and the Subject’s Ownership of Natural Resource Assets
2.1.1. Holder of the Right to Ownership—State or Collective
2.1.2. Holder of the Right to Use—Market Subjects
2.1.3. Holder of the Right to Supervision—Multiple Subjects
2.2. System Functions for Comprehensive Supervision of Nature Resource Assets
2.2.1. The Product of Cohesive Social Functional Objectives
2.2.2. The Rational Paradigm for Achieving Efficient Resource Allocation
2.2.3. Adaptive Response to Externalities of Common Property
3. The International Comparison for Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets in China
3.1. Current Situation of Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets in China
3.2. Conceptual Coherence in the International Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets
3.3. Categorization of Comprehensive Supervision of International Natural Resource Assets
4. The System Optimization for Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets in China
4.1. Source Conservation: The Categorization of Natural Resource Assets
4.1.1. Supervision of Operational Natural Resource Assets
4.1.2. Supervision of Public Welfare Natural Resource Assets
4.2. Transaction Evaluation: The Integration of Resource Asset Economic Value and Ecosystem Service Value
4.3. Methodological Innovation: Establishment of the Big Data Center for Natural Resource Assets
4.3.1. Necessity of Establishing the Big Data Center for Natural Resource Assets
4.3.2. Implementation Strategy of Establishing the Big Data Center for Natural Resource Assets
4.3.3. Specific Measures for Establishing the Big Data Center for Natural Resource Assets
4.4. Multi-Participation: Coordination and Connection of Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets
5. Conclusions
- Firstly, although this paper proposes optimizing the comprehensive supervision system for natural resource assets by constructing a phased supervision framework, certain recommendations still lack operational precision. Future research could integrate field research with empirical data research combining quantitative metrics (e.g., econometric modeling) and qualitative assessments (stakeholder interviews) to enhance policy implementation ability.
- Secondly, while addressing procedural supervision stages, we recognize that comprehensive supervision requires multi-stakeholder collaboration, such as industry organizations and the public. Future research could further discuss the aspects of supervision subjects, and explore the synergistic supervision model of multiple subjects, especially the mechanism design of social public participation and integration of stakeholder collaboration (public–private–society).
- Thirdly, this paper analyzes the legal system of comprehensive supervision of natural resource assets from three aspects, theoretical proof, international comparison, and system optimization, but the optimization of this system includes many contents, such as the establishment of a natural resource asset evaluation system, etc. Due to the limited scope, the above issues are the targets of future in-depth research that can be continued in this field, contributing to modernizing the natural resource governance paradigm of China, while reinforcing the development of new quality productivity and the construction of a national security guarantee system.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AI | Artificial intelligence |
DAFF | Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry |
GEP | Gross Ecosystem Production |
GIS | Geographic Information System |
GPS | Global Position System |
IUFRO | International Union of Forest Research Organizations |
MAFF | Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries |
NGOs | Non-governmental organizations |
REDD | Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation |
SDG | Sustainable Development Goal |
SEEA | System of Environmental and Economic Accounting |
UNCCD | United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification |
UNFCCC | United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |
USDA | United States Department of Agriculture and Rural Affairs |
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Comparative Dimension | International Practice | Chinese Practice |
---|---|---|
Supervisory System | Integrated super-ministry system (e.g., the Ministry of Environment and Resources) | Super-ministry system Restructuring (e.g., the Ministry of Natural Resources) |
Technology Application | Space–Air–Ground Integrated Monitoring (e.g., Landsat + IoT) | Development of the Basic Information Platform of Territorial Space |
Property Rights System | Full coverage of natural resource assets confirmation and registration | Unified Confirmation and Registration System of Natural Resources initiated in 2016 (pilot implementation) |
Value Accounting | Integration into National Economic Accounting following the System of Environmental and Economic Accounting (SEEA) international standards | Shenzhen and other areas are piloting Gross Ecosystem Production (GEP) calculations, but national standards have not yet been established |
Accountability Mechanism | Institutionalization of environmental audits and exit audits | Implementation of Natural Resource Assets Departure Audit on leading cadres |
Name (Enactment/Latest Amendment Date) | Content Related to Ownership, Development, Protection, and Legal Liability of Natural Resource Assets |
---|---|
Mineral Resources Law (amended 8 November 2024) | Art. 4: Ownership Art. 9: Competent authorities Arts. 16–29: Mining rights establishment/transfer Arts. 30–43: Exploration/mining requirements Arts. 44–49: Ecological restoration of mining areas Arts. 50–55: Mineral reserves/emergency management Arts. 56–61: Supervision duties Arts. 62–76: Legal liability |
Marine Environmental Protection Law (amended 24 October 2023) | Art. 5: Competent authorities Arts. 12–32: Supervision system Arts. 33–45: Ecological conservation Arts. 46–60: Land-sourced pollution control Arts. 61–70: Construction project pollution control Arts. 71–78: Waste dumping control Arts. 79–92: Vessel pollution control Arts. 93–119: Legal liability |
Wildlife Protection Law (amended 30 December 2022) | Art. 3: Ownership Art. 7: Competent authorities Arts. 10–19: Wildlife/habitat protection Arts. 20–44: Wildlife management Arts. 45–63: Legal liability |
Wetland Protection Law (adopted on 24 December 2021) | Art. 5: Competent authorities Arts. 12–22: Wetland resource management Arts. 23–36: Wetland conservation and utilization Arts. 37–44: Wetland restoration Arts. 45–50: Supervision and inspection Arts. 51–62: Legal liability |
Grassland Law (amended 29 April 2021) | Art. 8: Competent authorities Arts. 9–16: Ownership Arts. 17–25: Planning Arts. 26–32: Construction Arts. 33–41: Utilization Arts. 42–55: Protection Arts. 56–60: Supervision and inspection Arts. 61–73: Legal liability |
Forest Law (amended 28 December 2019) | Art. 9: Competent authorities Arts. 14–22: Ownership Arts. 23–27: Forest planning Arts. 28–41: Resource protection Arts. 47–65: Management operations Arts. 66–69: Supervision and inspection Arts. 70–82: Legal liability |
Land Administration Law (amended 26 August 2019) | Art. 2: Ownership Art. 5: Competent authorities Arts. 9–14: Land ownership/use rights Arts. 15–29: Master planning Arts. 30–43: Cultivated land protection Arts. 44–66: Construction land use Arts. 67–73: Supervision and inspection Arts. 74–84: Legal liability |
Rural Land Contracting Law (amended 29 December 2018) | Arts. 2–11: Ownership/contract management system Art. 12: Competent authority |
Coal Law (amended 7 November 2016) | Art. 3: Ownership Art. 12: Competent authorities Arts. 14–19: Development planning Arts. 20–38: Production/safety requirements Arts. 39–47: Operational regulations Arts. 48–52: Resource conservation Arts. 53–56: Supervision and inspection Arts. 57–66: Legal liability |
Water Law (amended 2 July 2016) | Art. 3: Ownership Arts. 12–13: Competent authorities Arts. 14–19: Integrated planning Arts. 20–29: Development and utilization Arts. 30–43: Resource protection Arts. 44–55: Allocation/conservation Arts. 56–63: Dispute resolution/supervision Arts. 64–77: Legal liability |
Fisheries Law (amended 28 December 2013) | Arts. 6–9: Competent authorities Arts. 28–37: Conservation/fishing regulations Arts. 38–49: Legal liability |
Agriculture Law (amended 28 December 2012) | Arts. 57–66: Agricultural resources and environmental protection |
Protection of Sea Islands Law (adopted on 26 December 2009) | Arts. 2–5: Ownership Arts. 8–15: Island protection planning Arts. 16–39: Island conservation Arts. 40–43: Supervision and inspection Arts. 44–55: Legal liability |
Renewable Energy Law (amended 26 December 2009) | Art. 5: Competent authorities Arts. 6–9: Development planning Arts. 10–12: Industrial guidance/technical support Arts. 13–18: Promotion and application Arts. 19–23: Price/cost management Arts. 24–27: Incentives/supervision Arts. 28–31: Legal liability |
Administration of Sea Areas Law (adopted on 27 October 2001) | Arts. 3–6: Ownership registration Art. 7: Competent authorities Arts. 10–15: Functional zoning Arts. 16–18: Application and approval procedures for resource asset utilization Arts. 19–32: Acquisition of maritime space use rights and dispute resolution Arts. 33–36: Collection of maritime space use fees Arts. 37–41: Supervision and inspection of maritime space use management Arts. 42–51: Legal liability |
Release Date | Document Title and Issuing Authority | Content Related to Comprehensive Oversight of Natural Resource Assets |
---|---|---|
August 2024 | Implementation Opinions of the Ministry of Natural Resources on Protecting and Sustainably Utilizing Natural Resources to Solidly Promote the Construction of a Beautiful China | Improve the property rights system and management framework for natural resource assets. …Refine the Principal-agent Mechanism of Natural Resources Assets owned by the whole people, establish accountability systems for ecological protection, natural resource conservation, asset value maintenance, and supervision. … Promote institutional development for integrated allocation of multiple natural resource elements. |
December 2017 | General Office of Ministry of Land and Resources (now Ministry of Natural Resources): Notice on Selecting the Third Batch of High-Level Innovative Scientific and Technological Talents in Field of Land and Resources | Focus on key innovation areas including deep earth exploration, deep-sea exploration, deep-space land observation, and land science. Gather and cultivate high-end talents in Land resource investigation and spatial optimization development, …comprehensive supervision of natural resources, high-precision land resource surveys, research and application of big data cognition on land and resources, and other important innovation directions. |
December 2016 | General Office of Ministry of Land and Resources (now Ministry of Natural Resources): Implementation Plan for Deepening Standardization Reform in Land and Resources | Implement the “Land and Resources Standardization + Integrated Natural Resource Management” initiative. Establish integrated standardization systems for integrated natural resource management following resource workflows. |
October 2016 | State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping: 13th Five-Year Plan for Surveying and Mapping Geographic Information Technology Development | Conduct surveying technology and geographic information application research in land and resources sectors, including mineral resource exploration, geological disaster monitoring, land resource remote sensing monitoring, and comprehensive supervision of natural resources. |
September 2016 | Ministry of Land and Resources (now Ministry of Natural Resources): 13th Five-Year Plan for Scientific and Technological Innovation in Land and Resources | Elevate comprehensive supervision capabilities of natural resources. By focusing on solving prominent issues in land development, innovate theories and methods for comprehensive supervision of natural resources. …Deepen research on comprehensive supervision of natural resources. |
July 2016 | Ministry of Land and Resources (now Ministry of Natural Resources): Implementation Opinions on Promoting Big Data Application in Land and Resources | Advance data sharing of land and resources to enable coordinated and unified management of natural resources, enhance effectiveness of national comprehensive supervision of natural resources. |
July 2007 | Regulations onComprehensive Management of Agricultural Natural Resources of Hubei Province | Article 2 (3): “Comprehensive management” refers to comprehensive activities including survey, monitoring, evaluation, regional planning, and planning of agricultural natural resources, as well as coordination and supervision of their development, utilization, and protection of agricultural natural resources. |
Elements | Main Contents |
---|---|
Nature | Philosophical ideas; logical and appealing concepts; systems processes; conceptual systems; research methods; management methods; conscious processes; mode of mindset; and natural resource management strategies. |
Goals and goal trade-offs | Political goals (enhance human well-being; promote resource security, poverty alleviation, disaster mitigation, and reduce risk of emergencies); economic and social goals (maximize economic and social wealth, livelihood and income security, food security, and value addition; improve quality of life, and improve community conditions); ecological goals (maximize ecosystem services, health of the Earth’s ecosystems, ecosystem integrity or connectivity, ecosystem resilience, ecosystem resistance, ecosystem resilience, ecosystem adaptation, biodiversity, conservation of natural resources, restoration and rehabilitation of nature, multiple landscape benefits, sustaining quality of life, etc.); and cultural objectives (increasing recreation and leisure opportunities); trade-offs between multiple objectives; resolving uncertainty; and preventing risk. |
Principles and concepts | Generic principles philosophy (equity, fairness, and efficiency); sustainable development; adaptability; resilience; flexibility; responsiveness; iteration; learning; nature-based solutions; process orientation; appropriate spatial and temporal scales; arbitrary scaling of spatial and temporal scales; participatory management; systemic approaches; precautionary and precautionary principles; consideration of cumulative impacts; innovative application of new technologies, methods, and tools; based on the best available science; valuing local and traditional knowledge; internalization of ecological cost-effectiveness; management in an economic system; bottom-up; recognition of lag effects; balance between conservation and use; and recognition of broader linkages. |
Subjective or objects and relational patterns | Multi-sectoral: government agencies; natural resources sector; water resources sector; environment sector; urban and rural administration, etc.; non-governmental organizations; research institutions; consumer groups; and stakeholders such as communities. Multidisciplinary themes: science; economics; law; biology; ecology; sociology; geography; and natural resources. Multiple modes of relational engagement: shared responsibility; joint committees; inter-agency cooperation agreements; memorandums of understanding; Internet synergies; participatory techniques; joint action; cooperative coordination; etc. |
Objects and object relations | Various geographic areas defined using ecological criteria; coastal zones; water resources; water sources; watersheds; agricultural natural resources; arid zones; landscapes; ecological zones; protected areas or reserves; habitats; earth science systems; natural ecological communities; biodiversity; biomes; Earth life support systems; natural ecological socio-economic systems and various sub-systems; ecosystem structure; ecosystem functions; ecosystem processes; ecosystem services; ecosystem characteristics; natural capital; green infrastructure; biophysical, biogeochemical and socio-economic processes; human activities; knowledge of data and information; quality of life; spatial and temporal scales; stressors; drivers; natural resource stocks; flows; etc. |
Supervision or research actions | Preparation and implementation of strategic planning for comprehensive supervision of natural resource assets; integration of various plans, policies, projects, objectives, tools, data, information, and knowledge into higher-level planning; identification, definition, and classification of ecosystems; identification of local problems; knowledge and description of the Earth’s or ecosystem’s structure, functions, processes, relationships, etc.; identification of stakeholders; identification of types of interests; harmonization of competing interests; setting of compatibility goals; determination of indicators for integrated evaluation of ecosystems, including cumulative impacts; integrated ecosystem evaluation; reporting on the state of nature; detecting the state of nature; socio-economic evaluation; scenario analyses and projections of governmental measures; capacity-building; risk assessment and response; policy adjustments; etc. |
Supervision methods, techniques, tools, etc. | Geographic Information System (GIS); crowd-funding; agent models; data–information–knowledge integration techniques; simulation techniques; modeling techniques; development of conceptual systems; the Internet; the Internet of Things; experimental sciences; piloting; interactive decision-making; coordination techniques; conflict resolution and arbitration tools; remote sensing; data analytics; planning techniques; scenario analysis; ecosystem accounting; natural capital accounting; presentation of inventories; development of templates; development of best practice guidelines; etc. |
Supervision process | Planning programs–implementation–monitoring–evaluation–feedback–adjustment–continuous learning–iteration |
Resources or capital and allocation mechanisms | Natural capital; human capital; social capital; physical capital; intellectual capital; etc., allocated in accordance with the rules of restoration and rehabilitation, preservation of value and appreciation, maximization of welfare, maximization of inputs and outputs, risk prevention, crisis management, etc. |
Performance evaluation | Such as an area of land under sustainable landscape management; value-added index; percentage of communities utilizing innovative technologies in landscape planning and monitoring; etc. |
Category | Core Functions | Practical Application | |
---|---|---|---|
Natural Resource Balance Sheet Structure | Physical Assets Category | Resource Stock Registration | Total land resources area: 105,900 hectares. |
Audited forest resources, grassland resources, wetland resources, etc.: 89,600 hectares. | |||
Surveyed sea area: 824,600 hectares. | |||
Quality Category | Ecological Health Monitoring | Multi-dimensional indicators including water quality, biodiversity, etc. | |
Value Category | Monetization of Ecosystem Services | Total ecosystem service value of natural resource assets: CNY 19,356.2 billion, with marine resources contributing over 98% (about CNY 19,000 billion). | |
Balance Sheet | Resource Dynamics Tracking | Alerting the risk of resource overdraft in aquaculture zones. | |
Flow Category | Depletion Cost Evaluation | A special fund was initiated for the Jianjiang Peninsula–Huangqi Peninsula Eastern Waters Bayside Protection and Development Project. | |
Economic Value Realization Mechanism | Value Visualization | Pilot valuation of maritime resources through artificial seaweed farm projects Valuation: about 8000 CNY per mu of maritime space; the Agricultural Development Bank of China extended CNY 11 million in 6-year credit facilities by 2020. | |
The compilation of the natural resource balance sheet, with marine resources as a key component, and its value realization mechanism, estimating the “value” of ecological products, enabling the Lianjiang Huangqi Bay Offshore Kelp Farming Demonstration Zone construction to successfully secure bank credit loans of CNY 11 million. In 2019, the city’s gross marine economic output reached CNY 268 billion, prematurely achieving the “13th Five-Year Plan” marine economy development target. | |||
Resource-to-Asset Conversion | The Jukou Village Cooperative achieved professionalized operation of the scenic area, generating CNY 3 million in annual fixed revenue: CNY 450,000 was allocated to village collective funds, and CNY 1.05 million was distributed to 271 villagers via equity shares. | ||
Under the marine area contracting model, Dajian Village in Huangqi Town receives approximately CNY 800,000 in marine area contracting fees each year; Xiagong Township’s Jiangwan, Chulu, and Songgao villages each receive about CNY 1 million in marine area contracting fees each year. |
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Zhang, W.; Jiang, Z.; Zhou, X. Theoretical Justification, International Comparison, and System Optimization for Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets in China. Sustainability 2025, 17, 7620. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177620
Zhang W, Jiang Z, Zhou X. Theoretical Justification, International Comparison, and System Optimization for Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets in China. Sustainability. 2025; 17(17):7620. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177620
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Wenfei, Zhihe Jiang, and Xianjie Zhou. 2025. "Theoretical Justification, International Comparison, and System Optimization for Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets in China" Sustainability 17, no. 17: 7620. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177620
APA StyleZhang, W., Jiang, Z., & Zhou, X. (2025). Theoretical Justification, International Comparison, and System Optimization for Comprehensive Supervision of Natural Resource Assets in China. Sustainability, 17(17), 7620. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177620