Innovative Approach to ESD Integration into School-Based Curriculum Development Modules for Elementary Schools

Abstract

This study explores the curriculum development process and implementation challenges of a case school transitioning from a local to an ESD curriculum. Data were collected over 13 months through observations, interviews, and analysis of curriculum documents to examine the school’s curriculum development trajectory. The findings reveal that the school uses core concepts to link learning themes across grade levels, fostering a deeper and more coherent understanding of sustainability among students. Engagement and collaboration with key stakeholders provide diverse perspectives, and the school’s curriculum design is generally responsive to the concerns of its internal stakeholders. This study develops four perspective modules for ESD curriculum transformation: systemic, interdependent, comparative, and dialectical. In addition to analyzing the distinct applications of these perspectives, this research also discusses their usability in designing and implementing ESD in educational environments. These modules are designed to assist curriculum designers and practitioners in navigating the inherent complexities and contradictions of sustainability issues through innovative pedagogical approaches and to provide a valuable framework for educators transitioning from environmental education or local curricula to robust ESD implementation.

1. Introduction

Since the United Nations outlined the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 (UN, 2015) [1], education for sustainable development (ESD) has emerged as a crucial approach to promoting sustainable development.

Under the dual influences of economic globalization and neoliberal education policies, school education in Taiwan faces challenges such as the liberalization of parental choice in education, intensified competition in the international student market, and the increasing demand for global literacy and intercultural competence. Consequently, Taiwanese schools are adapting by adjusting their curriculum frameworks and governance models to establish a unique position within the education market. In particular, the recent integration of local contexts with globally relevant issues has become one of key strategies for localizing curriculum transformation in Taiwan. This approach aims to cultivate students as global citizens, enhance their multicultural awareness and international perspectives, while simultaneously strengthening Taiwan’s international image as a friendly and diverse society.

In response to a wave of curriculum transformation, with a focus on balancing global perspectives and local contexts, schools across Taiwan have actively incorporated the 17 SDGs into their school-based curricula. However, most teachers who incorporate the SDGs into their lessons focus on environmental concerns, such as marine debris, mountaineering challenges, forest sustainability, food education, climate change, and global warming, neglecting a multi-faceted perspective and oversimplifying complex issues (Chen, 2023; Ho, 2023; Hung et al., 2019) [2,3,4]. Particularly in elementary schools, due to students’ developmental stage, instruction tends to prioritize knowledge transmission and empathy-based understanding, potentially hindering the sustained and in-depth exploration of global issues (UNESCO, 2019) [5].

International studies indicate that elementary school teachers often limit their analysis of issues in class to different subject areas, providing students with a shallow understanding of cognitive learning and a reluctance to address conflicting viewpoints. The argument of Riess et al. (2022) [6] is that elementary students are too young to delve into the complexities and implications of conflict. Furthermore, some researchers have observed that teachers fail to fully grasp the conflicts inherent in the 17 SDGs across environmental, social, economic, and political domains, which hinders the promotion of collective action aimed at achieving real change (Sonter & Kemp, 2021) [7]. Others have pointed out that the fragmentation of SDG-related knowledge and skills across grade levels, lacking a systematic structure, impedes students’ ability to make connections and develop a comprehensive understanding of the knowledge framework (Arslan & Curle, 2021; Yüzbaşıoğlu & Kurnaz, 2022) [8,9]. These issues collectively highlight the challenges that elementary school educators face in promoting ESD. However, implementing ESD in elementary schools does not mean expecting elementary students to resolve complex global challenges in the short term. Rather, it aims to cultivate students’ sustainable awareness from a young age so they can effectively exercise their civic rights in the future (Gunansyah et al., 2021) [10]. Therefore, educators should critically reflect on their practices when promoting and implementing the SDGs, considering the alignment of these efforts with the principles of ecological citizenship education and the cultivation of intellectual diversity. Rather than prioritizing politically correct instruction, educators should empower students to develop critical thinking skills.

Furthermore, SDGs contain inherent contradictions; pursuing one goal in isolation may conflict with others. As several scholars (Gough & Gough, 2016; Hickel, 2019; Jóhannesson et al., 2011; Woo et al., 2012) [11,12,13,14] have noted, ESD and environmental education differ in their interpretations of the environment. Unlike environmental education, ESD considers environmental issues within the context of cultural and economic relationships. Moreover, current ESD literature predominantly focuses on curriculum structure, emphasizing various disciplines through multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary processes (Collazo Expósito & Granados Sánchez, 2020; Evans, 2019) [15,16], or proposes learner-centered pedagogical approaches (Woo et al., 2012; Mathie, 2024) [14,17]. Consequently, further research and development of diverse curriculum development modules within existing curriculum structures are crucial. This will equip curriculum designers and practitioners with appropriate approaches and perspectives inherent paradoxes of sustainability issues.

School-based curriculum development in Taiwan has a history spanning over two decades. Supplementing the national curriculum, each grade level is allotted 2–4 flexible periods per week for school-based curriculum, empowering schools and teachers with the autonomy to design curricula tailored to the specific local contexts and backgrounds of their students. This indirectly promotes the opportunity for public schools to cultivate unique identities (Ministry of Education, 2014) [18]. The case school, Green School (pseudonym), a public elementary school, initially focused on developing local curricula as a school-based curriculum. Following the implementation of the 2019 National Curriculum Guidelines and aiming to enhance the school’s competitiveness through a globally focused curriculum, the school sought to internationalize its curriculum and thus began integrating ESD into its curricula. In this context, considering the proximity of a wetland, Green School chose to focus on environmental activities related to SDG 11 and 15, aiming to raise students’ awareness of wetland ecology and biodiversity conservation. As they expanded their curriculum network and collaborated with various stakeholders, they discovered a lack of consensus among different groups regarding wetland conservation. Faced with this conflict, Green School began to shift its perspective and approach to curriculum design.

This study explores the curriculum development process and implementation of a case school as it transitions from a local curriculum to an ESD curriculum. This study has a dual focus: (1) to explore the processes and implementation challenges inherent in integrating global issues into local curricula; and (2) to develop modules for ESD integration within school-based curriculum development, thereby offering a potential model for adoption by other schools seeking to embed ESD principles within their respective curricular frameworks.

2. Theoretical and Empirical Background

2.1. ESD Through Issue-Based Learning and Interdisciplinary Perspectives

In 2017, UNESCO’s MGIEP released a report evaluating the DESD Decade Plan (2005–2014), highlighting that ESD has historically been marginalized within curricula and is often covered through independent subjects, such as global citizenship education, peace education, human rights education, environmental education, global education, and global learning. Furthermore, due to overloaded school curricula, these subjects are frequently promoted through celebratory events and add-ons rather than through a systemic approach to designing and implementing ESD. The report, drawing on research from numerous scholars, proposed the ‘embedding’ strategy, emphasizing the importance of interdisciplinary and issue-based learning as foundational for curriculum development (Johnston et al., 2017) [19].

However, despite these efforts, implementing ESD continues to pose numerous challenges. Addressing cross-disciplinary issues leads to challenges such as insufficient interdisciplinary communication, difficulty in bridging subject-area boundaries, and a lack of connection between subject areas and real-world contexts. Consequently, relationships between subjects, sub-systems, and organizations become fragmented, leading students to view them as isolated (Shimizu, 2022) [20]. Additionally, a lack of multidisciplinary and systematic approaches to addressing cross-disciplinary issues further hinders ESD implementation (Ahmad et al., 2023) [21]. ESD requires a comprehensive approach to design that incorporates additional development models to support its implementation.

Regarding ESD curriculum content, many teachers lack a thorough understanding of ESD, with related teaching content often focusing on environmental issues (Gunansyah, 2021; Sinakou, 2018) [10,22]. This is particularly similar in Taiwan, where elementary ESD programs in schools, heavily influenced by Western economic, cultural, and educational systems, tend to prioritize environmental protection. Common topics include climate change, marine ecosystems, and terrestrial ecosystems. Social progress receives less attention, with a focus on issues like poverty, gender inequality, and educational inequity, with economic growth being the least emphasized (Chen, 2023; Ho, 2023; Hung et al., 2019; Tseng, 2020) [2,3,4,23].

Recognizing that the key to solving sustainability issues needs to be based on the fact that domains should be interconnected and cross boundaries, UNESCO’s DESD Decade Plan (2005–2014) recommended a four-pronged approach to promoting ESD (Wals, 2012) [24]. It emphasized the importance of considering ecological, environmental, and economic aspects while simultaneously emphasizing global, historical, and future connections (integrative lens). It also urged using critical thinking to question mainstream perspectives (critical lens), promoting empowerment and value transformation (transformative lens), and adapting to changing contexts (contextual lens). These four lenses represent different perspectives and levels of understanding, all sharing a commitment to a holistic and integrated approach to ESD.

German scholars Schreiber and Siege (2016) [25] shared a similar view, arguing that sustainable development is not a static state but rather a complex process involving conflicts of interest. Therefore, curriculum development should adopt an integrative model that emphasizes multi-faceted analysis to confront conflicts rather than relying on a one-dimensional model to address economic, social, political, and environmental challenges.

Curriculum design must integrate subject areas and real-world contexts, encouraging learners to adopt a balanced and holistic perspective. Cross-disciplinary learning is essential for developing integrated thinking skills that support the analysis and resolution of societal issues, especially in light of the dynamic and complex nature of human behavior and social phenomena. ESD requires a cross-disciplinary approach that considers environmental, social, and economic perspectives (Gunansyah et al., 2021;Collazo Expósito & Granados Sánchez, 2020) [10,15]. In response to these challenges, scholars have proposed various solutions, such as facilitating communication between teachers and external stakeholders to integrate external perspectives and knowledge, or employing a holistic and structural approach to address cross-disciplinary issues (Ferrero-Ferrero et al., 2018; Timm & Barth, 2021) [26,27]. Exploring socio-scientific issues and addressing controversial issues from a civic education perspective are valuable strategies for implementing ESD (Amos & Levinson, 2019; Bengtsson et al., 2024; Eilks, 2015; Eussen, 2022; Stouthart et al., 2023) [28,29,30,31,32].

2.2. Interdisciplinary Curriculum Integration Through Concept-Based Learning

ESD is characterized by its multi-faceted nature and transdisciplinary scope. Some scholars conceptualize ESD as a holistic integration of pedagogy and content, encompassing diverse fields of knowledge and disciplines. This integration involves the fusion of learning philosophies and pedagogical approaches within ESD-based education (Eussen, 2022) [31]. This perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of subject matter and instructional methods, effectively merging theoretical underpinnings with practical application in the context of fostering sustainable development.

From the perspective of curriculum content elements, effective curriculum development necessitates a clear articulation of concepts, ideas, values, procedures, and methodologies. This clarity establishes the scope of core concepts and content across disciplines, empowering educators to leverage curriculum reform within an empowerment framework. Solely relying on SDG-related education, without this foundational work, risks inadequately embodying the ethos of ESD (Eussen, 2022) [31]. The concept-based learning approach has been further explored by Erickson et al. (2017) [33], who differentiate between macro and micro concepts. They argue that ‘macro concepts provide a breadth of understanding, while micro concepts lay the foundation for depth of understanding’. Erickson (2007) [34] proposed a structure of knowledge, organizing it into five levels from the top down: theory, principal generalizations, concepts, topics, and facts. He posits that theories produce hypotheses and principles, while concepts emphasize synthesis. Topics and facts, however, only reach lower levels of cognitive understanding, reflecting a more traditional approach to curriculum design. Therefore, Erickson recommends that teachers extract concepts from facts and topics to guide their instruction. His primary aim was to develop a conceptual framework that supports the students’ cultivation of conceptual knowledge, requiring teachers to possess the ability to shift between macro and micro concepts to facilitate student learning.

Timm and Barth (2021) [27] take a different approach, focusing on establishing a structure for an ESD curriculum. They emphasize that teachers must adopt a holistic and structured perspective on ESD content, leveraging concepts to address interdisciplinary perspectives. They believe teachers can guide learners toward a more systematic understanding by connecting pedagogical content knowledge and subject matter content. In summary, extracting curriculum concepts not only bridges subject matter knowledge and thematic knowledge across disciplines but also helps learners achieve a contextualized and integrated understanding of concepts.

2.3. Transformative ESD Curriculum Implementation Models

The ultimate aim of ESD is to cultivate citizens with the necessary skills, knowledge, values, and attitudes, making it a value-driven and action-oriented educational approach, in stark contrast to traditional, knowledge-based education that emphasizes examination-driven learning and compartmentalized subject areas. Therefore, a paradigm shift in curriculum implementation strategies is crucial to realizing the ideals of sustainable development (Johnston et al., 2017; Lotz-Sisitka et al., 2015) [19,35].

Regarding curriculum implementation, Johnston et al. (2017) [19] recommend employing a whole-system redesign approach to reexamine the structures of daily life, society, and education. They advocate for a paradigm shift in which the educational framework is reimagined to ensure that students receive education for sustainable development alongside other learning content. Such a framework fosters a holistic approach to learning, engaging students in the ‘know, feel, think, and act’ dimensions of sustainable development. Johnston et al. [21]. highlight that a whole-system redesign involves moving beyond merely optimizing the curriculum to integrate systemic thinking into each subject area, invigorating the internal transformation of the educational system. According to Williams and Hummelbrunner (2010) [36], systemic thinking can be used to address complex, structural problems and develop strategies by fostering participation from diverse stakeholders and promoting a holistic perspective.

Kioupi and Voulvoulis (2019) [37] present a holistic framework and five steps for achieving sustainable transitions through education: first, establish a framework grounded in the SDGs to develop a participatory vision for ESD; second, provide a supportive environment for ESD curriculum development; third, cultivate ESD-based competency through action-oriented learning to facilitate transformation; fourth, leverage ESD teaching and learning strategies; and fifth, monitor and assess students’ ESD competency development and continually measure progress toward achieving sustainability.

In conclusion, ESD serves a crucial role within the educational system as a catalyst for pedagogical transformation. Integrating ESD into formal curricula requires shifting from traditional structures and transforming teachers’ pedagogical thinking. Furthermore, by grounding ESD implementation in interdisciplinary curriculum development, problem-solving, and inquiry-based learning, learners can undergo a transformation in consciousness. ESD aims to help students situate local experiences within global contexts, engage in critical thinking and systemic analysis, broaden their perspectives, and strengthen their connection to the real world, thereby fostering meaningful understanding and action and equipping students with the complex knowledge and skills necessary to tackle real-world challenges.

3. Materials and Methods

This study employed a case study approach, with the researcher conducting research at Green School in northern Taiwan from March 2022 to March 2023. The researcher participated in discussions within the school’s professional learning community and collaborated with others to develop the school’s curriculum. Data collected for the study included interview transcripts, observational notes, and relevant curriculum documents. A triangulation analysis was used to examine how the school developed its school-based curriculum and subsequently constructed ESD curriculum development modules.

3.1. Case School

Green School, a grade 1–6 school in northern Taiwan, has approximately 4000 students. Due to a declining birth rate and the increasing demand for parental choice in education, the school sought to transform its curriculum to attract more students. Consequently, Green School, while embracing international trends, collaborated with its local community residents and its professional learning community (PLC) to jointly develop a school-based curriculum deeply rooted in sustainable development.

The curriculum is structured by grade level. It features six curriculum projects that integrate the 17 SDGs. First- and second-grade students participate in ‘School Days Around the World’ and ‘The Cultural Exploration of the Guardians’, focusing on cultural differences, cultural exchange, and cultural sustainability. The curriculum leverages the school’s unique characteristics, incorporating local temple culture, history, and festivals, and fosters an international perspective while meeting local needs. Third graders are enrolled in ‘Global Gastronomy: Exploring Cultural Flavors’, a project that builds upon concepts of diversity and inclusivity introduced in previous grades. Students explore local cuisine and then analyze the globalization of food and its impact on dietary habits. Fourth graders participate in ‘The Wonders of Wetlands’, a project that challenges students to propose practical solutions for environmental protection and sustainable development from the perspective of a global citizen. It focuses on wetland conservation, connecting students with local communities and natural resources, and exploring Taiwan’s international collaborations. Fifth graders participate in ‘Forest Conservation: A Global Perspective’, which examines forest fires and forest loss in relation to global warming, climate change, and carbon reduction. Finally, sixth graders participate in ‘Developing a Brand Identity for Taiwan’, the culminating program for elementary school students. The program builds upon prior cultural learning experiences and uses bilingual and digital platforms for cross-national communication to foster student understanding and appreciation for both their own city and others.

Regarding sustainable development, the curriculum touches upon SDG 2, SDG 10, SDG 11, SDG 13, SDG 15, and SDG 17, encompassing social, economic, environmental, and governance (Governance Aspects/Dimensions) perspectives. The curriculum was launched in September 2021, with the head of the curriculum department serving as the convener of the PLC. The PLC guides members in developing school-based curricula, and subsequent implementation, reflection, and feedback occur within the community. The school also consults with external experts, including curriculum specialists and environmental organizations.

During implementation, the school encountered challenges, such as the restrictions on in-person instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic and the need to balance stakeholders’ demands while expanding the curriculum’s scope. Despite these challenges, the school’s curriculum received the Taiwan Ministry of Education’s ‘International Education Excellence Curriculum Award’ in 2022 and 2023. The ‘The Wonders of Wetlands’ project has significantly impacted the community by collaborating with the city’s Environmental Protection Agency to establish the ‘Roots and Shoots’ initiative. These accomplishments demonstrate the curriculum’s effectiveness in integrating SDGs into students’ lives, fostering sustainable thinking through knowledge, emotions, and action (Rimanoczy, 2021) [38], and creating a curriculum that connects with the local context. The curriculum’s diverse approach, which fosters deeper learning, has also made it a valuable resource for education practitioners and researchers.

3.2. Data Collection

To understand the perspectives of the participants, the researcher actively built trust with them upon entering the field. The researcher avoided disrupting the original research environment and took on the role of a supporter and listener to create a safe and comfortable atmosphere for participants to express themselves. The researcher began conducting this study in March 2022.

The researcher participated in monthly discussions with the PLC. Once the school year began, the researcher observed classes alongside community members, gradually gaining an understanding of the community members’ perspectives and the curriculum’s framework. The researcher ended each semester by attending the PLC presentations of their achievements. For any questions regarding documents or observations, the researcher arranged interviews to gain a deeper understanding.

Data were collected from 1 March 2022–30 March 2023, and divided into three categories: (1) Observational Records: direct observation and participant observation, both adhering to the principle of not disrupting the teacher’s instruction or student learning. Direct observation took place in the classroom. With the permission of four teachers, the researcher observed their classes in March 2022, taking notes and engaging in post-observation discussions with teachers. Participant observation involved broad observation, followed by focused observation of the PLC’s operations and the curriculum development process, while also capturing reactions from participants. The researcher, who was also a consultant and expert scholar, adopted a participant observer role to better understand the context, with in-person and online (e.g., Google Meet breakout rooms) meetings both taking place. (2) Document Analysis: records from professional learning community meetings, lesson plans, student assessments, and curriculum plans. (3) Interview Transcripts: Interviewees included five community members. Five semi-structured individual interviews were conducted to understand curriculum design and implementation challenges and clarify any ambiguities related to the literature review and participant observation, strengthening the data’s reliability.

3.3. Data Analysis

Data from diverse sources can provide details from various perspectives, allowing for verification through triangulation (Patton, 2002) [39]. To ensure that interpretations and answers were not based on a single perspective, this study employed a cross-validation approach by comparing data from different sources to verify information consistency. The data analyzed includes observational records, interview transcripts, and documents. The analysis principle involves the open coding of vast data to identify common concepts, followed by axial coding to build related patterns for addressing the research question. Interview questions were developed sequentially based on an understanding of the curriculum framework and observations of the PLC. Data were organized through a simultaneous collection and analysis method. Upon leaving the field, the researcher immediately organized the audio recordings and related documents for the day, recording follow-up questions and reflections to document the context of the interactions.

The qualitative data collected for this investigation have undergone coding. Each citation is accompanied by its corresponding data source, date (year, month, and day), and participant code. For instance, Interview_20220601_T1 denotes data from an interview with Teacher 1 conducted on 1 June 2022, while Observation20220429_S1 represents data derived from observing Student 1 on 29 April 2022.

The qualitative data collected for this investigation have undergone coding. Each citation is accompanied by its respective data source, date (year, month, and day), and the pseudonym of the respondent, such as Interview20220601_T1, which indicates that the data were derived from an interview with Teacher 1 conducted on 1 June 2022.

For researcher triangulation, the researcher positions themselves as a collaborative research partner in the case study process. Through dialog, exploration, and exchange, the researcher strives to understand the curriculum’s transformation ideals and processes. Any uncertainties are clarified through document analysis and participant observation.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Curriculum Network and Framework Adjustment at Green School

Initially, the ESD curriculum at Green School focused on local and community-centered themes. However, by adopting a concept-based curriculum design, Green School expanded the level of the curriculum network—from personal, family, and community to international exchange. The school has also leveraged concepts to vertically integrate its curriculum.

Concept-Based Curriculum to Promote Learning from Micro to Macro

When Green School initially developed its school-based curriculum, the curriculum network was defined at the personal, family, and community levels. The second-grade project ‘The Cultural Exploration of the Guardians’, for example, was originally structured with two units: ‘Guardians of the Homeland’ and ‘Matsu Pilgrimage Activity’. These units explored the significance of the Matsu Pilgrimage and the pilgrimage activities, with the goal of helping students deepen their understanding of Taiwan’s traditional folk religion, its deities, and rituals.

As the curriculum progressed, Green School adjusted its approach, adopting a concept-based model to encourage the continuous development of students’ understanding of sustainable development concepts.

In 2019, during a teacher professional development workshop, which coincided with my first year as an academic director, I was introduced to concept-based curriculum design. I found it fascinating and transformative, as it significantly changed my perspective on curriculum design. As a result, I shared this approach with my colleagues at school. (Interview 20220601_ academic director)

The school also moved away from a geographically based curriculum design to encourage seeing one’s own culture as valuable through the lens of a global citizen, balancing traditional culture with contemporary mainstream thinking, and incorporating the concept of cultural sustainability. As the curriculum evolved, Green School transitioned to a concept-based model to foster the continuous development of students’ understanding of sustainable development concepts. The school also shifted from a geographically based curriculum design to cultivate an appreciation of one’s own culture through a global citizenship lens, balancing traditional culture with contemporary thought and incorporating the concept of cultural sustainability. This shift echoes Eussen’s (2022) [31] argument for a thematic curriculum design that requires the deconstruction of traditional disciplinary boundaries to achieve transdisciplinary integration. This approach empowers students to contextualize themes, fostering integrative understanding as themes are unpacked into units, concepts, and objectives. This deconstruction promotes contextualized, integrative learning and deeper comprehension. Ultimately, each element of every subject is situated within a more logical, contextualized, and transdisciplinary framework.

The curriculum adopted cultural identity and cultural preservation as the core concepts, which relate to each learning unit, to teach students that while people differ globally in their religious and traditional beliefs, they all play a role in maintaining social order and peace. The curriculum also emphasizes that culture is the foundation for personal identity and the driving force for sustainable development in economic, social, and environmental spheres.

We used to focus on our community, so we only developed two units, ‘Guardians of the Homeland’ and ‘Matsu Pilgrimage Activity’, which then broadened our perspective to a global view of cultural sustainability, leading to the development of ‘The Cultural Exploration of the Guardians’ project. (Interview 20220601_T5)

Erickson et al. (2017) [33] pointed out that concept-based theory is a framework focused on curriculum design and learning processes, emphasizing the organization of course content around “concepts” as the core. This approach helps learners focus on the relationships between factual content, identify the essential nature underlying concepts, derive broader principles (generalizations) from details, establish abstract cognitive frameworks, and apply them in diverse contexts. ‘The Cultural Exploration of the Guardians’ curriculum framework (Figure 1) is no longer based on factual knowledge. Instead, it is concept-based and expands the curriculum network by adding two more units: ‘Guardians of Different Countries’ and ‘International Cultural Exchange’. The curriculum network, originally focused on family and community, expanded its geographical scope to include neighboring countries like Japan’s Central Tokyo, Thailand’s and Burma’s Songkran Festival, and Western Christmas, allowing for cross-cultural comparisons. This expansion helps students explore the impact of religion on culture and collective consciousness, ultimately enabling them to better appreciate the uniqueness of their own culture. Finally, the curriculum challenges students to introduce their culture to friends from other countries, utilizing a perspective based on intangible cultural heritage.

Following instruction, teachers noted that one parent, who was actively involved in the community and also a member of a traditional folk religion organization, was deeply moved by the difficulty of preserving the ‘Zhentou’ (leader of the parade) cultural tradition in the modern day. The parent gave the following feedback to the teacher:

Some people view Zhentou with a negative label, thinking it is a performance by gangsters or that these rituals are harmful to the environment. However, for older generations, Zhentou represents many deities patrolling the community with the aim of protecting the people. This plays a stabilizing role in society. If you think of it from the perspective of police patrolling the community to maintain order, you would find that this culture is quite valuable. (Interview 20230204_T2)

As Schreiber and Siege (2016) [25] mentioned, exploring the institutions and actors involved in global governance from the perspective of sustainability is especially important in the transition from nation-states to a highly interconnected global society. The expanded ‘The Cultural Exploration of the Guardians’ curriculum framework guides students beyond national boundaries to consider global sustainable development issues. Students learn about the uniqueness of their culture and discover the impact that cultural sustainability has on different countries, gaining a deeper understanding of the need for international collaboration to address the challenges facing humanity.

Localizing SDGs is important for ensuring that SDGs are effectively implemented. It requires adjusting and adapting implementation plans for SDGs based on the specific cultural, economic, and environmental characteristics of a location (UNESCO, 2017) [40]. Localization strategies are important for promoting ESD because they not only increase students’ sense of social responsibility but also enable students to experience and promote sustainable development in their daily lives (Tilbury, 2011) [41]. Thus, all three levels of the curriculum network—micro (individual, family, community), meso (cross-regional), and macro (international and global)—are essential.

Moreover, Erickson et al. (2017) [33] point out that when designing a curriculum, one should consider the overarching concepts that the activity aims to convey as the core concepts for the curriculum, instruction, and assessment, choosing concepts that have transferability. For example, concepts like system interaction, environmental sustainability, and cultural innovation and transformation can effectively connect students with the facts and skills presented in the curriculum and guide their ongoing understanding. In developing a concept-based ESD curriculum, Green School emphasizes the continuous development and connection of students’ understanding of sustainable development concepts to reduce the fragmentation of teaching. For example, the sixth-grade ‘Developing a Brand Identity for Taiwan’ project builds upon the concept of cultural sustainability introduced in the second-grade ‘The Cultural Exploration of the Guardians’ project, connecting to the concept of wetland conservation and environmental justice introduced in the fourth-grade ‘The Wonders of Wetlands’ project, continuously deepening and broadening the curriculum. The curriculum utilizes digital tools and technological platforms to facilitate the exploration of these issues through project-based learning.

In conclusion, Green School connects grades and learning units through ‘concepts’ to enhance the continuity and sequence of the curriculum. The curriculum network progresses from micro (individual, family, community) to meso (cross-regional/national) to macro (international and global) levels, not only breaking down learning boundaries but also enhancing sustainable development concepts at the cognitive and emotional levels. The curriculum also emphasizes building strong partnerships with the surrounding community. The changes noted above involve transformations in learning content and outcomes, teaching methods, and learning environments. The curriculum network also expands to international and global levels, resulting in a more holistic ESD curriculum (Figure 2).

4.2. Engagement and Collaboration with Key Stakeholders

The success of ESD hinges on building consensus and collaboration across key stakeholders and recognizing the interconnectedness of social, economic, and environmental issues (Hopkins & McKeown, 2002) [42]. Therefore, the curriculum should guide students to understand the roles of key stakeholders, including government, schools, communities, businesses, and non-governmental organizations, and how they collaborate to create a shared driving force.

For example, the fourth-grade ‘The Wonders of Wetlands’ curriculum project began with students studying a national wetland located near Green School. This wetland was formed over 100 years by transitioning fertile farmland into a saltwater intrusion zone, leading to soil salinization and ultimately producing wetlands. Subsequently, the government transformed the wetland into a floodway. It features diverse natural ecosystems, spanning from the area near the estuary to the swamp area. Due to the wetland’s large area and complex formation, the government’s management approach has not been particularly proactive, leading to the involvement of private conservation groups actively engaged in maintaining the integrity of the wetland’s natural ecosystem. This curriculum project explores the significance of wetlands, compares well-known wetlands in Taiwan, and examines the problems they face, expanding to international wetlands and various wetland conservation measures (Figure 3).

Exploring the challenges facing these wetlands through collaboration with private conservation groups and the city government allows students to compare conservation policies. Next, through participation in the Roots & Shoots Program launched by the Jane Goodall Institute, students are empowered to become active advocates.

We partnered with the Jane Goodall Institute to work on ecological issues. We even had a video chat with Dr. Goodall herself back in June! She’s in her 80s and still so passionate about this work. It’s truly inspiring and motivates us to keep developing this curriculum. (Interview 20230204_T2)

This program includes ecological field trips to wetlands, incorporating guided tours of wetland ecology, collaborative learning records, and hikes. These activities guide students in exploring the activities of wetland birds, plants, and aquatic life. Expanding the curriculum network promotes collaboration among stakeholders. Eussen (2022) [31] stated that stakeholders with common goals can facilitate the exchange of information and the development of interdependent relationships among global citizens within a network. Students also collaborated with the government’s environmental protection agency to form a wetland ecology tour group. Students also create wetland conservation picture books and establish wetland conventions, transforming them into shadow puppet shows that make the issue of wetland conservation more tangible and prominent in the local community.

The school-based curriculum projects initially focused on local issues. After establishing a basic framework, our teacher community explored collaborations with external organizations to foster global connections. This allowed students to approach topics from a global perspective […] The involvement of these outside groups motivated both teachers and students to remain engaged. (Interview 20230204_T3)

During online exchanges with sister schools, students learn about the Pantanal wetlands in Brazil. Through cross-national wetland project reports, students develop a deeper understanding of the importance of wetlands to the human environment and expand their thinking about population growth, urban planning, and land use. The network expands from a local to a global level, leading to a deeper exploration of resource sustainability and environmental justice. This demonstrates the heterogeneous nature of stakeholder engagement, as involving both internal and external stakeholders (e.g., businesses and NGOs) provides diverse perspectives. Furthermore, the school’s curriculum design is generally responsive to the concerns of its internal stakeholders, aligning with Ferrero-Ferrero et al. (2018) [26], who noted a strong correlation between what internal stakeholders (students, academic and non-academic faculty, and staff) perceive as important to sustainability and the outcomes of the implementation of the practice.

Weiss et al. (2021) [43] posit that systemic investment, encompassing policy and financial support, coupled with operational adjustments within schools, curriculum coordination, staff and student participation, leadership backing, and contributions from corporations and non-governmental organizations, facilitates the effective implementation of sustainability-focused curricula. For example, Green School’s third-grade school-based curriculum, “Global Gastronomy: Exploring Cultural Flavors”, is supported by funding and personnel from the local farmers’ association and parents. Starting with a local specialty dish (chhèk á noodles), it explores the development of sustainable ingredients. By engaging students in hands-on experiences tracing ingredients from farm to table, the curriculum fosters deeper learning. Similarly, the wetlands curriculum leverages stakeholder collaboration and dialog to develop a macro-level network and cultivate multi-faceted thinking.

Initially, when parents observed the teachers’ dedication to this type of curriculum, they began providing resources. This, in turn, motivated the school to further develop and expand these efforts. As the program gained visibility, additional resources were secured, broadening the network and fostering collective action. This created a positive feedback loop. (Interview 20220506_ T1)

Our school has applied for several awards and has been recognized with awards, which makes all involved—teachers, students, parents, and community partners—more confident that we are moving in the right direction! (Interview 20220601_ academic director)

Timm and Barth (2021) [27] pointed out that in the process of engaging in ESD practices at the elementary school level, there are barriers to engaging in ESD, including structural obstacles such as bureaucratic burdens and subject-oriented curricula, as well as personal obstacles. From the above, it can be seen that effectively integrating stakeholder participation and embedding ESD into the school curriculum framework can not only reduce the perception that global networking—due to limited funding—is an additional burden for locally oriented sustainable development education but also address the difficulty of incorporating ESD into subject-based curricula. Moreover, it can alleviate challenges like the sense of uncertainty and the sensation of a hindering environment encountered during stakeholder integration.

In conclusion, implementing an ESD curriculum not only embeds sustainable development concepts into existing academic disciplines but also integrates them with the entire learning environment. Through active participation, students, educators, administrative staff, parents, and the broader community collaborate, building a sustainable learning environment inspired by a shared vision for education. This transformation is a gradual process. Learners initially connect with their lived environment, developing critical awareness and building consensus. This heightened awareness prompts critical reflection and self-dialog within their communities. Subsequently, through empathy and reframing of the issues, with students, educators, communities, external organizations, and government agencies acting as collaborative agents, the curriculum can progressively move toward action-oriented approaches.

4.3. Reconstructing the Curriculum Framework with Dialectical Thinking

With the participation of diverse stakeholders comes a variety of perspectives and viewpoints. This has prompted a shift in Green School’s curriculum development, moving from a linear approach focused on a singular connection between concepts, unit names, and learning objectives to a more multifaceted approach incorporating dialectical thinking to explore issues from multiple perspectives. For example, the second-grade ‘The Cultural Exploration of the Guardians’ project, which aims to teach students to ‘list the importance of Taiwan’s religious traditions and rituals to society’ and ‘identify the significance of religious rituals in Taiwan and other countries’, presented teachers with several obstacles. For instance, some students expressed concerns about the preservation of Taiwan’s traditional religious rituals, a viewpoint they learned from their families, who felt that the fireworks, incense, and burning of joss paper that accompany deity processions generated air pollution, noise pollution, and street litter. Other students expressed differences in religious beliefs.

S1:

My mom doesn’t like deity processions because they cause a lot of pollution, such as noise, fireworks, and litter. (Observation 20220429_S1)

S2:

Our family is Catholic and doesn’t participate in Taiwan’s traditional temples, deity processions, or Matsu pilgrimages. We don’t think it’s important. (Observation 20220429_S2)

Therefore, Green School tries to transform its curriculum design by incorporating dialectical thinking. ‘The Cultural Exploration of the Guardians’ project initially set teaching goals based on the core concepts of cultural identity and cultural preservation, structured linearly and organized according to the sequence of learning modules to provide a foundation for higher-level learning. However, this method could not address the controversies encountered in the curriculum. Johnston et al. (2017) [33] emphasize issue-centered/problem-based learning as a key pedagogical approach for ESD, specifically highlighting the importance of utilizing an interdisciplinary lens. They argue that effectively addressing complex sustainability challenges requires students to draw upon knowledge and perspectives from multiple disciplines, fostering a more holistic and nuanced understanding. This interdisciplinary, problem-based approach encourages students to analyze real-world sustainability issues, develop critical thinking skills, and propose comprehensive solutions.

To help students consider real-world issues and understand the key challenges and dilemmas in current ESD practices, community members restructured the original curriculum framework (Figure 1) according to the three pillars of sustainability—environment, society, and economy—and included controversial issues in curriculum development, engaging students in in-depth discussions of local issues. This process enables students to construct their own meaning through systematic inquiry.

A key factor in our development is the opportunity for teachers within our PLC to observe each other’s lessons and share feedback from parents and students. These discussions provide us with more diverse perspectives on contentious topics and inform our curriculum adjustments. (Interview 20220506_T4)

The teacher PLC further analyzed ‘The Cultural Exploration of the Guardians’ project, categorizing several important concepts, such as environmental pollution under environmental sustainability, and cultural preservation, cultural exchange, and religious diversity under the concept of cultural sustainability (Culture 2030 Goal Campaign, 2019) [44]. The Culture 2030 Goal Campaign pointed out that culture should be the driving force promoting sustainable development in economic, social, and environmental spheres, from cultural heritage to creative industries. Therefore, the curriculum promotes dialectical thinking from four perspectives: economy, environment, society, and culture.

Some points of conflict remain:

(1)

Cultural preservation vs. environmental sustainability: Traditional religious practices are important cultural assets. However, these practices, like deity processions and festivals, often involve the use of firecrackers, fireworks, and other actions that create air and noise pollution and environmental litter, conflicting with environmental protection goals.

(2)

Cultural preservation vs. modern life: With the development of modern society, the influence of traditional beliefs is declining. Some traditional religious rituals may no longer meet the needs of modern people, impacting the development of the religious industry.

(3)

Traditional beliefs vs. modern values: Modern societal values may conflict with traditional beliefs regarding matters such as gender equality and human rights. As such, an important issue to consider is how to promote traditional beliefs while also taking modern societal values into account.

(4)

Religious industry vs. cultural exchange: Religious activities can generate tourism revenue; however, such activities can cause traditional culture to become excessively commercialized. How to maintain and preserve traditional beliefs while also keeping pace with the times and fostering cultural innovation is an important issue to consider (Figure 4).

The school’s curriculum also connects with sixth-grade cultural exchange programs, and the use of controversial issues as a focus of inquiry allows learners to approach sustainable development issues more holistically.

The conflicting aims of ESD are not unique to this green primary school, as several scholars have pointed out in the past that the concepts and meanings of sustainable development are in fact quite ambiguous and somewhat contradictory (Hickel, 2019;Jóhannesson et al., 2011; Appelbaum, 2024) [12,13,45]. Therefore, the nature of the sustainability challenge is complex, value-laden, and touches on issues that are highly relevant to the world. Now, more than ever, it requires citizens to have the skills of critical inquiry and systems thinking to explore the complexities and implications of sustainability (Henderson & Tilbury, 2004) [46]. From the above, dialectical thinking is more apt than linear thinking for addressing the conflicts among cross-disciplinary issues.

Regarding instructional methodology, several scholars have identified teaching methods suitable for ESD in different subject areas, including civics, social science, and science (Chang Rundgren, 2023; Levrini et al., 2021) [47,48]. The common feature of these methods is their interdisciplinary nature and exploration of real-world and complex problems, such as climate change, nuclear energy, and sustainable consumption. These issues often create conflicts in real-world contexts, requiring further dialectical thinking.

‘The Wonders of Wetlands’ curriculum project has also encountered challenges from stakeholders.

The government’s wetland planning actually differs from that of wild bird conservation groups. The government prioritizes creating popular projects for citizens, so they plan facilities like green lawns, parks, and stadiums. However, residents believe that this will disrupt ecological balance, so they submit petitions and protest. (PLC Meeting Records 20220527)

There is a similar conflict in southern Taiwan caused by the government leasing land to solar panel companies for power generation. However, local fishermen, residents, and wild bird conservation groups strongly oppose this leasing. (PLC Meeting Records 20220527).

Groups have differing viewpoints on wetland conservation. The government prioritizes the need for economic development and plans to create public recreation areas or lease land to energy companies. However, wild bird conservation groups are concerned with preserving the wetland ecosystem and mitigating climate change.

Therefore, community members categorized wetland conservation and clean energy under the environmental sustainability pillar, environmental justice, and community engagement under the social sustainability pillar, and wetland utilization and urban development under the economic sustainability pillar. Although interconnected, the values of each pillar are not always aligned. Based on these findings, the original ‘The Wonders of Wetlands ‘ curriculum framework was adjusted to incorporate dialectical thinking to discuss cross-disciplinary issues, including:

(1)

Wetland conservation vs. urban development: wetland conservation emphasizes protecting the wetland ecosystem and avoiding destructive development, whereas urban development aims to develop the economy and create job opportunities, leading to potential conflicts.

(2)

Clean energy vs. wetland conservation: The development of clean energy sources, such as solar panels, may encroach on wetland space, impacting the wetland ecosystem.

(3)

Environmental justice vs. wetland development: Wetland development can impact the livelihoods and living environments of locals. Environmental justice emphasizes the fair distribution of environmental resources, so wetland development should consider the interests of locals.

(4)

Community engagement vs. wetland development: Wetland development should consider the opinions of community residents, which may conflict with economic development goals.

From the above, it can be seen that the environmental issues discussed here are already very different in content from environmental education that appeals to naturalism, starting from wetland conservation but considering urban development on the economic side and public participation issues on the social side at the same time. Several scholars (Jóhannesson et al., 2011; Woo et al., 2012; Wals et al., 2024) [13,14,49] have also mentioned that ESD needs to have a more political perspective than environmental education because economic, environmental, and social issues are intertwined rather than separate domains, and holistic and systemic thinking is needed to develop innovative and integrated sustainable solutions (Wals et al., 2024) [49].

As Michael Apple argues, the curriculum is not a neutral body of knowledge but rather a site of power dynamics and social conflict. Curriculum development, content selection, and pedagogical practices all reflect and reinforce existing power relations within society, particularly dominant ideologies (Apple, 2004) [50]. Furthermore, there is an inherent tension between the term “sustainability” and “sustainable development”. The term “development” reflects a highly anthropocentric worldview that often overlooks the interests of non-human species. While the SDGs address economic, social, environmental, and cultural dimensions, solutions aimed at the first two dimensions (such as eradicating poverty and hunger) can inadvertently lead to increased consumption of natural resources and exacerbate environmental crises. Therefore, discussions surrounding these issues should prioritize a holistic perspective and guide students to consider the potential contradictions between these goals. In addition, some scholars question the underlying assumptions of ESD, arguing that it carries an implicit belief in the superiority of Western universal education. They contend that ESD often adopts a hierarchical perspective, viewing its purpose as liberating and uplifting other regions’ development levels, and that its widespread adoption resembles a form of hegemony (Kuhn, 2010; Kopnina, 2020; Washington, 2018) [51,52,53]. Therefore, discussions surrounding these issues should prioritize a holistic perspective and guide students to consider the potential contradictions between these goals.

In conclusion, Green School has revised its curriculum framework by adopting a dialectical approach that highlights the interconnectedness of concepts and how to address conflicts among them. The school also added culture as a fourth pillar and adopted a systemic perspective to examine the relationships among sustainable development issues, aiming to achieve a balance among the economic, social, environmental, and cultural dimensions. This approach is citizen-centric. In recent years, ESD education has emphasized transformative and sustainable participation from individuals, moving from knowledge-driven education to competency-based education, thereby realizing the concept of ESD-Net (Ahmad et al., 2023) [21]. Green School’s curriculum framework gradually guides learners in exploring conflicts related to the SDGs, firmly connecting local issues to the transformative ESD curriculum to achieve a whole-system perspective.

4.4. Developing Four Perspective Modules for ESD Curriculum Transformation

In response to the complexity of sustainable development issues, Green School has expanded its curriculum network to include individual, family, community, regional, and international stakeholders, encouraging broader participation. The school also aims to balance the inherent contradictions among various aspects of sustainable development. This approach aligns with the United Nations’ educational initiatives, particularly the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals. Transformative ESD emphasizes the meaningful involvement of students and key stakeholders in global, national, and local affairs, highlighting the importance of contextual, real-life engagement (UNESCO, 2015, 2019) [1,5].

However, Green School faces additional challenges. During curriculum design, the sheer number of conflicting aspects of sustainability issues makes it difficult to incorpo-rate all of them simultaneously. Furthermore, due to the interdisciplinary nature of these issues, teachers often struggle to comprehend and address them holistically. Instead, they tend to rely on linear, single-cause explanations. To overcome the difficulties brought by ESD curriculum transformation, Green School’s teaching community applies systematic thinking to analyze curriculum topics through two key dimensions: spatial scope, which pertains to the extent of influence, and thematic scope, which addresses the underlying dimensions of each issue. This approach helps the curriculum team clarify the direction of their course design.

Regarding perspectives on ESD curricula, Leicht et al. (2018) [54] propose addressing complex issues through holistic and systemic thinking to ensure action plans integrate multiple dimensions. Mathie and Wals (2022) [17] further advocate for a Whole School Approach based on three key perspectives: holistic, systemic, and sustainability-focused. The sustainability perspective is particularly emphasized due to its multi-faceted goals encompassing environmental, social, and economic sustainability, its adaptive nature over time, and its normative values. They also recommend fostering awareness of holistic and systemic perspectives, underscoring the inseparability of environmental, social, political, and economic contexts.

This study documents the transformation process of Green School’s ESD curriculum for grades 1–6, resulting in the development of four key perspectives: systemic, interde-pendent, comparative, and dialectical. In addition to analyzing the distinct applications of these perspectives, this research also discusses their usability in designing and implementing ESD in educational environments.

4.4.1. The Systemic Perspective

The systemic perspective expands the curriculum network, building on a concentric circle model (Figure 5). For example, the second-grade program begins by introducing local beliefs and then utilizes the concepts of cultural identity and cultural preservation to expand the curriculum network to include different cities and countries, exploring other countries’ efforts to ensure cultural sustainability.

The third-grade curriculum begins with Taiwan’s renowned cuisine and explores the connections that ingredients and flavors have with geography, agriculture, and culture. Students then examine chhèk á noodles, a local specialty, to explore the unique characteristics of their hometown. The curriculum then expands to include cross-city exchanges and collaborations with students from other countries to discuss local dietary traditions. The fourth-grade program ‘The Wonders of Wetlands’ begins at the local level and then expands to include the national level, examining potential conflicts between national regulations and local needs. Finally, the project fosters a global perspective through cross-country comparison. These curriculum projects are further connected to the sixth-grade ‘Developing a Taiwanese Brand’ project. Students participate in cross-national online exchanges and discussions with students from other countries to collaboratively explore and propose solutions to sustainable development issues.

In conclusion, the systemic perspective emphasizes the coherent and systematic organization of curriculum content. The scope of the curriculum extends beyond the boundaries of physical space, connecting core concepts with global perspectives. It begins at the micro-level, focusing on individuals and families; expands to the meso-level, focusing on regions; and finally, it reaches the macro-level, focusing on cross-national comparisons. Through this leveled categorization, curriculum developers can more clearly understand the curriculum’s scope and situate it within a broader context, enabling them to assess whether the design is holistic and advances through the content and learning stages progressively. Curriculum developers should also differentiate instruction based on student grade level and cognitive development, adjusting the emphasis placed on individual, local, cross-regional, national, and international global perspectives. Although all five perspectives do not need to be addressed at every grade level, the relative weight given to each should be carefully considered. Curriculum delivery methods can begin holistically and become more individualized, incorporating regional variations, or begin from a localized perspective and broaden to encompass global issues, ultimately culminating in personalized learning experiences. This flexibility promotes adaptability in curriculum implementation (Figure 5).

4.4.2. The Interdependence Perspective

In contrast to the systemic perspective, which focuses on examining the expansion of the curriculum network holistically, the interdependence perspective emphasizes the connections between concepts within the curriculum network. In other words, it involves continuously examining the ‘self–other’ relationship. This examination begins with showing concern for others and engaging in dialog with one’s feelings and experiences, allowing individuals to escape a singular perspective, transcend geographical and political boundaries, and make constructive choices based on the well-being of oneself and others.

For example, the fourth-grade ‘The Wonders of Wetlands’ project connects the content with SDG11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG13 (Climate Action), SDG14 (Life Below Water), and SDG15 (Life on Land), as well as the Ramsar Convention. Activities are designed by teachers in collaboration with the ‘Wild Bird Association of Taiwan’ to guide students in exploring wetland environments, animals, plants, and mountain landscapes. Through underwater biological surveys and collaborative learning logs, students deepen their understanding of the relationships between humans and the land, fostering a more proactive learning attitude and prompting students to propose and establish a ‘Green School Wetland Convention’. While drafting the convention, teachers also encourage students to examine wetland planning practices in other countries, which helps them develop a plan for ecological preservation and the integration of urban green spaces (Figure 6).

While exploring the issue of wetland conservation, students discovered that other Taiwanese wetlands face conflicts between conservation efforts and green energy development. This led the teacher to guide students in considering the following questions: when wetland conservation clashes with urban planning, what should be sacrificed? Are there better approaches? (Observation 20220609_grade4)

The curriculum uses conceptual connections and activities to encourage reflection, cultivate students’ awareness of environmental protection, and ultimately motivate them to take environmental action. It enables students to recognize connections with others, starting from individual actions, expanding to their community, from local wetlands to wetlands around Taiwan, and finally extending to wetlands in other countries. This progression allows students to reflect on themselves and the world around them, going beyond their own viewpoints.

Similarly, in the fifth-grade project, ‘Forest Conservation: A Global Perspective’, the teacher uses the connections between climate change, forest carbon sinks, and carbon cycles when designing the lessons. The teacher examines past forest fires in Taiwan to explain how climate change exacerbates foehn winds and droughts, causing forest fires to spread rapidly, enabling students to deeply understand the relationship between forest fires and climate change. The teacher promotes climate action and encourages students to reduce their carbon footprint, from the individual to the family and community levels, including the use of carbon labels and carbon footprint calculations to reduce emissions.

The teacher uses examples of forest fires in Australia and Maui to lead students in reflecting on the relationship between natural disasters and human life and how forest fires in other countries impact the residents of Taiwan (Observation 20220615_grade5).

In this globally connected era, students must develop a global perspective to analyze and manage complex global issues. They must also act in accordance with the global consensus on the value of sustainability, shared well-being, and public good into practice as responsible social actors. This framework (Figure 6), built on interdependence, helps them understand how individual, local, national, regional, and global networks intersect. It emphasizes mutual support and interdependence at each level to foster change and empower them as global citizens.

4.4.3. The Comparative Perspective

The comparative perspective uses curriculum concepts, issues, or themes as a basis for comparing case studies across times and locations to explore differences between countries and considerations related to educational equity (Figure 7). For example, the first-grade project, ‘School Days Around the World’, uses ‘school structures’, ‘time differences’, and ‘cultural differences’ as core concepts to compare the lifestyles of children in different cities at the same point in time. Points of comparison include food, school uniforms, language, scenery on the way to school, and the appearance of schools. Considering the learners’ young age, the curriculum network primarily focuses on comparing aspects of personal and family life, encouraging students to think outside of their own experiences, develop empathy, and shift their perspectives.

The third-grade project, ‘Global Gastronomy’, focuses on the concept of ‘food culture’ to explore the relationship between daily diets and geography and agriculture. It begins by comparing noodle dishes from northern and southern Taiwan and expands to include noodle dishes in neighboring countries such as Vietnam, Japan, Indonesia, and the Philippines. The comparisons cover ingredients, cooking methods, seasonings, customs, and cultures. These countries were chosen not only for their geographical proximity to Taiwan but also because many Green School students’ parents are from Southeast Asia and married Taiwanese citizens, subsequently immigrating to Taiwan. Exposing students to the richness of neighboring cultures allows them to recognize the value of diverse cultures, foster partnerships, and promote understanding. It also helps children of immigrant families to appreciate their cultural heritage and build a stronger self-identity.

According to the Culture 2030 Goal Campaign (2019) [44], ‘Culture is who we are and what shapes our identity. No development can be sustainable without including culture’ (p. 13).

Regional variations in the interpretation and implementation of SDGs influence prioritization and focus. For example, developing nations often prioritize immediate sustainability challenges like poverty, health, and access to basic services, while developed nations may focus on issues like consumption patterns and global citizenship. Furthermore, the structure and content of educational systems (such as curriculum frameworks, curriculum flexibility, and teacher training), as well as the level of support from the policy environment (including resource availability and funding) influence how SDGs are integrated into school curricula (Riess et al., 2022) [6].

Curricula built on the comparative perspective should foster a deeper contextual understanding of diverse subjects. Comparing approaches and perspectives on a particular issue or subject allows students to transcend their existing perspectives and consider diverse action strategies. Comparing how different countries view and handle the same issue and encouraging cross-national dialog broadens perspectives, cultivates empathy, and enables a more profound understanding of abstract concepts.

4.4.4. The Dialectical Perspective

The implementation of school-based curricula for international education on the SDGs emphasizes a multifaceted and balanced approach, encompassing environmental, social, and economic perspectives. Crucially, addressing these issues requires critical consciousness and interdisciplinary analysis to develop comprehensive solutions and avoid biased approaches to problem definition and resolution (Gunansyah et al., 2021) [10]. Compared to the previous three perspectives, which focus on expanding and comparing within a single domain, the dialectical perspective emphasizes cross-domain analysis and addresses the conflicts between issues. This approach enables learners to understand sustainable development issues from a more holistic and unbiased perspective. For example, in the initial design of the second-grade ‘Guardians Alliance’ project, the focus on ‘cultural preservation’ led teachers to emphasize students’ understanding of local culture and heritage, prioritizing knowledge transmission. However, this approach overlooked potential real-world conflicts, such as differing views on religious practices based on varying beliefs and environmental concerns. Incorporating a dialectical perspective helps students transcend linear, cause-and-effect thinking, and adopt a multi-faceted approach to analyzing these issues.

The development of the fourth-grade ‘The Wonders of Wetlands’ project further exemplifies the application of the dialectical perspective in addressing conflicting viewpoints. As the curriculum network expands, the number of stakeholders involved increases, leading to a wider range of opinions and potential disagreements. For example, regarding urban planning policies, the government’s perspective often differs from that of private conservation groups. Therefore, the project explores how to achieve sustainability while balancing economic, environmental, and social considerations, guiding learners to adopt a balanced perspective when formulating social action plans.

Regarding problem-solving and civic action, interdisciplinary knowledge integration is crucial, particularly given the dynamic and complex nature of human behavior and social phenomena. Understanding these multifaceted issues requires a cross-disciplinary approach encompassing environmental, social, and economic perspectives. Shimizu (2022) [20] emphasizes that addressing sustainable development challenges necessitates interconnectivity and boundary-crossing between diverse fields, strengthening the links between academic disciplines and real-world contexts to overcome the silo effect between subjects, sub-systems, organizations, and the problems themselves. Shimizu notes that the SDGs are interconnected and comprise environmental, social, and economic dimensions. However, the economic dimension is often overlooked, and an overemphasis on the environmental dimension can lead to unintended consequences. Therefore, if practitioners fail to fully grasp the underlying principles and developmental context of the SDGs, prioritizing only one dimension can introduce potential risks, limiting engagement to superficial discussions rather than achieving meaningful responses aligned with the SDGs. This can result in a fragmented and potentially superficial understanding of the issues, hindering the development of a holistic perspective in curriculum implementation.

The issues explored in ESD are generally cross-disciplinary, highly complex, interconnected, and constantly evolving. Therefore, curriculum structure and perspective require transformative change. Developing a curriculum from a dialectical perspective necessitates interactive, learner-centered teaching methods that encourage learners to engage in critical thinking rather than simply adhering to politically correct viewpoints. More importantly, employing this perspective nurtures appropriate values and attitudes by cultivating systemic thinking about SDG-related issues. This approach aligns with recent trends in ESD, which emphasize transformative participation and a shift from knowledge-driven to competency-based education, aligning with the central ideas of ESD-Net (Ahmad et al., 2023) [21]. This approach also guides learners to investigate the conflicts within SDGs, deeply connecting local issues to transformative, ESD-oriented curriculum content and promoting the students’ perspective on the curriculum as being holistic (Figure 8).

5. Conclusions and Outlook

5.1. Fostering a Multi-Perspective Approach for ESD

Since 2019, Green Elementary School has been continuously implementing and refining its Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) curriculum, with each grade level developing an ESD project. The school expanded its curriculum network and adapted a concept-based curriculum design approach, informed by Erickson et al. (2017) [33], to construct its ESD curriculum framework. Six interconnected themes spanning various levels of the curriculum network, along with related concepts, emphasize local context and cultural and social considerations to foster a systemic perspective on curriculum development.

The systems perspective utilizes a linearly expanding concentric circle framework to represent the curriculum network, progressing from the micro-level of individuals and families to the meso-level of regions and cities and finally reaching the macro-level of international collaborations. This design expands the scope of learners’ understanding beyond personal and familial limitations. It also guides curriculum developers in clearly defining the hierarchical structure of the curriculum content, ensuring that implementation progresses from fragmented to holistic and that the content and learning stages advance progressively.

The interdependence perspective emphasizes the connections and interactions among concepts within the curriculum network, focusing on a continuous ‘self–other’ dialog to help learners see themselves as members of a global community. This approach allows students to develop empathy and transcend the limitations of a single perspective as global citizens.

The comparative perspective employs cross-temporal and spatial case studies to compare specific curriculum concepts, issues, or themes across countries. This approach helps students move beyond their established contexts to consider alternative action strategies, thereby positioning them to develop empathy and adapt their attitudes.

Fourth, the dialectical perspective moves beyond linear cause-and-effect thinking and emphasizes the conflicts between cross-disciplinary and cross-issue domains, as well as the multi-faceted nature and interconnectedness of these issues. By exploring these conflicts through a holistic lens, learners develop a more comprehensive and objective understanding of sustainable development issues and avoid bias.

A single curriculum project may incorporate more than one curriculum perspective. For example, the fourth-grade ‘The Wonders of Wetlands’ project employs systemic, interdependence, and dialectical perspectives. Thus, developing curricula based on a whole-systems perspective requires not only focusing on the conflicts embedded within the issues explored in ESD but also broadening the scope of the curriculum network. This multi-faceted approach guides learners to explore and recognize structural issues within social systems. Green School’s classroom discussions, student assignments, and social action projects clearly show how students have challenged established values, behaviors, and habits. This adaptability reflects the transformative and structured thinking required for addressing future challenges and offers valuable insights for the development of ESD curricula at the elementary school level.

5.2. A Balanced and Holistic Approach to the 17 SDGs: ESD for 2030

The development of school-based ESD curricula should emphasize diversity and balance. Green School’s curriculum demonstrates that several themes go beyond a single dimension, exploring conflicts through a multi-faceted approach. This approach aligns closely with the central ideas of ESD for 2030, which encourages a critical perspective on the 17 SDGs, considering contexts and balancing different viewpoints. For example, several of the SDGs are relevant to the ‘The Wonders of Wetlands’ project, including SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), and SDG 15 (Life on Land). During ESD curriculum development, schools often use the SDGs as indicators when determining suitable issues or topics for the curriculum. In developing ESD curricula, considering environmental, economic, social, and cultural dimensions as perspectives for thought and using systemic, interdependence, comparative, and dialectical perspectives to develop a curriculum framework can better facilitate learners’ understanding of the concepts of sustainable development and cultivate their critical thinking and capacity for action.

This study analyzes the development of the sixth-grade curriculum at Green Elementary School, resulting in four distinct ESD perspective modules. Departing from prevailing scholarship that prioritizes curriculum structure through multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, or transdisciplinary approaches, or that advocates for learner-centered pedagogies, this investigation proposes diverse curriculum development modules within the curriculum structure. These modules are designed to assist curriculum designers and practitioners in navigating the inherent complexities and contradictions of sustainability issues. This study not only provides practical examples for promoting cultural sustainability but also implements a balanced approach to environmental, economic, social, and cultural dimensions in educational settings. Furthermore, it expands curriculum networks to deepen ESD-net theory in learner contexts, offering innovative pedagogical approaches and providing a valuable framework for educators transitioning from environmental education or local curricula to robust ESD implementation.