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Article

Exploring the Potential of Licuri (Syagrus coronata) Using Sustainable Techniques and Solvents for Extracting Bioactive Compounds

by
Emília Silva Inocêncio
1,
Filipe Smith Buarque
2,3,*,
Luiz F. R. Ferreira
4,
Cleide M. F. Soares
1,
Álvaro S. Lima
5 and
Ranyere Lucena de Souza
1,*
1
Institute of Technology and Research, Tiradentes University, Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Aracaju 49032-490, SE, Brazil
2
CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
3
Biochemical Engineering Department, School of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Av. Athos da Silveira Ramos, 149. Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil
4
Graduate Program in Genomic Sciences and Biotechnology, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília 71966-700, DF, Brazil
5
Post-Graduate Program on Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador 40210-910, BA, Brazil
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(4), 1507; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041507
Submission received: 7 January 2025 / Revised: 4 February 2025 / Accepted: 8 February 2025 / Published: 12 February 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Catalytic Processes in Chemical Engineering Towards Sustainable Processes and Circular Economy)
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Abstract

:
Bioactive compounds are important for promoting human health, either by developing functional products that offer complementary health benefits or by incorporating them into nutritional supplements, beverages, fortified foods, and pharmaceutical products. In this context, this work focuses on extracting phenolic compounds from the mesocarp of licuri (Syagrus coronata), with the aim of evaluating different emerging solvents and extraction techniques. Solvents with different polarities, such as acetonitrile, ethanol, dimethyl isosorbide (DMI), and CyreneTM, were used in the extraction process (by maceration, ultrasound, and microwaves). A response surface methodology (RSM) with 11 tests was applied, through which it was possible to determine the best extraction condition and method for extracting bioactive compounds, such as total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC). The results of licuri mesocarp characterization demonstrated the presence of functional groups associated with the presence of bioactive compounds. RSM analysis showed that the extraction process using acetonitrile at 30 wt%, 60 °C, and in a 1:20 (w/v) ratio had better TPC (35.8 mg GAE·g−1) and TFC (331.1 mg Erutin·g−1) values compared to ethanol. A comparative study between solvents was also conducted, in which CyreneTM (100 wt%) showed the better TPC extraction capacity (75.1 mg GAE·g−1) and acetonitrile as the best TFC extracting solvent (331.1 mg Erutin.g−1). Regarding the extraction method, when analyzing the optimized conditions found by RSM, ultrasound-assisted extraction showed the highest extraction values for TPC (42.8 mg GAE·g−1) and TFC (347.9 mg Erutin·g−1).

1. Introduction

Licuri (Syagrus coronata) (Mart.) is a palm that belongs to the Arecaceae family. It is a typical species of the semi-arid northeastern region of Brazil and is well adapted to the dry and arid regions of the Caatinga biome [1,2]. All the parts of its fruit can be used, from the skin to the albumen. The mesocarp is widely used in human and animal food, handicrafts, soaps, and oils [3,4]. Although it is best known for its traditional use in food and drink, the use of licuri in other applications has been widely studied, mainly because of the search for greater sustainability [5,6].
In this sense, biorefinery strategies can be used to recover compounds with high added value from the biomass of licuri mesocarp because it is a low-cost source of bioactive compounds. Licuri can be used to improve the circular economy in semi-arid regions because waste can reduce process costs and be environmentally friendly. The bioactives present in licuri have been used in the production of cosmetics, medicines, and food [1,7]. Bioactive compounds have attracted significant attention because of their role in preventing chronic diseases and their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunological properties, which are of considerable interest in the pharmaceutical and food sectors [8]. Its main health benefits are related to its anti-tumor potential, its preventive activity against cardiovascular and neurological diseases, and its important anti-inflammatory and antiviral properties [9]. Souza et al. [10] reported that phenolic compounds contribute to the fight against free radicals by inhibiting cell oxidation.
Polyphenols are a group of secondary plant metabolites defined as substances with an aromatic ring and one or more hydroxyl substituents [8]. According to Rispail et al. [11], they are also classified into water-soluble compounds (phenolic acids, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, and quinones) and water-insoluble compounds (condensed tannins, lignins, and cell-wall bound hydroxycinnamic acid). Recently, special attention has been devoted to these compounds because of their various biological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory activities; hepato-, photo-, and ulcer-protective properties; and analgesic, diuretic, and laxative effects [12,13,14]. Therefore, it is essential to develop processes for extracting phenolic compounds from their plant matrices.
The extraction process for phenolics includes traditional methods (maceration and extraction by organic solvents) and alternative methods (ultrasound and microwaves) [15,16,17]. Organic solvent extraction occurs by transferring the solute to one of the coexisting phases [18,19]. To avoid altering the biological activities of these compounds, characteristics such as solubility, a chemical structure that alters polarity, and conjugation and interaction with biomass must be considered when choosing the process [20,21,22].
Dihydrolevoglucosenone (CyreneTM) has been classified as a bio-based alternative solvent that is environmentally friendly, biodegradable, and obtained from renewable sources (from cellulose) [23]. CyreneTM is an aprotic dipolar solvent commonly used in various molecular separations [24,25]. Dimethyl isosorbide (DMI) is a heterocyclic compound that is low in toxicity, biodegradable, obtained from renewable sources (from starch), and highly soluble in water, allowing it to be easily removed after extraction. Furthermore, it has a low viscosity and a high boiling point (235–237 °C at 760 mmHg) [26,27]. Recently, it has been proposed as a substitute for some solvents used in industry, such as dimethylformamide (DMF) or dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) [28].
This study aimed to extract phenolic compounds from licuri mesocarp using different extraction techniques (conventional, microwave, and ultrasound) and sustainable solvents (CyreneTM and DMI) and compare them with conventional solvents (acetonitrile and ethanol).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Ethanol (purity ≥ 99.5%), Dimethyl isosorbide (DMI) (purity ≥ 99.5%), CyreneTM (purity ≥ 99.5%), acetonitrile (purity ≥ 99.5%), rutin, and gallic acid monohydrate (purity ≥ 99.5%) were acquired from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Folin–Ciocalteau, anhydrous sodium carbonate, and potassium acetate were supplied by Dinamica (Indaiatuba, Brazil).

2.2. Pre-Treatment of the Biomass

Licuri was collected at the Guirra farm (10°23′17.8″ S. 40°12′12.2″ W), located in the city of Senhor do Bonfim, Bahia, Brazil. The mesocarp was separated from the endocarp by hand. The mesocarp was then dried in an oven at 40 °C for 20 h and ground in a portable knife mill (IKA®, A11 basic, Germany). Licuri biomass was defatted under magnetic stirring for 3 h at room temperature using a ratio of 1 g of biomass to 5 mL of hexane and kept in a desiccator for 24 h as described by Nemes and Orsat [29].

2.3. Experimental Design Using Full Factorial Design (FFD)

The experimental design was conducted as a function of solvent concentration (X1), mass/volume ratio (X2), and temperature (X3) using a central composite design with online software Protimiza Experimental Desing version 1. The experiments were initially carried out using acetonitrile and ethanol as extracting solvents by the conventional extraction method (maceration) using a thermostatic bath (Marconi MA-127, Piracicapa, Brazil)). The variation ranges between the lower and upper limits of the independent variables for extracting bioactive compounds were established according to data found in the literature [30]. The conditions used were solvent concentrations of 30, 55, and 80 wt%; temperatures of 30, 45, and 60 °C; and biomass/volume ratios of 1:20, 1:40, and 1:60. Table 1 shows the coded and actual levels. Three independent replicates were performed.
In order to understand the effect of different types of solvent polarity, a comparative study between more traditional solvents (acetonitrile and ethanol) and non-traditional solvents (CyreneTM and DMI) was conducted. The solvents were used at concentrations of 30 and 100 wt%. Subsequently, based on the optimized extraction conditions, the impact of different types of extraction methods, such as maceration (conventional), ultrasound (non-conventional), and microwaves (non-conventional), was evaluated.

2.4. Phenolic Compound Determination

The total phenolic content (TPC) was determined by the Folin–Ciocalteau (FC) method using gallic acid as a standard. The spectrometric method at 765 nm was used to determine the phenolics, as described previously [31]. A volume of 0.04 mL of extract was added to 0.2 mL of FC reagent and 3.2 mL of ultrapure water. The mixture was left to stand for 5 min, and then 0.6 mL of sodium carbonate solution was added to the system. The blank was obtained by replacing the extract with water. TPC values were expressed as mg gallic acid equivalent per gram of extract (mg GAE·mL−1). The calibration curve was established using gallic acid as a standard (10 to 90 ppm, 7 points), obtaining a linear equation of y = 0.0078x + 0.0113 (R2 = 0.9965).

2.5. Total Flavonoid Determination

The total flavonoid content (TFC) was determined according to the methodology adapted from [32] using rutin as a standard. The extract (0.5 mL) was added to 0.1 mL of a 10 wt% aluminum nitrate solution and 0.1 mL of potassium acetate. Then, the system was left to stand for 5 min, and 4.3 mL of methanol was added. The mixture was homogenized and stored away from light. Subsequently, the flavonoid concentration was determined at 425 nm using a spectrophotometer (Epoch 2, Biotec Palo Alto, CA, USA). TFC values were expressed as mg rutin equivalent per gram of extract (mg Erutin·g−1). The calibration curve was determined using rutin as a standard (0–500 ppm, 5 points), obtaining a linear equation of y = 0.0028x + 0.0132 (R2 = 0.9960).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Extraction by Full Factorial Design (FFD)

In order to establish the best operational conditions for the extraction of TPC and TFC from licuri mesocarp, response surface methodology was applied. This tool is a collection of mathematical and statistical techniques that reduce the time required to optimize a process compared with classical methodologies. Moreover, it allows simultaneous testing of different operational conditions with a minimum number of trials and finding interactions between process variables [33]. The influence of the three process variables, i.e., solvent concentration (wt%), mass/volume ratio (m/v), and temperature (°C), was investigated. The levels of independent variables were selected on the basis of values reported in the literature [34].
The conventional extraction technique (maceration) of bioactive compounds in the presence of the solvents acetonitrile and ethanol was chosen to apply the full factor design (FFD) technique. The design consisted of 11 experiments with a fixed time of 1 h. The extraction efficiency of the conventional method is influenced by factors such as those described in Table 2 and Table 3.
Figure 1 shows the significant variables in the extraction process using acetonitrile as the solvent. The extraction of TPC (Figure 1a) shows that the mass/volume ratio (m/v) is the most influential variable, followed by temperature (°C) and solvent concentration (wt%). Furthermore, the interactions between variables (X1, X2, and X3) were insignificant for the process. Figure 1b displays the TFC extraction, in which the solvent concentration (wt%) is the most significant variable in the process, followed by the temperature (°C) and mass/volume ratio (m/v).
Figure 2 presents the TPC and TFC extraction process variables using ethanol as the extraction solvent. Figure 2a shows that temperature was the most influential variable in the extraction of TPC, whereas X1 (solvent concentration (wt%)) was the variable that most influenced the extraction of TFC (Figure 2b). The interactions between variables (X1, X1, and X1) were insignificant in the TPC extraction process. The response surface with its respective contour curves reveals the relationship between the dependent and independent variables, which are expressed by different solvent concentrations (wt%), mass/volume ratio (m/v), and temperature (°C) as a function of the concentration of total phenols and flavonoids (Y1) (Figure 3 and Figure 4).
Figure 3 shows the response surface for extracting bioactive compounds using acetonitrile as the extraction solvent. Thus, Figure 3a corresponds to the extraction of total phenolic compounds (TPC) expressed in mg EAG·mL−1, in which the best extraction condition was 30 wt% acetonitrile, 1:20 mass/volume ratio at 60 °C with 35.84 mg EAG·mL−1. In Figure 3b, the conditions of 30% acetonitrile, 1:20 mass/volume ratio at 60 °C, showed an extraction of TFC of 331.10 mg Erutin·mL−1. For both results presented, the coefficients of determination were 90.55 and 96.22%, respectively, using a 5% confidence level.
Figure 4 describes the response surface of the ethanol effect on the extraction of bioactive compounds from licuri mesocarp. As shown in Figure 4a,b, it was possible to obtain 25.37 mg EAG·mL−1 (for phenolic compounds) and 288.72 mg Erutin·mL−1 (for flavonoids) under the optimized conditions of 30% solvent and 1:20 mass/volume ratio at 60 °C. From the above, it was possible to determine that the best conditions for extracting the bioactive compounds found by FFD were 30 wt% acetonitrile, 1:20 mass/volume ratio, and a temperature of 60 °C. This condition resulted in the highest content of total phenolic compounds (35.84 mg EAG·mL−1) and flavonoids (311.10 mg Erutin·mL−1). These results indicate that the more polar nature of acetonitrile (log P = −0.45) is more efficient for extracting bioactive compounds from licuri mesocarp.
Temperature strongly influences the extraction process because heat causes the cell walls to become more permeable, which consequently increases the solubility and diffusion of the compounds to be extracted while simultaneously decreasing the viscosity of the solvents, thereby facilitating the obtaining of compounds of interest [35]. Thus, the data presented in this study demonstrate that the extraction of phenolic compounds from licuri mesocarp occurs best at 60 °C. Some studies indicate that temperatures above 60 °C can degrade phenolic compounds and thus affect the yield of the extraction process [36].
To the best of our knowledge, no studies in the literature have demonstrated the extraction of phenolic compounds from licuri mesocarp. Similar studies have shown the potential presence of bioactive compounds in other parts of licuri fruit. Santos et al. [37] obtained 12.53 mg GAE·g−1 of phenolic compounds from licuri flour using methanol as the solvent. Studies of phenolics and flavonoids found in the mesocarp of other biomass sources have also been reported in the literature, such as Aires et al. [38], who achieved TPC and TFC values from bocaiuva (Acrocomia aculeata) mesocarp flour of 50.02 mg EAG·100g−1 and 32.31 mg Erutin·100g−1, respectively. The authors reported that the Soxhlet technique was used under a solvent concentration (ethanol) of 70 wt%, a mass/volume ratio of 1:30, and magnetic stirring for 20 min at 25 °C. The values reported diverge from those found in our study with licuri mesocarp under the best extraction conditions. The difference between the values found may be due to the nutritional and molecular composition of each part of licuri, the variety of fruit, where the fruit was obtained, and the stage of ripeness. Moreover, extraction variables, such as solvent type and concentration, biomass/solvent ratio, extraction method, and temperature, must be considered.
Meireles et al. [39] studied the antioxidant potential of bioactive compounds in catolé mesocarp (Syagrus cearenis), a fruit very similar to licuri. In this study, the authors evaluated the effects of acetone, ethanol, and water at a concentration of 100 wt% under mechanical agitation for 3 h at room temperature. The maximum flavonoid content was 6.38 mg/g, and the phenolic content was 36.70 mg GAE·g−1 for acetone, 27.65 mg GAE.g−1 for ethanol, and 37.46 mg GAE·g−1 for water. The phenolic content values found in the catolé mesocarp with acetone extraction were similar to those found in our study with the extraction of phenolics in licuri mesocarp with acetonitrile (35.84 mg GAE·g−1). Castro-Puyana et al. [40] reported that a content of 4.26 mg GAE·g−1 of phenolic compounds was achieved from the dendê mesocarp cake with 70 wt% methanol in a 1:20 biomass/solvent ratio at 60 °C.
In summary, the data reported in our study demonstrate the great relevance of studying the mesocarp of the licuri tree because of the large number of phenolic compounds in this biomass. In addition, the extraction of bioactive compounds allows waste to be used and increases the added value of the fruit.

3.2. Effect of Solvent Type and Polarity

Solvent polarity is an important variable in the extraction capacity of bioactive compounds. Therefore, a comparative study was carried out on the impact of solvents with different polarities and extended to solvents of a sustainable nature, such as CyreneTM and DMI. Figure 5 displays the effect of different solvents and concentrations on the extraction of TPC and TFC from licuri mesocarp under the optimized conditions described in the previous section. For comparison purposes, extractions were performed using water and methanol to assess the main contributions of each solvent. The data demonstrated that solvent concentrations at 30 wt% were more efficient in the following order: DMI < ethanol < acetonitrile. CyreneTM was the only exception, showing better extraction at a concentration of 100 wt%. These results can be justified by the hydrophilic nature of CyreneTM, which has an octanol–water partition coefficient (log Kow) of −1.52, whereas acetonitrile and ethanol have log Kow values of −0.34 and −0.31, respectively [41].
CyreneTM exhibited the best TPC extraction value at a concentration of 100 wt% (75.09 mg GAE·mL−1), whereas acetonitrile showed values of 35.84 mg GAE·mL−1. However, acetonitrile achieved the best TFC content (331.1 mg Erutin·mL−1). These results are important because they indicate that the extraction of bioactive compounds can be selective and without the need for future separation because of the polarity tuning promoted by the appropriate choice of solvents and their mixtures. CyreneTM, like acetonitrile, is a dipolar apoptotic solvent that can act as an acceptor of hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces [23,25]. Silva et al. [42] demonstrated that CyreneTM is unsuitable when used in mixtures with other bio-solvents to extract TPC from kiwi peel.
Moura-Filho et al. [43] investigated the potential of extracting TPC from buriti fruit (a species from the same family as licuri) using water, methanol, and ethanol. The authors reported that methanol at 70 wt% exhibited the best extraction capacity (103.87 mg GAE·g−1) under a biomass/solvent ratio of 1:3, agitation for 60 min, and room temperature. Similar behavior was observed in our study when using methanol and ethanol at 30 and 100 wt% (Figure 5). Beltran et al. [44] reported that there was no significant difference in the use of acetone, methanol, and ethanol for the extraction of phenolic compounds from the flour produced from the pulp (epicarp and mesocarp) of the fruit of the Aiphanes aculeata palm (solvent at 70 wt%, stirring for 20 min, 60 °C, and biomass/solvent ratio 1:3).

3.3. Comparative Study of Extraction Methods

A comparative study was conducted between conventional (maceration) and non-conventional (ultrasound and microwave) methods of extracting TPC and TFC. The operating conditions adopted for the different techniques were those found for FFD: 30% acetonitrile, 1:20 mass/volume ratio, at 60 °C. Ultrasonic and microwave extraction are techniques used in various industrial sectors, including the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Both techniques extract specific compounds from complex matrices, such as plants, fruits, or other substances [32].
The data shown in Figure 6 indicate that the ultrasound-assisted method is the most efficient for extracting TPC and TFC from licuri mesocarp (TPC 42.8 mg GAE·g−1 and TFC 347.9 mg Erutin·g−1), followed by the conventional method (TPC 35.8 mg GAE·g−1 and TFC 331.1 mg Erutin·g−1) and microwave-assisted extraction (TPC 15.5 mg GAE·g−1 and TFC 174.4 mg Erutin·g−1). These results suggest that the cavitation effect promoted by ultrasonic waves ruptures the plant membrane, more easily exposing the compounds inside [45].
Ultrasound is a high-frequency mechanical wave generated by a transducer that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is transmitted to a liquid medium, which creates pressure waves and displacements that produce microcavitations, i.e., tiny vacuum bubbles that quickly form and collapse. These microcavitations are responsible for breaking down plant cells and tissues and releasing bioactive compounds, thus increasing extraction efficiency [14,46]. In addition, with direct sonification, it is possible to transmit energy and favor extraction processes because the heat released by the implosions of the microbubbles increases the solubility of the analytes, improving extraction efficiency [46,47,48]. Moreover, another advantage of ultrasound is that it reduces extraction time and promotes lower solvent consumption and higher yield rates due to increased surface diffusion and external mass transfer [15].
Microwave technology is a high-frequency electromagnetic wave capable of interacting with water molecules, causing them to polarize and generate heat through friction. This heat is transferred to the liquid medium, which can lead to the breakdown of plant cells and tissues and the extraction of bioactive compounds. However, unlike ultrasound, microwaves do not generate cavitation [49].

4. Conclusions

This study investigated the extraction of phenolic compounds and flavonoids from licuri mesocarp using solvents of different polarities (acetonitrile, ethanol, CyreneTM, and DMI). Optimization of the extraction provided an efficient extraction of 35.8 mg GAE·g−1 of TPC and 331.1 mg Erutin·g−1 of TFC (30 wt% acetonitrile, biomass/solvent ratio 1:20 at 60 °C). A comparative study was conducted between non-traditional and environmentally friendly solvents (CyreneTM and DMI) and traditional solvents (acetonitrile and ethanol). CyreneTM showed the best TPC extraction values (75.1 mg GAE·g−1) under 100 wt% concentration, 1:20 (m/v) ratio, 60 °C for 1h using the maceration method. However, the best-extracting solvent for TFC was acetonitrile (331.1 mg Erutin·g−1) (solvent concentration 30%, 1:20 (m/v) and 60 °C). The ultrasound-assisted extraction method proved to be the most efficient for obtaining the bioactive compounds (TPC = 42.78 mg GAE·g−1 and TFC = 347.93 mg Erutin·g−1) from licuri mesocarp compared with the conventional maceration method (TPC 35.8 mg GAE·g−1 and TFC 331.1 mg Erutin·g−1) and microwave (TPC = 15.5 mg GAE·g−1 and TFC = 174.4 mg Erutin·g−1). In summary, we demonstrated remarkable results for extracting bioactive compounds from the mesocarp of licuri and the possibility of selective extraction using CyreneTM (for TPC) and acetonitrile (for TFC). In addition, the great potential of this biomass was noted, contributing to the socioeconomic value of the species.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Á.S.L. and R.L.d.S.; methodology, E.S.I. and F.S.B.; validation, F.S.B., C.M.F.S. and L.F.R.F.; formal analysis, E.S.I. and L.F.R.F.; investigation, E.S.I. and L.F.R.F.; data curation, R.L.d.S.; writing—original draft preparation, E.S.I. and F.S.B.; writing—review and editing, F.S.B. and R.L.d.S.; visualization, C.M.F.S.; supervision, Á.S.L. and R.L.d.S.; project administration, R.L.d.S.; funding acquisition, C.M.F.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa e Inovação Tecnológica do Estado de Sergipe (FAPITEC/SE)—Finance Code 01302440586/PDPG-SEMIARIDO1932216P; Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq); and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)—Finance Code 001 for granting financial resources for the development of the work. F.S. acknowledges the scholarship grant from FAPERJ: E-26/204.344/2021.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Influence of the variables X1 (% v/v), X2 (m/v), and X3 (temperature (°C)) using acetonitrile as the extracting solvent on the response variables TPC (a) and TFC (b).
Figure 1. Influence of the variables X1 (% v/v), X2 (m/v), and X3 (temperature (°C)) using acetonitrile as the extracting solvent on the response variables TPC (a) and TFC (b).
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Figure 2. Influence of the variables X1 (% v/v), X2 (m/v), and X3 (temperature (°C)) using ethanol as the extracting solvent on the response variables TPC (a) and TFC (b).
Figure 2. Influence of the variables X1 (% v/v), X2 (m/v), and X3 (temperature (°C)) using ethanol as the extracting solvent on the response variables TPC (a) and TFC (b).
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Figure 3. Response surface matrix of the extraction of TPC (a) and TFC (b) from licuri mesocarp using acetonitrile as solvent.
Figure 3. Response surface matrix of the extraction of TPC (a) and TFC (b) from licuri mesocarp using acetonitrile as solvent.
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Figure 4. Response surface matrix of the extraction of TPC (a) and TFC (b) from licuri mesocarp using ethanol as solvent.
Figure 4. Response surface matrix of the extraction of TPC (a) and TFC (b) from licuri mesocarp using ethanol as solvent.
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Figure 5. Comparison of the use of different solvents in the extraction of phenolic compounds (TPC: (A)), and flavonoids (TFC: (B)) from licuri mesocarp biomass under optimized FFD conditions.
Figure 5. Comparison of the use of different solvents in the extraction of phenolic compounds (TPC: (A)), and flavonoids (TFC: (B)) from licuri mesocarp biomass under optimized FFD conditions.
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Figure 6. Comparison between the conventional, ultrasound, and microwave methods for extracting TPC (mg GAE.g−1) and TFC (mg Erutin.g−1) from licuri fruit.
Figure 6. Comparison between the conventional, ultrasound, and microwave methods for extracting TPC (mg GAE.g−1) and TFC (mg Erutin.g−1) from licuri fruit.
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Table 1. Codified and real levels of the independent variables.
Table 1. Codified and real levels of the independent variables.
Independent VariablesLevels
−101
Solvent concentration (wt%)X1305580
Mass/volume ratio (1 g.mL−1)X2204060
Temperature (°C)X3304560
Table 2. Extraction of phenolic compounds and flavonoids from licuri mesocarp fruit by acetonitrile using full factorial design (FFD) a,b.
Table 2. Extraction of phenolic compounds and flavonoids from licuri mesocarp fruit by acetonitrile using full factorial design (FFD) a,b.
EntryConditionsResponse Variables (mg·g)
ACN (wt%)Biomass/Solvent RatioT (°C)TPCTFC
1(−1) 30(−1) 20(−1) 3025.00304.87
2(1) 80(−1) 20(−1) 3012.5054.83
3(−1) 30(1) 60(−1) 309.3657.53
4(1) 80(1) 60(−1) 303.8920.71
5(−1) 30(−1) 20(1) 6035.84331.10
6(1) 80(−1) 20(1) 6024.71117.53
7(−1) 30(1) 60(1) 6019.48298.75
8(1) 80(1) 60(1) 609.73144.48
9(0) 55(0) 40(0) 4511.60190.52
10(0) 55(0) 40(0) 4511.61191.43
11(0) 55(0) 40(0) 4511.60172.85
a Extractions were typically performed with licuri mesocarp residues at the indicated conditions for 60 min with magnetic stirring (u(ACN) ¼ 0.1 wt%, u(b/s) ¼ 0.1, and u(T) ¼ 1 °C). [ACN] is the acetonitrile concentration (wt%), b/s is the biomass/solvent ratio, and T is the temperature (°C). b Total concentration of phenolic compounds and flavonoids was determined by the Folin–Ciocalteau (FC) and Barbosa et al. [33] (rutin as standard), respectively (u [response variables] ¼ 0.010 mg·g).
Table 3. Extraction of phenolic compounds and flavonoids from licuri mesocarp fruit by ethanol using full factorial design (FFD) a,b.
Table 3. Extraction of phenolic compounds and flavonoids from licuri mesocarp fruit by ethanol using full factorial design (FFD) a,b.
EntryConditionsResponse Variables (mg/g)
EtOH (wt%)Biomass/Solvent RatioT (° C)TPCTFC
1(−1) 30(−1) 20(−1) 309.19282.77
2(1) 80(−1) 20(−1) 304.2582.49
3(−1) 30(1) 60(−1) 302.24104.16
4(1) 80(1) 60(−1) 301.3381.38
5(−1) 30(−1) 20(1) 6025.37288.72
6(1) 80(−1) 20(1) 6013.8023.76
7(−1) 30(1) 60(1) 6010.0239.91
8(1) 80(1) 60(1) 604.9053.52
9(0) 55(0) 40(0) 4513.50123.52
10(0) 55(0) 40(0) 4513.50123.50
11(0) 55(0) 40(0) 4513.50123.49
a Extractions were typically performed with licuri mesocarp residues at the indicated conditions for 60 min with magnetic stirring (u(EtOH) ¼ 0.1 wt%, u(b/s) ¼ 0.1, and u(T) ¼ 1 °C). [EtOH] is the ethanol concentration (wt%), b/s is the biomass/solvent ratio, and T is the temperature (°C). b Total concentration of phenolic compounds and flavonoids was determined by the Folin–Ciocalteau (FC) and Barbosa et al. [33] (rutin as standard), respectively (u [response variables] ¼ 0.010 mg·g).
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Inocêncio, E.S.; Buarque, F.S.; Ferreira, L.F.R.; Soares, C.M.F.; Lima, Á.S.; Souza, R.L.d. Exploring the Potential of Licuri (Syagrus coronata) Using Sustainable Techniques and Solvents for Extracting Bioactive Compounds. Sustainability 2025, 17, 1507. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041507

AMA Style

Inocêncio ES, Buarque FS, Ferreira LFR, Soares CMF, Lima ÁS, Souza RLd. Exploring the Potential of Licuri (Syagrus coronata) Using Sustainable Techniques and Solvents for Extracting Bioactive Compounds. Sustainability. 2025; 17(4):1507. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041507

Chicago/Turabian Style

Inocêncio, Emília Silva, Filipe Smith Buarque, Luiz F. R. Ferreira, Cleide M. F. Soares, Álvaro S. Lima, and Ranyere Lucena de Souza. 2025. "Exploring the Potential of Licuri (Syagrus coronata) Using Sustainable Techniques and Solvents for Extracting Bioactive Compounds" Sustainability 17, no. 4: 1507. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041507

APA Style

Inocêncio, E. S., Buarque, F. S., Ferreira, L. F. R., Soares, C. M. F., Lima, Á. S., & Souza, R. L. d. (2025). Exploring the Potential of Licuri (Syagrus coronata) Using Sustainable Techniques and Solvents for Extracting Bioactive Compounds. Sustainability, 17(4), 1507. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041507

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