Governance, Education, and Sustainable Development: A Comparative Analysis in Central and Eastern Europe

Abstract

This study assessed the interplay between economic development, rule of law, social inequalities in education, and sustainable development in Central and Eastern European countries. Grounded in the theoretical background of sustainable development, this study examines how governmental efficiency, transparency, economic development, and social capital function as key drivers of SDG goals in CEE countries. The analysis draws on three theoretical models: the economic theory of sustainable development, institutional frameworks emphasizing good governance and sustainable development, and the role of social capital in shaping SDG dynamics. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the following research directions: i. the impact of economic development on the sustainable development index; ii. the relationship between the rule of law and the achievement of SDG goals; and iii. the relevance of social factors in sustainable development. Using a quantitative research design based on both linear and nonlinear regression models, we estimate that the interplay between governance and education is strongly related to an increased SDG index. These findings contribute to the growing body of literature on sustainable development, offering insights into the particularities of Central and Eastern European social and economic development. This study provides evidence for scholars and policy-makers interested in sustainable development, highlighting the importance of institutional transparency and education in enhancing social and economic development.

1. Introduction

Sustainable development has become a central policy objective in the context of global economic and environmental challenges since the beginning of the XXI-st century. In this context, sustainable development policies are a fundamental requirement for long-term social and economic stability. Achieving increased levels of sustainable development requires not only technological development and investments, but also deeper structural changes in the field of economic direction, educational improvement, and governmental transparency and efficiency. Both the European Green Deal and the UN 2030 Agenda are relevant strategies for understanding the role played by sustainable development in achievement in social, and economic sectors. However, the progress of Central and Eastern European countries in achieving sustainability is influenced by historical legacies, political regimes, and socio-economic dimensions. This study aims to investigate the relationships between economic growth, governmental efficiency and transparency, social inequalities, and human capital in shaping a model of sustainable development in Central and Eastern European countries. Our assessment is based on quantitative research methods using secondary statistical data on long-term distribution from 2000 to 2023. Using linear and nonlinear regression equations, we observed that education has a fixed effect on sustainable development achievement in countries such as Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. From this perspective, we estimated a significantly strong correlation between the mean years of schooling and the level of sustainable development achievement in the analyzed countries. Moreover, we observed a combined effect of education and governance on the sustainable development index. These complex interactions between factors reflect the relevance of the human development theoretical approach in understanding why sustainable development is a key priority in Central and Eastern European governmental strategies. Despite certain limitations, our empirical findings provide important insights for decision-makers, scholars, and stakeholders interested in achieving sustainable development.

Sustainable Development in the Contemporary World: Theoretical Perspectives and Research Hypotheses

This section explores key theoretical perspectives on the significance of sustainable development. If, in general terms, economic development/growth seems to have reduced the poverty rate without precedent, the need for a complementary vision, with an emphasis on sustainability [1], is very necessary. In the conditions of contemporary globalization, which has as a subsidiary the significant increase in social inequality or the global environmental crisis, and the new international strategic challenges [2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9], sustainable development is emerging as both a topic of political and academic interest, but also as a way to improve the human condition [10].

The issue of sustainability, although implicit, begins to take shape with The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm (1972), which, in the final report stipulates that ”the protection and improvement of the human environment is a major issue which affects the well-being of peoples and economic development throughout the world” [11]. During the same period, a group of researchers, under the auspices of the Club of Rome, published a report that comprehensively addressed what they called “world problematique”: poverty, environmental degradation, loss of faith in institutions, employment insecurity, and alienation of young people, excessive urbanization, or the rejection of traditional values [12]. Moreover, these aspects were conceived within the natural environment, emphasizing that industrial society exceeded most of the ecological limits within a matter of decades if it continued to promote the kind of economic growth witnessed in the 1960s and the 1970s [13]. In this respect, The Club of Rome’s ‘Limits to Growth’ argues for a “world system … that is sustainable” [12] and it marks the first modern appearance of the term [14].

Based on this intellectual heritage, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), which was established in 1983 and headed by Gro Harlem Brundtland, released a report entitled Our Common Future in 1987. The fundamental objective was to propose long-term environmental strategies for achieving sustainable development, considering the interrelations among people, resources, the environment, and development. Moreover, the report defines sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [15]. Thereby, the Brundtland Commission, through its report Our Common Future, was the significant political turning point that introduced the concept of “sustainable development” on the international political agenda and eventually made it of great geopolitical significance [13,16,17,18]. The consolidation of sustainable development as an international concern was subsequently achieved through the organization of The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) from Rio de Janeiro (1992); UNCED led to the production of capital international documents such as the Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, and conventions on desertification, biodiversity, and climate change [13]. From these perspectives, sustainable development must summarize the environment, economy, and equity and implement them in terms of ecology, employment, and equality [19].

After these developments specific to the 1990s, the Millennium Declaration [20] adopted by the UN in 2000 by transposing the issue of sustainable development into eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to be achieved by the global community by 2015, represents the first comprehensive global governance framework for the achievement of sustainable development [21]. The next step was made in September 2015, when the United Nations General Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The transition from MDGs to SDGs is the most recent evolution in the understanding of sustainable development, with the 2030 Agenda being the most comprehensive global governance framework for sustainable development [21]. In this framework, the focus is on people, the planet, and prosperity by strengthening universal peace and “eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development” [22]. Two years later, The Sustainable Development Goals report stated that “in adopting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, world leaders resolved to free humanity from poverty, secure a healthy planet for future generations, and build peaceful, inclusive societies as a foundation for ensuring lives of dignity for all” [23].

This review of how sustainable development has been framed and structured in the space of public debate reflects both the fact that it is a complex construction [24,25,26,27] and, on the other hand, that sustainable development “proponents (politicians, experts, educators, civil society organizations) need people to understand the meaning of their ideas and intentions, formulated in concepts, strategies and policies” [28]. However, beyond the multiple definitions of sustainable development [29], three pillars support it, which are accepted by the academic community [30,31,32,33]: social, economic, and environmental.

Moreover, this vision has been explicitly articulated in the language of the United Nations [34], according to which sustainable development means ‘ensuring the promotion of an economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable future for our planet and for present and future generations’. This formulation supports the argument that these elements were already addressed by the Brundtland Commission, whose definition of sustainability contains two central concepts: the concept of ‘needs,’ particularly the essential needs of the world’s poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs [15].

This means nothing more than that, from the beginning, sustainable development has been built on the link between ‘poverty alleviation, environmental improvement, and social equity through sustainable economic growth’ [26]. Thus, the relationship between the three pillars has represented, and continues to represent, the central core of any systematic approach to sustainable development, despite its ambiguities and imperfections. Even though the logic by which each of the three dimensions operates is not necessarily a unitary one, it remains necessary ‘to identify the essential component systems and to define indicators that can provide essential and reliable information about the viability of each and of the total system’ [35].

Even though sustainability incorporates the intellectual legacy of the limits of economic growth, which places the economic dimension as subsidiary to the social and environmental ones [36], nevertheless the economic system must produce, in a sustainable manner, “goods and services on a continuing basis, to maintain manageable levels of government and external debt, and to avoid extreme sectorial imbalances which damage the agricultural and industrial production” [35]. From this perspective, reducing the impact of poverty can only be achieved by using economic levers, but in a manner that couples economic growth with social equity and inter-generational fairness [37,38,39,40]. In the current conditions, the economic dimension is all the more relevant because, although the implementation of the SDGs is the responsibility of governments, it is unlikely that this could be done without the participation of the private economic sector. Responsible for 84% of GDP and 90% of jobs in developing countries, the private sector could improve the lives of the poor and deliver on the promise of sustainable and socially inclusive economic development [41]. Also, in the context of the 2030 Agenda, the private sector has an important role to play in achieving the SDGs through the establishment of public–private partnerships, sustainable investments, and corporate social responsibility [42]. Last but not least, foreign direct investment or the adoption of the circular economy are becoming relevant elements for the economic component of sustainability [43,44,45]. Regarding these theoretical perspectives on governance and economic development, we postulate the following research hypotheses:

H1. 

Central and Eastern European countries with sustained economic growth exhibit a higher likelihood of achieving significant advancements in sustainable development.

H2. 

Higher levels of governmental transparency and rule of law correlate positively with the achievement of advanced sustainable development outcomes.

Social inequalities remain a prominent feature of many societies and continue to be a key challenge on the sustainable development agenda. To quantify these disparities, the Gini coefficient was developed, serving as an essential tool for evaluating social and economic inequalities. Simultaneously, the emphasis on equity and basic needs within the sustainable development framework ties the concept closely to the “human development tradition”. This tradition gave rise to the Human Development Index (HDI), which combines indicators like life expectancy, literacy rates, school enrolment ratios, and per capita GDP. This approach underscores the idea that development is a multifaceted process, where a higher GDP does not automatically equate to improved human welfare or development.

As Amartya Sen has pointed out, the relationship between development and freedom is critical [46]. This connection can only be realized when human rights are respected and integrated into sustainable development efforts [47,48]. Ensuring fundamental rights and freedoms, while upholding the inclusive principles of the rule of law, is central to sustainable development. The 2030 Agenda reinforces this by emphasizing ‘the responsibilities of all States, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations, to respect, protect, and promote human rights and fundamental freedoms for all’ [22].

From a social perspective, sustainability must encompass mechanisms that promote ‘achieve distributional equity, adequate provision of social services including health and education, gender equity, and political accountability and participation’ [35]. The 2030 Agenda extensively references human rights, participation, and inclusion [49], justifying the SDGs as essential to ‘realizing the human rights of all’ [22].

Achieving these goals (SDGs) requires establishing strong governance based on principles like participation, transparency, and accountability. Effective governance translates to the rule of law, transparency, responsiveness, consensus orientation, equity, effectiveness, efficiency, accountability, and a strategic vision [50,51,52,53]. To this end, government efforts must be complemented by the contributions of the private sector and civil society. Good governance, therefore, involves synergy across three key dimensions: political, economic, and social. The political dimension ensures lawfulness, accountability, and respect for human rights. The economic dimension focuses on government capacity to manage resources effectively, with transparency in managing natural resources and protecting the environment. The social dimension guarantees that all societal groups are included, free from discrimination, and fosters tolerance [54]. Based on these concepts, we propose the following research hypothesis:

H3. 

Higher degrees of social and economic inequalities are negatively related to the attainment of the sustainable development goals.

For a sustainable approach to truly safeguard the human condition, it requires a specific ethos supported by targeted education. As the UNESCO report suggests, “education—in all its forms and at all levels—is not only an end in itself but is also one of the most powerful instruments we have for bringing about the changes required to achieve sustainable development, enabling every individual to acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values necessary to shape a sustainable future” [55]. According to the Sustainable Development Education Panel Report, “education for sustainable development is about the learning needed to maintain and improve our quality of life and the quality of life of generations to come. It is about equipping individuals, communities, groups, businesses, and governments to act sustainably, while understanding the environmental, social, and economic issues involved. It prepares us for the world of the future, ensuring we are not found wanting” [56]. Education is, therefore, a cornerstone in achieving the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs. Education for sustainable development promotes knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that empower people to meet their needs using a balanced approach that integrates the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of sustainability [57]. Beyond fulfilling human needs, education for sustainable development must be understood as ‘agency for deliberating valued beings, doings, and freedoms of current and future generations’, focusing on the rights and freedoms of all individuals, both individually and collectively [58]. Sustainability and education are interconnected. Education transforms mindsets, institutions, and cultures to foster a more just and ecologically responsible future. Educational programs must embody and actively promote sustainability as a transformative process that empowers individuals and institutions to rethink values, practices, and social roles [59,60,61,62]. From basic education to lifelong learning, people can develop the skills, knowledge, and attitudes needed to address economic, environmental, or governmental issues. The relationship between these concepts consists of developing critical thinking and behavioral change. Moreover, the nexus between sustainable development and education could be seen as a balance between human development and preservation of the environment for future generations [63,64,65,66,67,68]. Future development should be based on transformative thinking and action [69,70,71,72,73]. Regarding the importance of education and governance, we can stress that an increased level of education is linked with social and governmental responsibility. Economic actors and governmental structures should embed sustainable principles in their governance frameworks [74,75,76]. Educated citizens, also, are interested in sustainable development and participation in political decision-making and sustainability policies [77,78,79]. Taking into account all these assumptions, we argue that technological advancements, civic accountability, and economic innovations are strategic directions for future sustainable governance [80,81,82,83]. Based on these theoretical foundations, we propose the following research hypothesis:

H4. 

A rise in the average years of schooling positively correlates with higher levels of sustainable development achievement.

The following sections of the paper present methodological guidelines, the empirical findings, and the analysis in which political, economic, social, and educational factors produce individual or combined effects on the dynamics of sustainability.

2. Materials and Methods

This section presents the main methodological guidelines used for understanding the dynamics of sustainable development in Central and Eastern European countries. It also presents our research questions, objectives, and quantitative data. In line with this approach, we present our research design to highlight the relevant factors that are related to the sustainable development index. Our research design is based on several research questions, including: What is the impact of the economic development on sustainable development in Central and Eastern Europe? What is the role of education in fostering sustainable development in Central and Eastern European states? How does governmental transparency influence the dynamics of sustainable development? How do social and economic inequality affect sustainability outcomes in Central and Eastern European countries? What policy measures could enhance sustainability based on social, political, and economic issues? To examine these complex interactions between sustainable development and social, political, and economic variables, this study aims to achieve the following research objectives:

O1: To examine cross-national variations in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) achievements among Central and Eastern European countries;

O2: To estimate the relevance of the economic growth in shaping SDG dynamics within the region;

O3: To investigate the relationship between governmental efficiency and SDG performance in Central and Eastern European countries;

O4: To assess the impact of educational factors on SDG attainment and sustainability outcomes;

O5: To analyze the long-term effects of the social and economic inequalities on sustainable development over the past two decades.

Data, Methods and Quantitative Design

The dataset consists of cross-sectional data for Central and Eastern European countries, sourced from publicly available databases. In this regard, data on SDG achievement were collected from Sustainable Development Reports, an international think tank that provides statistical measures of the SDG index. The Institute promotes solutions for sustainable development and supports the implementation of UNDP strategies for SDG achievement, as outlined in the 2030 Agenda. These statistical reports offer detailed assessments of SDG achievements across various dimensions of sustainability: economic, social, and environmental. The SDG index is an important quantitative resource for scholars, international organizations, and governments that aim to measure progress and develop strategies for sustainable development.

The index measures a country’s progress on a scale from 0 to 100, with 100 indicating that all 17 SDGs set by the United Nations have been achieved. By monitoring country progress, comparing regions and countries, and identifying areas for improvement, the SDG index raises awareness of the importance of sustainable development in contemporary societies. In the academic field, the SDG index serves as a valuable tool for economists, sociologists, and political scientists interested in assessing various aspects of sustainability. This indicator plays a crucial role in tracking and promoting sustainable development, being useful in making informed decisions towards achieving global goals.

Data regarding economic performance were collected from secondary sources such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). We used data on GDP growth rate (%) to measure economic performance. This indicator reflects the increase or decrease in the value of all goods and services produced within a country over a specific period. It is relevant in the field of economic and financial policies, as it helps measure economic health and investment decisions. In the context of our research, GDP growth can be seen as a measure of resource use, environmental impact, social equity, and long-term development. The interaction between economic growth and sustainable development is crucial for understanding social and economic inclusion and the benefits for future generations.

An important factor in the field of sustainable development is political transparency and governance. Data were provided by the Varieties of Democracy (V-Democracy), a leading research organization in the field of political and democratic studies. The V-Democracy Institute offers multidimensional datasets that reflect the complexity of democratic regimes, including electoral participation, public deliberation, egalitarian democracy, liberal democracy, and respect for civil rights, and political participation. The institute publishes annual reports of the state of democracy worldwide, including statistical data related to governance, rule of law, social and economic issues. In this study, we used data on the Rule of Law Index, which is measured on a scale from 0 to 1. A higher value of the index is strongly associated with political transparency, good governance, and rule of law.

Together with economic and political aspects, we aim to create a comprehensive image of the SDG achievement in Central and Eastern European countries by using data on human development. Human capital plays a crucial role in understanding the impact of knowledge, collective skills, and individual abilities on economic growth, social well-being, and sustainable development. Investments in human capital are essential for fostering social innovation, economic growth, and technological advancement. Human capital perspectives ensure that individuals have the opportunity to contribute and benefit from economic, social, and political development. In line with the human development perspectives, we used quantitative data regarding the Human Development Index. To measure the relevance of educational factors in sustainable development, we used data on the mean years of schooling as part of the HDI. To better understand the human development perspective, we argue that education is the most important variable. It creates individuals’ knowledge and skills enabling better integration and cooperation into a rapidly changing and dynamic world. In addition to access to education, human capital is closely linked to lifelong learning. This perspective highlights the importance of education in developing skills and adapting to new social and economic challenges. The relevance of mean years of schooling can also be seen in the context of employability, where education plays a key role in maintaining an innovative and competitive workforce.

Regarding human development, we used as an independent factor social and economic inequality, measured by the Gini Index. Data were provided by both the World Bank and Countryeconomy.com. Countryeconomy.com is an interactive and comprehensive platform that offers social and economic statistical data for various regions and countries. We used historical data on the Gini Index of the Central and Eastern European countries. The Gini Index is measured on a scale from 0 to 100, where a value of 0 indicates perfect economic equality, meaning everyone in the population has the same income. Low values of the Gini Index indicate a more equal distribution of the income and greater social equality, while high values reflect a more unequal distribution of income. In accordance with these perspectives,

Table 1. Research variables: symbols, units of measurement, and secondary data sources.

Variables	Symbol	Units of Measurement	Data Source
Sustainable Development Goal Index	SDG	[0–100]	Sustainable Development Report [84]
Economic Growth	EG	[0–100]	World Bank [85]
Governance and Rule of Law Index	GI	[0–1]	Varieties of Democracy [86]
Education-mean years of schooling	ED	[0–20]	Human Development Index [87]
Gini Index	Gini	[0–100]	Country Economy.com [88]

presents the research variables, statistical values and data sources:

Variables were collected from secondary sources covering the economic dimension of the sustainable development (EG), political factors (GI), and social foundations of the development (ED and Gini). We used the SDG index as the dependent variable to explain the evolution of sustainable development in Central and Eastern European countries in correlation to economic development, governmental performance, human development, and social equity.

This study employed a comparative case study method, analyzing a statistical series over 24 years, with data ranging from 2000 to 2023. This study focuses on the comparison and analysis of the following Central and Eastern European countries: Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania. The statistical design included both descriptive and inferential statistics. Regarding the descriptive statistics, we estimated several measures for all the variables such as central tendency, dispersion, and distribution.

The baseline model used in data analysis was the linear regression as follows.

Let be X an independent variable and Y the dependent variable, the linear equation captures the direct association between X and Y:

$$Y_i=\alpha +\beta ·X_i+{\epsilon }_i$$

(1)

For stressing the linear effects of the independent factors in the field of the sustainable development index, we used the following multiple regression model:

$$SDG=\alpha +{\beta }_1·EG+{\beta }_2·GI+{\beta }_3·ED+{\beta }_4·Gini+{\epsilon }_i$$

(2)

To highlight the interactions among the factors in the field of sustainable development, we used nonlinear models that capture the interaction of the independent variables. In this regard, we describe the models used as follows: Let X, Y, and Z represent variables, where Y is the dependent variable and X and Z are the independent factors. In line with academic literature, the nonlinear model that captures the interaction of X and Z in explaining the variations of Y is represented by the following equation [89]:

$$Y_i=\alpha +{\beta }_1·X_i+{\beta }_2·Z_i+{\beta }_3·X_i·Z_i+{\epsilon }_i$$

(3)

In this context, the indices (i) represent the values of the variables X and Y for different observations within the dataset. In this equation, ${\beta }_{1-3}$ represents the coefficients of regression, $\alpha$ is the intercept, and ${\epsilon }_i$ statistical residuals. Moreover, ${\beta }_{\mathrm{1,2}}$ capture the linear effect of X and Z and ${\beta }_3$ captures the nonlinear effect and the interaction between X and Z in the field of the dependent variable Y. Statistical data were analyzed using IBM SPSS 29. We used this software for regression analysis and for building nonlinear models that capture interactions between factors. In line with this software, descriptive statistics were performed using data analysis provided by MsExcel 2013.

The following section of the paper presents the empirical findings regarding the importance of the economy, governance and human capital in the field of sustainable development. The empirical analysis aims to evaluate these complex interactions among research variables, highlighting how the economy, governance, and human capital interplay to drive sustainable development. By examining the linear and nonlinear relationships between these factors, we propose new insights into the mechanism that is involved in the dynamics of the SDG index in Central and Eastern European countries. The empirical findings provide valuable insights for scholars and decision-makers that are interested in the field of sustainable development across different political and geographical contexts.

3. Results

In correlation with the methodological section, we highlight the role played by education and good governance in the field of sustainable development goals achievement in Central and Eastern European countries. Regarding the social and political factors that are relevant in the field of sustainable development, we aim to present several statistical differences between the following countries: Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania. The empirical findings reveal significant differences between countries and research variables. Using a t-test, we observed that the mean years of schooling and the rule of law index created differences in the field of sustainable development and economic performance. Moreover, this section presents linear and nonlinear effects generated by the economic, social, and political predictors in the dynamics of the sustainable development index over 24 years in Central and Eastern Europe. Beyond statistical differences, both linear and nonlinear regressions confirm that education and the rule of law lead to sustainable development. This model, specific to Central and Eastern European countries, is useful for ensuring economic growth, human development, and environmental protection. Statistical results are relevant with p $\le 0.05.$

This section is systematically structured to ensure a coherent presentation of the empirical findings. In this regard, Section 3.1. provides an analytical perspective of the research variables, highlighting the economic, political, educational, and social disparities between Central and Eastern European countries. The following Section 3.2 presents the linear effects of the independent factors in the field of SDGs achievement in this geographical region. Section 3.3 advances the analysis by introducing an interaction model, focusing on the interdependence between governance and education, to explore their combined impact on sustainability.

3.1. Differences Between Countries and Research Variables: A General View of Central and Eastern European Countries

Sustainable development is a multidimensional concept that encompasses social, economic, and environmental dimensions. Sustainable development seeks to address current needs while ensuring that future generations can also meet theirs. This fact is based on a balancing act between exploiting resources for current benefits and preserving them for the long-term well-being of the citizens. In this respect, sustainable development creates a balance between economic growth, human development, and transparent and responsible governance. By adopting sustainable policies, natural resources can be preserved and social equity promoted. Together with the preservation of the environment and natural capital, education and good governance can be involved in creating responsible societies and policy-makers. Civic accountability may be seen as a key factor in preserving both nature and economic development for future generations. To achieve civic accountability and responsible government, it is important to create opportunities for secondary and tertiary education. An increased education level is an important predictor of both political and sustainable development. The relevance of the economic dimension in the field of sustainable development is derived from the processes of economic innovation, resource allocation, and reducing poverty and inequalities. Economic growth as a measure of economic health leads to job creation and higher incomes, which are essential for reducing social and economic imbalances. An increased level of economic growth is strongly related to financial stability, government revenue, and social progress. In correlation with the economic dimension, good governance is an important issue in explaining sustainable development. Political transparency and accountability are the main directions of the governance. Political transparency and rule of law are strongly related to civic trust. However, governance creates opportunities to reduce corruption and ensures an equitable distribution of resources within societies. In this respect, democratic regimes are more likely to develop political practices that support both the civic engagement and sustainable development of the society. Therefore, democratic governance ensures civic participation in the decision-making process, taking into account diverse economic and social perspectives. Transparent governance is based on a participative culture that fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility among citizens. In connection with the economy and governance, education is an important vector for social development. By enhancing personal skills, education creates opportunities for employability, social development, and civic participation. Scholars argue that an increased level of education is strongly related to an increased level of participation and democracy. By reducing gender inequalities and economic disparities, education stimulates political deliberation, poverty reduction, and technological advancement, thus creating opportunities for sustainable development policies. Also, economic inequality measured by the Gini index is an important indicator of human development. In accordance with the economic dimension, the Gini index reflects the level of social stability, access to resources, human development and sustainability. A lower Gini index reflects a more equitable society, in which individuals have equal opportunities for individual and collective development. Using this measure, policy-makers can improve different social and economic policies, create a more just and equitable society, and foster long-term sustainable development.

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Research Variables ¹.

	SDG Index	Economic Growth	Governance and Rule of Law Index	Education-Mean Years of Schooling	Gini Index
Mean	76.26	3.18	0.78	11.56	30.84
Median	76.60	3.75	0.79	11.40	30.00
Std. Deviation	3.50	3.11	0.14	0.95	3.96
Skewness	−0.52	−0.92	−0.84	−0.08	0.47
Kurtosis	−0.36	1.32	0.48	−0.85	−0.30
Range	13.90	17.00	0.58	3.70	16.80
Minimum	68.32	−6.70	0.38	9.50	24.00
Maximum	82.22	10.30	0.96	13.20	40.80

¹ Sources of data: Sustainable Development Report: https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/profiles (accessed on 5 January 2025); World Bank-Economic Growth: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG (accessed on 10 January 2025); Varieties of Democracy: https://www.v-dem.net/data_analysis/VariableGraph/ (accessed on 5 January 2025); Human Development Index- Mean Years of Schooling: https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI (accessed on 5 January 2025); Country Economy-Gini Index: https://countryeconomy.com/demography/gini-index (accessed on 10 January 2025).

presents descriptive statistics, based on central tendency, dispersion, and distribution values:

In this context, the mean for the SDG index was 76.26, with $\sigma =3.50$. The smallest average values were found in Bulgaria ($\mu =72.97,\sigma =2.23)$ and Romania ($\mu =73.24,\sigma =3.12)$. In contrast, higher levels of SDG index were observed in the Czech Republic $(\mu =78.81,\sigma =2.21)$, Poland $(\mu =77.59,\sigma =2.53)$, and Hungary ($\mu =78.39,\sigma =1.47)$. These findings highlight differences in achieving sustainable development goals. These differences could express that different social, economic, or political factors are relevant for explaining SDGs’ dynamics. Figure 1 presents the dynamics of the SDG index in the countries included in the sample:

Regarding economic growth, empirical findings suggest that similar values of the GDP growth during 2000 and 2023 were found in Romania ($\mu =3.76,\sigma =3.97)$, Bulgaria ($\mu =3.31,\sigma =3.08)$, and Poland ($\mu =3.83,\sigma =1.89)$. These relatively close averages indicate that these countries have experienced similar economic trajectories between 2000 and 2023. Comparing standard deviations, we observed that Romania had an increased standard deviation of economic growth, suggesting more volatility in economic processes, with periods of both expansion and contraction. Poland, with the lowest standard deviation, demonstrated the most consistent economic growth among the three compared countries. Poland’s relatively stable growth may provide an important foundation for long-term investment and economic stability. In contrast, values below the average of economic growth ($\mu =3.18,\sigma =3.11$) were observed in Hungary ($\mu =2.50,\sigma =3.22$) and Czech Republic ($\mu =2.46,\sigma =2.99$).

Regarding governmental perspective, measured by rule of law index, statistical results showed that the average value in Central and Eastern European countries was 0.78 with $\sigma =0.14.$ Below average values were found in Romania ($\mu =0.61,\sigma =0.14$), Bulgaria ($\mu =0.73,\sigma =0.05$), and Hungary ($\mu =0.76,\sigma =0.11$). Empirical findings suggest that in Romania, there are significant challenges in the field of rule of law, independence of justice, and institutional corruption. The higher standard deviation might express variability in how both citizens and government perceive and apply the rule of law across different public sectors. Although there are similar values in Romania and Bulgaria regarding the rule of law index, we argue that Bulgaria has a lower standard deviation, which indicates more consistency in the application of the rule of law. Both Romania and Bulgaria still face challenges such as corruption and institutional transparency. Addressing these challenges is crucial for improving good governance, political trust, civic accountability and social development. Hungary had the highest average value of the rule of law index among the three countries. An increased level of standard deviation might suggest the fact that Hungary has to face challenges in maintaining political transparency and democratic order. Political influence on the judiciary system, governmental control, and limitations in civic participation are several issues that could affect the positive dynamics of the rule of law measures. In contrast, higher values of the rule of law index were observed in Poland ($\mu =0.89,\sigma =0.08$) and the Czech Republic ($\mu =0.86,\sigma =0.01$). After 1990, Poland implemented judicial reforms for improving the efficiency and transparency of the judicial system. Economic development and democratic consolidation are some of the factors that could explain the increased value of the rule of law index. The Czech Republic is characterized by a strong judicial framework, the lowest levels of institutional corruption, and an increased level of civic participation and accountability.

In addition to the economic and political dimensions, this study focused on the human development perspective. In this context, education is measured by the mean years of schooling. The statistical results confirm that the mean years of schooling in Central and Eastern European countries is 11.56, with a standard deviation of 0.95. Below average values were observed in Romania ($\mu =10.71,\sigma =0.6$) and Bulgaria ($\mu =10.79,\sigma =0.51$). Educational policies, inadequate funding allocated to education, social and economic inequalities, and difficulties of political transition to democracy could be seen as independent factors that influenced the educational systems. In contrast, above average values for mean years of schooling were observed in Poland ($\mu =12.45,\sigma =0.66$), Czech Republic ($\mu =12.31,\sigma =0.57$), and Hungary ($\mu =11.6,\sigma =0.69$). Political stability, governmental policies, academic tradition, and economic development might be involved in the dynamics of the educational policies and strategies of the last two decades.

As part of the human development perspective, the level of education in these countries is strongly related to income inequality and economic health. Moreover, we measured the social and economic inequalities using the Gini index. The statistical results showed that in Central and Eastern European countries, the Gini index had an average of 30.84 with a standard deviation of 3.96. This value reflects a moderate level of inequality within the population. In this respect, incomes are relatively evenly distributed. Below average values were specific to Hungary ($\mu =26.98,\sigma =2.17$), Poland ($\mu =30.09,\sigma =2.14$), and Czech Republic ($\mu =30.09,\sigma =2.14$). In contrast, Romania $(\mu =33.10,\sigma =2.58$) and Bulgaria ($\mu =33.91,\sigma =5.34$) registered above average values. These differences in Gini index highlight a different social and economic landscape and the different influence of the political factors and economic policies on income distribution. Addressing this disparity could involve governmental efforts for promoting equality, equity, rule of law, and economic performance. By these assumptions, Figure 2 shows the average values of economic development, governmental measures, education, and Gini index in the Central and Eastern European countries included in our sample:

Regarding the statistical distribution, the results confirmed a moderately left-skewed distribution for sustainable development, economic growth, and rule of law index (skewness $\in \left[-0.92;-0.52\right].$ This result suggests a moderate tendency to have statistical values above the estimated mean. In the case of education, the skewness coefficient of −0.08 indicates that the distribution is symmetric. In line with these results, we estimate a moderately right-skewed distribution for Gini Index (0.47). The kurtosis coefficient provides insights regarding the degree of concentration of values around the mean and the presence of the extreme values (outliers). In our field of interest, statistical values reflect normal distributions of the research variables with kurtosis $\in \left[-0.85;1.32\right]$. To observe differences between research variables, we used a paired sample t-test. We divided the statistical series into two parts, using the year 2015 as a reference point, when the SDGs were introduced by the UN. The statistical results confirmed significant differences in the field of SDG index (T = 6.16, p < 0.01) and mean year of schooling (T = 5.57, p < 0.01). Figure 3 shows the differences in the dynamics of the SDG index before and after 2015. This significant difference reveals that the introduction of SDG in 2015 by the UN has had a substantial impact on various dimensions of sustainability. These dynamics reflect improvements in economic policies, education, healthcare systems, and environmental protection, highlighting the impact of political coordination and international cooperation for achieving the goals. This positive trend is important for scholars, policy-makers, and stakeholders, reflecting an important level of cooperation and interest in development. In this respect, Figure 3 captures the significant differences in the means of the SDG index in two different moments.

Regarding our comparative analysis, we argue that economic growth, governance, education, economic inequalities, and sustainable development have significant variations across the Central and Eastern European countries included in the sample. The differences between research variables and countries offer relevant insights related to regional development trends. Central European Countries such as Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary are more likely to develop efficient economic and political strategies that support sustainable development. Bulgaria and Romania are relevant examples of transition economies that are making significant steps toward achieving an average value of the sustainable development index.

Although we observed differences between sub-periods (Figure 3), we considered the analysis over the entire period appropriate to the purpose of the study, as it provides a clear view of the general relationship between variables without the added complexity of estimating models for sub-periods. A general model analyzing the entire sample provides a clear understanding of the long-term evolution of sustainability, considering that SDG achievement is a gradual process influenced by economic, political, educational, and social factors. Using the entire period, we aimed to capture the main trends in SDG achievement in Central and Eastern European countries.

3.2. Education and Sustainable Development: A Linear Model

In this part of the paper, we aim to present the interplay between independent factors for shaping a framework of sustainable development across the countries included in the sample. Theoretical perspectives on sustainable development argue that economy, governance, and human development are relevant variables for explaining the level of SDGs achievement in different geographical areas. Economic theories of sustainable development stress that economic growth is relevant for investments in critical sectors. Strong and stable economies are more likely to support long-term development projects in healthcare systems, climate action, education, civil society, preserving natural capital, etc. Moreover, good governance is relevant for developing political strategies, partnerships for achieving goals, and transparency in the decision-making process. An important theoretical pillar for sustainable development is represented by human development. Aspects related to education, healthcare, and well-being are fundamental for empowering citizens and communities. Investments in human resources and human development are key concepts for future sustainable development policies. By integrating these normative perspectives in the field of sustainable development, we can observe differences across countries and a pattern for this region of Europe.

To identify significant predictors of sustainable development in Central and Eastern European countries, we performed a linear regression. Using the stepwise method, we obtained three models of the linear regression.

Table 3. Linear equations of regression. Predictors of the Sustainable Development Index ¹.

	Model	Standardized Coefficients	t	Sig.	Collinearity Statistics
		Beta			Tolerance	VIF
1	(Constant)	37.963	22.085	0.000
	Education—mean years of schooling	0.899	22.354	0.000	1.000	1.000
	R2 = 0.809, p < 0.01
2	(Constant)	42.609	20.430	0.000
	Education—mean years of schooling	0.880	22.709	0.000	0.980	1.021
	Gini Index	−0.139	−3.598	0.000	0.980	1.021
	R2 = 0.828, p < 0.01
3	(Constant)	43.671	20.897	0.000
	Education—mean years of schooling	0.863	22.403	0.000	0.950	1.052
	Gini Index	−0.141	−3.711	0.000	0.980	1.021
	Economic Growth	−0.093	−2.425	0.017	0.970	1.031
	R2 = 0.836, p = 0.017

Dependent variable: Sustainable Development Index. ¹ Authors’ quantitative models based on statistical data presented in Section 2 (Materials and Methods).

presents the results of the linear regression, coefficients of regression, and statistical significance.

In Table 3, the standardized coefficients of regression provide insights into the practical impact of the independent variables on the dependent variable. The coefficient for education indicates that a one standard deviation increase in the average number of years of schooling is associated with an increased level in the standard deviation in the SDG index. In contrast, the models capture a negative association between economic growth and Gini index with SDG achievement. The empirical findings indicate the presence of a constant term in all three regression models. This constant is represented by the mean years of schooling. In all the models, the variable that refers to education is strongly and positively related to sustainable development index ($\beta \ge 0.863,p<0.01)$. An increased level of education is strongly and positively related to an increased level of sustainable development. Using the results from Model 3, with R² = 0.836, p = 0.017, we estimated that together with education, the Gini Index is weak and negatively related to sustainable development. An increased level of economic inequality is related to a decreased level of SDG achievement. Moreover, empirical findings suggest that there is no significant association between economic growth and SDG index. In accordance with these results, we proposed the following quantitative model for explaining the dynamics of SDG index in Central and Eastern European countries:

$$SDG=43.671+0.863·ED-0.141·Gini$$

(4)

About this quantitative model, we argue that education and Gini index as measures of human development are relevant predictors for explaining the particularities of sustainable development in the analyzed countries. With the baseline model, we estimated that values above 12 years of schooling are associated with an SDG index level above 78 in the Czech Republic and Poland. Average education values between 10 and 10.5 years of schooling are associated with an SDG index level of 72. Therefore, Figure 4 shows the strong positive correlation between the mean years of schooling and the SDG index.

Regarding the relevance of the Gini index in the field of sustainable development goals achievement, the results confirmed that inequality has a weak negative correlation with the SDG index. In this meaning, Figure 5 presents the association between Gini index and SDG index.

The analysis highlights the direct and linear effect of education in the field of sustainable development goals achievement. The regression models reveal that higher levels of education are strongly associated with higher SDG index scores. By fostering high levels of education, policy-makers and stakeholders can effectively promote sustainable practices and contribute to social and economic improvement. The statistical results indicate that economic and political factors do not have a significant impact on the linear model. Instead, the results highlight the relevance of the human capital theory in the field of sustainable development in this geographical region.

In line with these findings, it is important to acknowledge that these models demonstrate correlations between variables, but they do not establish causality. The observed relationships highlight significant associations that provide valuable insights into the dynamics of sustainable development in Central and Eastern European countries.

3.3. An Interactive Model of Sustainable Development: Governance and Education in Central and Eastern European Countries

This section presents a complex interplay between the research variables to create a comprehensive image of sustainable development in the analyzed countries. The analysis focuses on the combined effects of the key factors in the field of sustainable development. Using a nonlinear regression model, we aim to capture the intricate relationships between these variables and emphasize their impact in the field of sustainable development index. Through these nonlinear models, we can observe how different interactions between predictors create premises for understanding the particularities for development in the analyzed countries. Based on the main findings from the baseline model, which highlights the role played by education in shaping models of development, we performed nonlinear regression analyses between economic growth, governance, and the Gini index.

In addition to linear regression, we performed an interaction model to better capture the complexities and nuances of the relationships between SDG achievement and other factors. Linear regression models assume additive effects and may be limited in capturing the complexity, nuances and interdependencies present in the real world phenomena. By including the interaction term in the model, we aim to observe the nonlinear dynamics and explore how the effect of one variable is influenced by another, providing a deeper understanding of the SDG evolutions in Central and Eastern European countries. Particularly, including the interactions between economy, education, rule of law, and Gini index was guided by the main findings and considerations related to sustainable development pillars in the academic literature. We compared these interaction models with linear models in order to reveal hidden patterns, fixed, and random effects. These interaction models provide important foundations for scholars and decision-makers, contributing to a better evaluation of the SDGs achievement in this geographical region. In practice, these models might inspire future explorations into the interplay of key-factors, generating new methodological guidelines for addressing global challenges.

As a result of applying the nonlinear regression, we obtained three interaction models. The first model assesses the interaction between economic growth and education, the second explores the interaction between governance and education, and the third investigates the effects of the interaction between education and Gini in sustainable development index. Following the evaluation of the models, we observed that only Model 2 was valid, with an R² 0.855, p < 0.01, indicating a strong predictive power. The other models contained insignificant values for the regression coefficients.

Table 4. Nonlinear regression between research variables and the Sustainable Development Index ¹.

	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3
Variables	$\mathit{\beta }$	Sig.	$\mathit{\beta }$	Sig.	$\mathit{\beta }$	Sig.
Economic Growth	−0.478	0.367	-	-	-	-
Governance	-	-	2.017	0.01	-	-
Education	0.845	0.01	2.280	0.01	1.524	0.001
Gini Index	-	-	-	-	0.902	0.208
Education * Economic Growth	0.384	0.462	-	-	-	-
Education * Governance	-	-	-2.981	0.01	-	-
Education * Gini Index	-	-	-	-	−1.146	0.146
Constant (Intercept)	40.600		−7.369		16.045
R2	0.497	<0.01	0.855	<0.01	0.827	<0.01

* Dependent variable: Sustainable Development Index. ¹ Authors’ quantitative models based on statistical data presented in Section 2 (Materials and Methods).

presents the statistical results of the nonlinear interactions between predictors and the sustainable development index.

In this regard, the quantitative results pointed out that the interaction between good governance and education can predict an increased level of sustainable development in Central and Eastern European countries. The equation that captures the interaction between variables is:

$$SDG=-7.369+2.017·GI+2.280·ED-2.981·GI·ED$$

(5)

By these findings, we argue that an increased level of education and the rule of law are strongly related to an increased level of sustainable development achievement. The combined effects of governance and education are crucial for creating a comprehensive framework for sustainable development. This interaction between the educational level and rule of law is relevant for preserving the quality of education and public policies. Political transparency and citizens’ engagement are important issues that could be understood in the field of sustainable development. Therefore, this interaction between education and governance is relevant for promoting innovation and developing skills for the labor market. In essence, the particularity of Central and Eastern European countries is defined by a complex perspective on governance and education, which could guide future directions of sustainable development. Figure 6 shows the positive interactions between governance, education, and sustainable development index.

The three-dimensional scatter-plot reveals a strong positive correlation between SDG index, mean years of schooling and rule of law index. The distribution of data points suggests that countries with an increased level of education and stronger institutional governance are more likely to have better outcomes in terms of sustainable development. The improvement in education and governance jointly contribute to higher sustainable development performance. Empirical patterns in the data indicate that values exceeding 12 years of schooling are significantly correlated with rule of law index above 0.7, and jointly, these factors predict an SDG index above 75. This spatial representation provides support for interaction-based models, where the combined effect of education and governance significantly enhances sustainable development achievement.

4. Discussion

This study examines the complex interplay between social, political, and educational factors in the field of sustainable development achievement in Central and Eastern European countries. Sustainable development is a key issue in the contemporary world. Social inequalities, climate change, economic disparities, and issues in democratic governance are several perspectives that need to be integrated into the field of sustainable development [12,13,16,17,18,20]. Understanding these aspects is important for scholars and decision-makers to design and promote long-term sustainable development.

Empirical findings show that there are significant differences between Central and Eastern European countries in the field of economic, social, and political aspects of sustainability. The overall scores of the SDG index reflect several differences between Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and countries from Eastern Europe: Bulgaria and Romania. Central European countries are more likely to support policies to improve the level of sustainable development achievement. Eastern countries such as Bulgaria and Romania are characterized by difficulties in achieving an increased level of social and economic development. In correlation with these findings, economic growth is characterized by significant variations across countries from 2000 to 2023. Historical legacy and transition to a market economy have differently affected the economic trajectories of each country. Limited private sector, lack of infrastructure and technology, structural economic reforms, and direct investments are the main factors that created different paths of economic transition across the analyzed countries. Moreover, EU integration has influenced economic transition in Central and Eastern European countries in different ways. Poland and the Czech Republic are characterized by relevant structural economic reforms for achieving an increased level of integration in the field of market economy. In contrast, economic issues and social dynamics have negatively affected the dynamics of economic growth in Bulgaria and Romania. Poland’s rapid privatization in the early 1990s created opportunities for entrepreneurship and economic growth. The Czech Republic is characterized by gradual economic reforms that create opportunities for economic stability. In contrast, Romanian economic reform is characterized by delayed privatization and an important impact in the field of social and economic public policies. This fact created economic volatility in both Eastern European countries: Bulgaria and Romania. Using the economic issues, our results pointed out differences in the field of efficient and transparent governance. Measured by the Rule of Law Index, governance is characterized by different values in Central and Eastern countries. The Czech Republic and Poland confirmed that good governance is an important vector for economic development and social health. Both countries have a relatively stable and efficient governmental system. Both of them have made significant progress in preserving institutional transparency and reducing corruption. Strong political institutions and the rule of law are relevant features of these political systems. Hungary has experienced a decline in governance quality in recent years, with increasing concerns regarding the quality of democratic order and rule of law. Constraints on government power and the functioning of justice created the perspectives of a flawed democratic order. Both Romania and Bulgaria have to face corruption and limited transparent institutions and decisions. Romania and Bulgaria have to ensure the independence of justice and effective enforcement of law. Regarding the educational level, measured as mean years of schooling, our findings reveal the importance of education as part of the human development perspective. Central countries such as Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary have higher mean years of schooling. These countries had invested in their education systems, creating opportunities for educated citizens. This fact is strongly related to employability, technological skills, and civic engagement, and promotes an important level of sustainable development achievement. While Romania and Bulgaria have made progress in education, statistical values reflect an ongoing disparity compared to Central European countries. Although improvements in the field of access to education and personal development have been notable over 24 years, these countries have to face challenges in achieving similar levels of years of schooling as we observed in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. In connection with all these assumptions, results regarding social inequality measured by the Gini index, reveal disparities in incomes across the analyzed countries. These findings underscore the importance of social policies in reducing social and economic disparities and promoting inclusive strategies.

Regarding the quantitative models used in our analysis, we aimed to emphasize the role of education in the field of sustainable development index. Using a linear regression model, we observed a fixed effect generated by education on sustainable development. The model captures the strong positive influence of education on achieving higher levels of sustainable development. From the theoretical perspectives, our results confirm the relevance of the human development theoretical approach for explaining sustainable development in Central and Eastern European countries. Our research findings align with the human development theory, highlighting that individuals’ potential is related to education and skills [35,36,37,38,39,40]. Scholars argued that knowledge and skills are relevant vectors of economic growth and social development [40,41,42,44,45,46,48,49]. As individuals acquire higher levels of education, they become able to perform complex tasks, which leads to technological advancement and innovation [89,90,91,92]. As part of ‘soft power’, human capital is important for both economic and political sectors. An educated citizen is more likely to participate in public affairs and decision-making. The academic literature pointed out the importance of social and human capital in the field of democratic regimes [93,94,95,96]. In addition to traditional perspectives from political sciences, social capital plays an important role in civic engagement and accountability. In accordance with this result, we performed a nonlinear regression model to capture the combined effects on sustainable development achievement. The results showed that the interaction between sustainable development and governance, measured by the rule of law index, is strongly and positively correlated with sustainable development. In this respect, we aim to argue that our paper highlights the importance of both human capital and governmental theories of sustainability [50,51,52,53,54,55,56,97,98,99,100,101,102,103]. Political transparency and governmental efficiency combined with an increased level of education are significant predictors of sustainable development in Central and Eastern European countries.

Regarding the research objective O₁, this study presents significant differences in the field of the sustainable development index from 2000 to 2023 (T = 6.16, p < 0.01). We observed major differences between countries from the central part of Europe and those in the eastern part of Europe. Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary are relevant examples of an increased level of sustainable development, economic growth, rule of law, and education. In contrast, Romania and Bulgaria registered values below the mean.

To achieve the research objective O₂, we tested the research hypotheses H₁, which assumes that countries experiencing higher economic growth are more likely to support higher levels of sustainable development achievement. The empirical findings suggest no significant correlation between the economic dimension and sustainable development achievement in Central and Eastern European countries. Therefore, we reject H₂, the regression coefficient between economic growth and sustainable development index is not significant $(\beta =-0.478,p=0.367)$.

Regarding the research objective O3, we evaluated the research hypothesis H₂, which assumes that an increased level of governmental efficiency is positively related to higher levels of sustainable development achievement. The results from the linear equations of regression reflect that there is an important combined effect of governance and education in sustainable development achievement in this geographical region (Table 4, R² = 0.855, p < 0.01). The linear equation of regression results suggests that there is not a significant linear effect of governance in the field of sustainability (p > 0.05).

Taking into account the linear effects in the field of sustainable development, using the research objective O4, we evaluated the research hypothesis H4 that supports the strong positive correlation between mean years of schooling and higher levels of sustainable development achievement. The statistical results from Table 3 present the stepwise regression between independent factors and the sustainable development index. Therefore, the results confirm a strong and positive correlation between education and sustainable development ($\beta =0.863,p<0.001).$ These results reflect the importance of the human capital theoretical approach in explaining the particularities of sustainable development achievement in Central and Eastern European countries.

For achieving the research objective O5, we tested the research hypothesis H3, which assumes a negative correlation between social and economic inequalities, measured by the Gini index, and sustainable development. Therefore, the quantitative results confirmed the research hypothesis, capturing a weak, but significant, correlation between the Gini index and sustainable development achievement in the analyzed countries ($\beta =-0.141,p<0.01)$.

Using both linear and nonlinear equations of regression, we aimed to capture both fixed and combined effects of economic, governmental, educational, and social factors in the field of sustainable development. We used these quantitative models to highlight the specifics of sustainable goals achievement in Central and Eastern Europe. These findings reinforce the relevance of the human capital theory, providing new insights into the relationship between sustainability, education, and governance. The coordination between governmental transparency, access to education, and investments in human development are key variables that could predict further evolutions of sustainability in this geographical area. Continued efforts to strengthen educational systems, improve transparency in governance, and reduce inequalities are important strategies for achieving a more prosperous and equitable society. Our statistical results are relevant for scholars interested in the field of both sustainability and human capital development as well as for practitioners and stakeholders interested in shaping public policies or strategies in the field of societal and economic development.

Regarding the limitations of this study, we identified several perspectives related to data measurement, data availability, variable selection, temporal scope, and generalizability. Disparities in data measurement and data availability for long-term perspectives are important limitations of the study. Moreover, the regional context and sample that included five countries reduce the level of generalizability of the statistical results. An important limitation of this study consists of data availability and consistency. Conceptualizations and measurements of these variables might vary across countries or regions and generate important challenges in the cross-country comparisons. An important limitation of this study is represented by the complex interplay between variables. External factors such as economic crises, COVID-19 pandemic, geopolitical events, or internal instability might influence these relationships and create opportunities for re-evaluation of the trends of sustainable development achievement in Central and eastern European countries. Our models are limited to offering a deterministic association between economic, political, and social factors in the field of SDG evolutions in this geographical region. Policy-makers might need additional quantitative and qualitative insights to elaborate coherent public policies regarding sustainable development pillars. Despite these limitations, this study is relevant for capturing several directions and nuances of sustainable development in post-communist countries. Further directions of this study will be focused on comparisons between Central and Eastern European countries with other geographical areas to stress significant differences and similarities between different political systems. In line with these assumptions, our research directions will focus on the impact of public policies and regional comparative analysis to understand specific challenges and progress patterns. Another important research direction is represented by the correlation between technology, digitalization, and sustainable development in these countries. In this regard, we will focus on the relationship between digital divide among countries and its implications for education, equality, and SDG achievement. These future research directions could provide valuable insights for scholars, policy-makers, and other stakeholders interested in the dynamics of sustainability in Central and Eastern European countries.

5. Conclusions

This study has provided a comprehensive perspective of the interplay between economic, governmental, educational, and social factors that shape the dynamics of sustainable development achievement in Central and Eastern European countries. This study presents the main statistical differences between Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria in the fields of sustainable development, economic growth, rule of law, mean years of schooling, and economic inequality. Using both linear and nonlinear regression equations, we developed several models that highlight the relevance of educational factors in shaping good practices of sustainable development achievement in the analyzed countries. The research results cover the period from 2000 to 2023, capturing the significant variations of these variables over time. In this respect, statistical models present the fixed effects of mean years of schooling in the field of sustainability. These results highlight the importance of the human development theoretical approach for understanding challenges and opportunities related to sustainable development in Central and Eastern European countries. In addition to this quantitative estimation, our study presents the combined effect of transparent governance and an increased level of education in shaping positive variations in sustainable development achievement. The empirical findings are relevant for scholars, decision-makers, and stakeholders interested in sustainable development in different geographical regions.